EarlyArtificialIntelligenceProjects

AStudentPerspective
PartofNSF'sRecoveringMIT'sAIFilmHistoryProject CreatedatCSAILbyHeatherKnight,August2006
http://projects.csail.mit.edu/films

Contents
MainPaper I.WhatisArtificialIntelligence? II.Foundations III.1950's:EstablishingaField IV.1960's:PursuingMachineGenius V.1970's:LeapingForward VI.1980's:BoomandCrash VII.CatchinguptothePresent Appendix I.TheNSFProjectBackground II.AIinPopularCulture III.RelatedOrganizations IV.MITResearchCentersTimeline V.AcademicResearchCentersTimeline VI.MajorAICompanies VII.AIProjectsTimeline VIII.AIPapersTimeline IX.ComputationLandmarksTimeline Bibliography ImageCredits

EarlyArtificialIntelligenceProjects
I.WhatisArtificialIntelligence?
AccordingtoJohnMcCarthy,themanthatcoinedtheterm,[ArtificialIntelligence]isthescienceand engineeringofmakingintelligentmachines,especiallyintelligentcomputerprogramswhere intelligenceisthecomputationalpartoftheabilitytoachievegoalsintheworld. Anintelligentmachinecanbeamachinethatmimicsthewayhumansthink,feel,moveandmake decisions.Itcouldalsoactinconjunctionwithahumantocomplimentandimprovetheirabilitytodo thosethings.Therearemanypossibleapproachestothechallengeandthedefinitionhasneverhada staticsolution. Eventhename'ArtificialIntelligence'hasbeensubjecttoargument,assomeresearchersfeelitit soundsunscientific.Theyarguetheword'artificial'suggestslesserorfakeintelligence,morelike sciencefictionthanacademicresearch.Theyprefertousetermslikecomputationalneuroscienceor emphasizetheparticularsubsetofthefieldtheylikesemanticlogicormachinelearning. Nevertheless,theterm'ArtificialIntelligence'hasgainedpopularacceptanceandgracesthenamesof variousinternationalconferencesanduniversitycourseofferings. Thispaperdoesnotattempttocomeupwithaprecisecharacterizationofthefield.Instead,it examineswhatArtificialIntelligencehasbeensofarbyleadingthereaderthroughanadmittedlynon comprehensivecollectionofprojectsandparadigms,especiallyatMITandintheUnitedStates. Unlikemanyfields,ArtificialIntelligencehasnothadalinearprogressionanditsresearchand breakthroughshavenotgrowntowardaneasilyidentifiedSun.Computing,incontrast,hasbeennoted foritsexponentialgrowthandimprovementcharacterizedbyMoore'slaw,theempiricalobservation thatthecomplexityofintegratedcircuits,withrespecttominimumcomponentcost,doublesevery24 months(wikipedia).ThepathofAI,however,moreresemblestheintertwiningworldwideweb, spiralingoutandloopingbackinmanydirections. HereyouwillfindaroughchronologyofsomeofAI'smostinfluentialprojects.Itisintendedforboth nonscientistsandthosereadytocontinueexperimentationandresearchtomorrow.Includedisataste ofwhothemainplayershavebeen,conceptstheyandtheirprojectshaveexploredandhowthegoals ofAIhaveevolvedandchangedovertime.Manywillbesurprisedthatsomeofwhatwenowconsider obvioustoolslikesearchengines,spellcheckandspamfiltersarealloutcroppingsofAIresearch.

II.Foundations
Thoughtheterm'ArtificialIntelligence'didnotexistuntil1956,theadvancesandideasfromthe precedingdecadesevokedmanyofthefuturethemes.Atatimewhendigitalcomputershadonlyjust beeninvented,usingprogrammingtoemulatehumanintelligencewasbarelyevenimaginable.

UnderstandingthecontextintowhichArtificialIntelligencewasbornhelpsillustratethetechnological obstaclesthatresearchershadtoovercomeinthesearchformachineintelligenceaswellaselucidating manyoftheoriginalpaths. BeyondNumberCrunchers:ProgrammableMachines Theideaofmachinesthatcouldnotjustprocess,butalsofigureouthowtosolveequationswasseenas thefirststepincreatingadigitalsystemthatcouldemulatebrainprocessesandlivingbehavior.What woulditmeantohaveamachinethatcouldfigureouthowtosolveequations?Let'sgothroughan exampleusingbasicalgebra. Inordertocreateamachinethatcansolvemorecomplicatedequationsthan2+2=4,amachineneedsto haveastrategyfordecidingonthemultiplestepsnecessarytocomeupwithasolution.Forexample, ifyoutoldthemachine,X+Y=7andX=3,youwouldlikethemachinetodeducethat3+Y=7,then thatY=73,thenthat73=4,andfinallythatY=4.Assumingsomeonehasalreadytoldthe machinewhat'+','',and'='mean,youwouldtraditionallytellthemachinehowtosolvethosesimple problemsbydefiningastepbystepprocedurecalledaprogram. Asearlyas1930,VannevarBushofMITpublishedapaperaboutaDifferentialAnalyzer,doingjust thatforanotherclassofmathematicalproblems.Computershadnotbeeninventedatthatpoint,buthis papernonethelessdescribedasetofrulesthatwouldautomaticallysolvedifferentialequationsif followedprecisely. ThenextmajorideacameinAlanTuring's1937paperaboutanyautomaticprogrammablesystem, knownastheTuringMachine.Thisconceptestablishestheredundantnatureofmakingavarietyof typesofprogrammabledevicesoutofdifferentmaterials,becauseanyonecouldbesetupsuchthatit mimicstheinputoutputcharacteristicsofanyother. BushandTuringdidnotyetknowhowonewouldgoaboutactuallymakingthatuniversal programmabledevice,butin1949ShannonwouldwriteapapercalledInformationTheorythatset upthefoundationsforusingdigitalelectronicstorepresentinformation.Thisideabecamethebasisof usingmachinestousesymbols(liketheXandYintheexampleabove)toexecutecomplexoperations. Early'Computers'wereRoomSizedCalculators TechnologyhasimprovedbyleapsandboundssincethestartofWorldWarIIwhencomputerswere firstcomingintouse.Thefirstelectroniccomputer,ABC,camein1940,whilethefirstprogrammable Americancomputer,MarkI,followedin1944. Constructedfromwires,magneticcoresandvacuumtubes,theywerehugedevicesthatliterallyfilled rooms.Theyhadaboutthefunctionalityofamoderndayscientificcalculator,butnomonitoror keyboard.Instead,ifyouwantedthecomputertocomputethevalueofacalculation,youwouldpunch buttonsinsequenceorfeedinstacksofpunchcards,anditwouldeventuallyprintyoubacktheresults

AdescriptionofcomputingpioneerGraceHopper'sexperiencewithacomputerwasrepresentativeof thekindsofproblemcomputerswereusedforatthetime:
[Hopper]wascommissionedalieutenantinJuly1944 andreportedtotheBureauofOrdnanceComputation ProjectatHarvardUniversity,whereshewasthethird persontojointheresearchteamofprofessor(andNaval Reservelieutenant)HowardH.Aiken.Sherecalledthat hegreetedherwiththewords,"Wherethehellhaveyou been?"andpointedtohiselectromechanicalMarkI computingmachine,saying"Here,computethe coefficientsofthearctangentseriesbynextThursday." Hopperplungedinandlearnedtoprogramthemachine, puttingtogethera500pageManualofOperationsfor GraceHopper theAutomaticSequenceControlledCalculatorinwhich sheoutlinedthefundamentaloperatingprinciplesofcomputingmachines.Bytheendof WorldWarIIin1945,HopperwasworkingontheMarkIIversionofthemachine. (Maisel)

GraceHopperwillalsoberememberedfordiscoveringandnamingthefirstcomputerbugin1945as wellasinventingtheideaofacomputercompiler,adevicethatcantranslatehigherlevelprogramming languagesintomachinelanguagethatthecomputerknowshowtoexecute. Theotherrevolutionaryelectroniccreationofthedecadewasthetransistor,createdbyBellLabsin 1947,soonreplacingvacuumtubes.Atributetoitsimportanceaccordingtowikipedia,anopen encyclopediathatallcanedit(seebibliography),follows:

Thetransistorisconsideredbymanytobeoneofthegreatestinventionsinmodern history,rankinginimportancewiththeprintingpress,automobileandtelephone.Itis thekeyactivecomponentinpracticallyallmodernelectronics. Itsimportanceintoday'ssocietyrestsonitsabilitytobemassproducedusingahighly automatedprocess(fabrication)thatachievesvanishinglylowpertransistorcosts...The transistor'slowcost,flexibilityandreliabilityhavemadeitanalmostuniversaldevice fornonmechanicaltasks,suchasdigitalcomputing.

AnalogIntelligence:EmulatingBrainFunction Beforethenewdigitaltechnologycaughton,manywereaskingthemselvesaquestionthathasrecently beenhavingaresurgenceinArtificialIntelligence;Ifweknowhowthebrainworks,whynotmake machinesbasedoffthesameprinciples?Whilenowadaysmostpeopletrytocreateaprogrammed representationwiththesameresultingbehavior,earlyresearchersthoughttheymightcreatenondigital devicesthathadalsothesameelectroniccharacteristicsonthewaytothatend.Inotherwords,while newapproachestrytorepresentthemind,analogapproachestriedtoimitatethebrainitself. Modernsystemsalsolooktothebrainforinspirationthoughultimatelydotheactualprogramming usingacomputer,butearlyresearchersbelievedwecouldcreateanalogcircuitsthatmimicthe electricalbehaviorofthebrainidenticallyandthereforefundamentallyreplicateactionsand intelligence.TheirmethodologyrestedonthefeedbackandcontrolheraldedinNorbertWiener's1948 paperCybernetics.

ExamplesoftheseanalogbrainsincludedShannon'smechanical'mice'thatcouldrememberwhichpath totakethroughamazetogettothe'cheese'tothebetterknownGreyWalterTurtleswithwandering, homeseekingandcuriositydrivesthatdependedonitsenergylevels.Thesemachinesreliedon cleverlyarrangedcircuitsusingresistors,capacitorsandbasicsubcomponents,thatautomatically behaveinacertainwaybasedonsensorinputorchargelevels.

III.1950's:EstablishingtheField
ThefiftiessawthegrowthofanAIcommunity,experimentationwiththefirstdigitalAImachines,the inauguralDartmouthArtificialIntelligenceConference,andthecreationofoneofitsstrongestinitial proponents,DARPA. TheTuringTest:AnAILegend Howcanoneknowifamachineisintelligent?Whilethelargerissueofdefiningthefieldissubjectto debate,themostfamousattempttotheanswertotheintelligencequestionisintheTuringTest.With AI'shistoryofstraddlingahugescopeofapproachesandfields,everythingfromabstracttheoryand blueskyresearchtodaytodayapplications,thequestionofhowtojudgeprogressand'intelligence' becomesverydifficult.Ratherthangetcaughtupinaphilosophicaldebate,Turnersuggestedwelook atabehavioralexampleofhowonemightjudgemachineintelligence. Theactualtestinvolvesexaminingatranscriptofanonscreenconversationbetweenapersonanda computer,muchlikeinstantmessenger.Ifathirdpartycouldnottellwhichonewasthehuman,the machinewouldthenbeclassifiedasintelligent.Thetestwasintendedmerelytoillustrateapoint,but hassinceascendedtotheleveloflegendintheAIcommunity. Eventoday,TheLoebnerPrizeusestheTuringTesttoevaluateartificialconversationalistsandawards abronzemetalannuallytothemosthumancomputer.Manyformerwinnersareavailabletotalkto online.Theorganizationalsooffersa$100,000prizeoftotheprogramthatcanpassthetestthathas yettobewon. Thoughitsmethodologyandexclusivefocusonhumanstylecommunicationiscontentious,onecan notlearnaboutAIwithoutknowingwhattheTuringTestis.ItisacommonfeatureinanyAIjournal, classorconferenceandstillservestomotivatetheAIcommunitythoughitsliteralgoalisstillfarfrom beingachieved. ThinkingMachine:TheLogicalTheorist Earlyin1956,twoyoungCMUresearchers,AlNewellandHerbertSimonimplementedaworkingAI machine.Their'LogicalTheorist'hadabuiltinsystemthatcoulddeducegeometricproofs. Inhonorofits50yearanniversary,thestorywasreportedinthisyear'sPittsburgPostGazette:
OvertheChristmasholiday,Dr.Simonfamouslyblurtedtooneofhisclassesat CarnegieInstituteoftechnology,AlNewellandIinventedathinkingmachine...Dr.

Simonconcentratedondevelopingheuristics,orrulesofthumb,thathumansuseto solvegeometryproblemsandthatcouldbeprogrammedintoacomputer,whileDr. NewellandMr.ShawinCalifornia,developedaprogramminglanguagethatcould mimichumanmemoryprocesses...

Theirmachineusedsymbolicreasoningtosolvesystemsofequations,pioneeringanAImethodology thatinvolvedprogrammingknowledgeandinformationdirectlyintoacomputer. TheDartmouthArtificialIntelligenceConferenceandGeneralProblemSolver The1956DartmouthArtificialIntelligenceConferenceoriginatedwithaproposalsubmittedtothe RockefellerFoundationbyMcCarthy,Minsky,FochesterandShannonrequestedfundingforasummer retreatdedicatedtoexploringthepotentialsinthefieldwhosenameitcoined. Itisinterestingtonotehowrelevantthesevenresearchpillarstheyoutlinedstillare: 1) AutomaticComputers 2) HowCanaComputerbeProgrammedtoUseaLanguage 3) NeuronNets 4) TheoryoftheSizeofaCalculation 5) SelfImprovement 6) Abstractions 7) RandomnessandCreativity. Thoughtheymadelittleconcreteprogressthatsummer,itmarkedthestartofannewageand McCarthy'suseofthecontroversialname'ArtificialIntelligence'stuck. GiventhatitwasthefirstworkingimplementationofdigitalAI,itmightseemcuriousthattheLogical TheoristprojectdidnotseemtosignificantlyimpresstheotherpeopleattheDartmouthConference. OneexplanationisthatNewellandSimonhadbeeninvitedtotheconferencealmostasanafterthought, lesswellknownthanmanyoftheotherattendees.Butby1957,thesameduocreatedanewmachine calledtheGeneralProblemSolver(GPS)thattheyheraldedasanepochlandmarkinintelligent machines,believingthatitcouldsolveanyproblemgivenasuitabledescription. Whileitsabilitytosolvecomplexproblemswasdisappointing,thereasonsforwhichwillbediscussed below,theGPSdidexploreandformalizetheproblemsolvingprocessandhelpedresearchersbetter understandtheissuesatstakeinachievinganeffectiveprogram.Itwasalsothefirstprogramthat aimedatageneralproblemsolvingframework.Thisinspiredmuchfurtherresearch. OptimismabouttherateofAIProgress:GPSandNPhardProblems Inretrospect,otherestablishedresearchersadmitthatfollowingtheDartmouthconference,theymostly pursuedotherroutesthatdidnotendupworkingaswellastheNewellSimonGPSparadigm.Later theyacknowledgedNewellandSimon'soriginalinsightsandmanyjoinedthesymbolicreasoningfold (McCorduck). Thisreactionfitsintoareputationthatthisfieldhasofunrealisticpredictionsofthefuture. Unfortunately,manyseeAIasabigdisappointment,despitethemanywaysitsadvanceshavenow

becomeafundamentalpartofmodernlife.Ifyoulookattherashclaimsofitsoriginalproponents, however,suchaconclusionmaynotseemfarfetched. AparticularlyexuberantexampleofthisdisconnectionwasNewell'sclaimafterthecreationofGeneral ProblemSolverthattherearenowintheworldmachinesthatthink,thatlearnandcreate. Moreover,...inavisiblefuturetherangeofproblemstheycanhandlewillbecoextensivewiththe rangetowhichthehumanmindhasbeenapplied.(Norvig) Onelimitationheoverlookedwasthecurseof'NPhard'problems.Inthesecases,itisnotthatonecan notwriteanappropriateprogramtofindasolution,butratherthatitwill,ineffect,neverreturnan answerbecausethecomputationwilltakesolong.Afundamentalpropertyoftheseproblems' formulationisthatexecutiontimegrowsexponentiallywiththesizeoftheinput,anditturnsoutthere aremanymanyproblemslikewiththesecharacteristics.Inotherworlds,giventwoinputs,theoutput mighttake2^2=4secondstocompute,threeinputsmighttake2^3=16seconds,eightmighttake 2^8=256secondsandsoforth. Modernresearchersseemtohaveamorecautiousapproachtospeculationsaboutthefuture,having learnedfromhistory.SomeseeAIresearchasawaytoappreciateandunderstandthecomplexityof thehumanmind.Ithascertainlybeenmuchharderthanmostrealizedtoachieveevenasmallpartof whatorganicbrainscando.WhenIaskedthemwhatadvicetheywouldgiveanoviceAIresearcher, oneAAAIFellowrecommended,Chooseaeasyproblem.Thenmakeitsimpler.Itwillalwaysturn outtobemuchharderthanyou'dexpect. ARPA:EarlyAI'sFairyGodMother IftheTuringTestwasthespiritleaderofearlyAIresearch,ARPAwasthedayjobthatpaidthebills, althoughoneofitsoriginalheads,J.C.R.Licklider,didalsoencouragedmanynewconceptualizations ofthepurposeandpotentialoftechnology.Licklider'spaper,ManMachineSymbiosis,outlinedaway ofenvisioningthehumantechnologyrelationship,inwhichamachineassistsandworkswithahuman toaccomplishtasks.Theextensiveresourcesthattheorganizationprovidedwereindispensabletothe startofthefield. ShortfortheAdvancedResearchProgramAssociation,andasubsetoftheDefenseDepartment,ARPA (nowknownasDARPA)wascreatedin1958afterSputnikIwentintoorbitwiththeexplicitpurpose ofcatchingupwiththeRussianspacecapabilities.WhenEisenhowerdecidedthatspaceshouldbe civiliancontrolledandfoundedNASA,however,ARPAfoundcomputingtobeitsnewniche. Itbeganoperationsbycontributinglargeresearchblockgrantsstartingin1963andsupportedarange ofAIandcomputerscienceeffortsovertheyears,withMIT,StanfordandCarnegieMellonamongthe firstrecipients. LISP:ThelanguagethatmadeAIpossible JohnMcCarthyintroducedLISPin1958,heraldedasthelanguagethatmadeAIprogramming possible.LISPisspecialbecauseitwasthefirstlanguagethatallowedinformationtobestoredaslist ofobjectsratherthanjustlistsofnumbers.Anobjectisessentiallyaplaceholderorsymbolthatis

definedsomewhereelse.Thisstructuringmakesitpossibletoprogramrecursivefunctionsandabstract ideasdirectlyintothemachine. Aspartoftheshiftofbatchprocessingtointeractivecomputers,McCarthydesignedLISPtohavean interactiveenvironment,inwhichonecouldseeerrorsinthecoderealtime.Thecapabilityof evaluatingandseeingonscreenfeedbackonefunctionattime,ratherthanhavingtoruntheentirefile cangreatlyfacilitatefindingbugsinone'scode. Whilemanyotherearlylanguageshavediedout,LISP remainsthemostcommonprogramminglanguagefor ArtificialIntelligenceintheUnitedStatesandisusedon parwithProloginEuropeandJapan.AccordingtoPeter Norvig,founderofGoogleandauthorofapopular textbookonthesubject,onereasonforthecontinuing popularityofLispistheflexibilityofitssimplelistdata structure.Inhiswords,Thelistisaveryversatiledata structure,andwhilelistscanbeimplementedinany language,Lispmakesiteasytousethem.ManyAI applicationsinvolvelistsofconstantlychangingsize, makingfixedlengthdatastructureslikevectorsharderto use.(Norvig25)

JohnMcCarthy1967

Itisalsoeasilyextensiblebecausetherearenolimitationsonhowonedefinesandmanipulatesboth programsanddata,soonecaneasilyrenameoraddfunctionstobetterfittheproblemathand.Its simpleelegancehassurvivedthetestoftimewhilecapturingallthenecessaryfunctionality;functions, datastructuresandawaytoputthemtogether. ResearchatMIT:TheArtificialIntelligenceProject ThefirstcoordinatedAIresearchatMITbeganin1959whenJohnMcCarthyandMarvinMinsky foundedtheArtificialIntelligenceProjectaspartofboththeResearchLaboratoryforElectronics (RLE)inBuilding26andtheComputationCenter.Theywerejuniorfacultyatthetimeandhad knowneachotherasfromgraduateschoolatPrinceton,whereMinskyhadstudiedartificialneural networks(cybernetics).Atheoretician,heimmediatelybeginworkontheoriesofcomputations relevanttocreatingintelligentmachinesinComputation:FiniteandInfiniteMachines. AIandcomputationhavelonghadmutuallyinspiringrelationship.MuchAIresearchcouldnotbe implementeduntilwehaddifferentorbettermachines,andtheirtheoriesinfluencedthewaythose stridesforwardwouldbeachieved.Theearlygurusofthefield,likethehackersdescribedbelow,were oftenpioneersinboth,creatorsandconsumersofthenewtechnologies.Thetoolstheycreatedbecome partoftheexpectedpackageforthenextgenerationofcomputers,andtheyexploredandandimproved uponthefeaturesthatanynewmachinemighthave. MITHackers:StartingaComputerCulture Ontheotherendofthespectrumfromgovernmentalinitiativesandadministration,computersalso

capturedtheimaginationoftheidealisticrelaysandwiringobsessedsectoftheTechModelRailroad atMIT.Theycreatedabreedof'hackers'thatbelievedinthepower,beautyandfreedomof computing.The'HackerEthic'thatstillexistsatMITtodayfounditsrootsinthefiftiesand,astaken fromStevenLevy'sbookaboutthesubject,consistedofthefollowingprecepts:

1) Accesstocomputersandanythingwhichmightteachyousomething aboutthewaytheworldworksshouldbeunlimitedandtotal.Alwaysyield totheHandsOnImperative. 2) Allinformationshouldbefree. 3) MistrustAuthorityPromoteDecentralization. 4) Hackersshouldbejudgedbytheirhacking,notboguscriteriasuchas degrees,age,race,orposition. 5) Youcancreateartandbeautyonacomputer. 6) Computerscanchangeyourlifeforthebetter.

Ascantfewyearsbefore,computershadonlyexistedasaheavilyregulatedindustryormilitaryluxury thattookupwholeroomsguardedbydesignatedpersonnelwhoweretheonlyonesactuallyallowedto touchthemachine.Programmerswerefarremovedfromthemachineandwouldpasstheirpunchcard programsontotheappropriatepersonnel,whowouldaddthemtothequeuewaitingtobeprocessed. Theresultswouldgetbacktotheprogrammerseventuallyasabinaryprintout,whichwasthen decipheredtofindtheresult. Thus,theHacker'sdesiretoplaywiththemachineitselfwasrevolutionaryforthetime.Withthe reverencesurroundingtheexpensivemachines,theconceptofspendingone'sdayinfrontofa computeratthemodernofficewouldhavesoundedludicrous.Incontrastandimmunetothesocial moresofthetime,thehackersfeltchallengedandinspiredbytheworldsofpossibilitytheysawin thesenewmachinesthatallowedthemtocreatevirtualuniverses. HackerInnovations Inthelatefiftiesandevenafter,computerswereputtoworkdayandnightbecausetheywereso expensive(andslow).Soitwascommonpracticefortheseyoungcomputerenthusiaststokeeplate hoursandtakeadvantageofthelessutilizedmiddleofthenightmachinetime.Theyevendevelopeda systemwherebysomeonewouldwatchoutforwhenanothersleepyuserdidnotshowupfortheirslot. Theinformationwouldbeimmediatelyrelayedtothe restofthegroupattheModelRailroadcluband someonewouldmakesurethecomputertimedidnot gotowaste. Oneofthemostimportanthackerinnovationswas hookingupascreenandteletypemachinetothe computer,firstusedforinteractivedebugging.In doingso,usershadaninteractiverealtime relationshipanddrasticallychangedthewayauser woulduseandrelatetothemachine.Severalofthese innovationswouldgrowintothelife,gas,andsolar coronavideoclipsavailableonthiswebsite.

PDP1withTeletype

Asaresultofusingthemachinesomuch,theyknewwheretheywantedoptimizemachine performanceandwhattoolstocreatetoelicitnewkindsoffunctionalityfromthemachines.Early hackerscreatedbetterlanguagesandevenhardwirednewcommandsintothecomputercircuitry.The mostfamousprogramwasSpaceWars,thefirstrealcomputergame.Itinvolvedmaneuvering spacecraftsandtorpedoesthatwascreatedonamachinelittlememoryandvirtuallynofeatures. SoonSpaceWarsspreadthroughtheentirecomputingcommunity,evenusedbytheDigitalEquipment Corporationtoensurethecustomerproperlyworkingcomputers.Astoldonwikipedia,Spacewar wasafairlygoodoveralldiagnosticofthePDP1computerandType30PrecisionCRTDisplay,so DECapparentlyuseditforfactorytestingandshippedPDP1computerstocustomerswiththe Spacewarprogramalreadyloadedintothecorememory;thisenabledfieldtestingaswhenthePDP wasfullysetup,thefieldrepresentativecouldsimultaneouslyrelaxanddoafinaltestofthePDP.

IV.1960's:PursuingMachineGenius
Intermsofprojects,thesixtiessawthecreationofthefirstcomprehensivemathematicsprograms,an attempttodecodingsentencemeaninginwordproblemsandthecreationofnowintegraloperating systemtoolslikeuserfacesandwordprocessors.Inaddition,aconversingparodyofapsychoanalyst gainednotoriety,thefirstindustrialrobotmadeitsappearanceandtheexpertsystemDENDRAL derivedconclusionsintheareaofchemistry.Ifthissectionseemslikesomethingofalaundrylist,that isbecausetherearesomanydifferentsubareaswhichsawtheirbeginningsintheseseminalprojects. Asyearsprogressed,eachnewcomputerwouldformanewimageinthestrobelightmorphingfrom bighulkingmachinetointeractivepersonalcomputer.Thegrowingcapabilitiesopenedupnew possibilitiesforAI.Forexample,imaginehavingacomputerwithoutascreen.ItwasLincolnLabs' computerLINCthatincorporatedaTVstyleCRTscreenintoacommercialcomputer,givingauser immediatefeedbackinsteadofmakingtheuserwaitforaprintout.Everythingfromgraphicstoword processingtouserinterfaceshashingedonthataddition. OntheothercoastattheStanfordResearchInstitute(SRI),DougEnglebartinventedthemouseandon screencursorinhisexperimentswithdifferentkindsofuserfaces,aswellaswindowsandmultiple rastermonitors,allofwhichhedemoedin1967. Thecomputersystemsinthosedayswerefarfromfailsafe.In1960,oneDefensecomputermistakenly identifiedthemoonasanincomingmissilewhichunderstandablycausedgreatconsternation.Another examplecameduringtheCubanMissilecrisis,whencommunicationswereblockedforseveraldays. Theseshortcomingswouldhelpmotivatehighlevelencouragementandsupportforthecomputer industry. Atthesametime.computersciencewasgaininggrowingacceptanceasafield.First,IBMdeclared separatedepartmentsforsoftwareandhardware,meaningpureprogrammersofficiallywouldhavea declaredplacetodevelopprogramsandenvironments.Intheacademicsphere,universitiesbegan grantingthefirstdegreesinComputerScience.ThedecadealsosawthebirthoftheBASIC programminglanguage,designedtobeeasytounderstand,andUNIX,awayofstructuringand communicatingwithanoperatingsystemthatnowunderlaysallMacsandLinuxbasedcomputers.

WiththenewDARPAfundingin1963,MITcreatedanewresearchgroupProjectMAC.Mirroring thewiderangeofresearchitwouldinspire, ProjectMACbroughttogetherdisparate researchersfromdepartmentsacrosstheinstitute, includingthosefromtheAIProject.Allmoved overtoTechSquare,originallyoccupyingtwo floors,completewithmachineshopandresearch areas,includingMinsky'sbeanbagsandproject testinghaven,thePlayPen. Thelab,underBobFano'sinitialleadership, focusedonmimickinghighercognitivelevelsof humanintelligence.Theyworkedonsystems thatcouldplaychess,doSATanalogyproblems, PlayingChess,1968 higherlevelmath,andinferlogicalconclusions fromagivensetofpreconditions.OnefuninventionwasIvanSutherlandVirtualRealityhead mounteddisplay,thefirstofitskind. MathProgramsatMIT:SAINT,MACSYMA,STUDENT(ANALOGY) Slagle,Moses,Bobrow,EvansMIT Theinitialuseofprogramstosolvecomplexmathematicswasnotamatterofroteapplicationof straightforwardcomputations,butratherinvolvedprogramsthatcouldactivelyfigureoutwhatthat solutionoracloseapproximationmightbe. ThefirststepatMIT,SAINT,wascreatedbyPhDstudentJamesSlagleandcouldsolvebasic integrations.ItalsohadthedualfameofbeingthefirstLISPprogrameverwritten.CSAILhasa readingroomthatpreservesthecollectionofalltheseearlythesisprojects,andalthoughnottheonly institutionthatcouldclaimthis,earlytitlesreadmuchlikeatimelineofdevelopmentsinAIand ComputerScienceatthattime. Expandinguponthemoretraditionalapproachofusingcomputersashighpoweredcalculators,the mammothMACSYMAenteredthescenein1967.ThepredecessorofMatlabandstillwidelyusedby mathematiciansandscientists,thisprogramusedsymbolicreasoningforintegrationproblems,inother words,alogicbasedsystem.Itbecamethegotoprogramformathematicaloperationsandoneofthe earliestexpertsystems.ItscreatorwasJoelMosesofMITandheinitiallyusedacollectionofmostly unstructuredLISPfunctionstoaccomplishawidevarietyofoperations. AnotherverydifferentapproachtodoingmathonacomputerwasDannyBobrow'sthesisin1964that solvedhighschoollevelalgebrawordproblems,usingsemanticrulestointerpretingnatural(human) language.Theyearbefore,ThomasEvanshadcreatedANALOGY,aprogramthatcouldsolveSAT levelanalogyproblems.ANALOGYusedawayofdecipheringrelationshipsbetweenwordsthatwas similartothatusedinBobrow'sproject.Thoughtheymayseematfirstglancemorehumanthat mammothcalculatorMACSYMA,Norvig,DirectorofResearchatGoogle,Inc.,commentsthatthese kindsofprogramsderivesimplicitybecausetheydealwithsimplifiedworlds.

BuildingToolsatMIT:TECO,SKETCHPAD GreenblattandMurphy,Sutherland,MIT TECOwasatexteditorcreatedatMITbyGreenblattandMurphyin1962.Predominantlyusedfor writingcodeatthetime,theconceptwouldevolveintothewordprocessorfunctionalitythatlater helpedcomputersbreakintotheworkplace.Inonecolorfuldescription,authorStevenLevydeclared theyoungGreenblattasingleminded,unkempt,prolific,andcanonicalMIThackerwhowentintothe nightphasesooftenthathezorchedhisacademiccareer. ThenextbigtoolwasSKETCHPAD,adrawingprogramthatinventedthegraphicaluserinterface. Accordingtowikipedia:

IvanSutherlanddemonstrated...thatcomputergraphicscouldbeutilizedforboth artisticandtechnicalpurposesinadditiontoshowinganovelmethodofhuman computerinteraction. Sketchpadwasthefirstprogramevertoutilizeacompletegraphicaluserinterface. Sketchpadusedanxypointplotterdisplayaswellasthethenrecentlyinventedlight pen.Thecleverwaytheprogramorganizeditsgeometricdatapioneeredtheuseof "objects"and"instances"incomputingandpointedforwardtoobjectoriented programming.

LOGO,1967:earlyAIlanguage. Papert,MIT ThereisalargepresenceofLOGOandLOGOturtlevideosintheTechSquarefilmclips.Inventedby SeymourPapertofMIT,LOGOisfamousforbeinganeasiertounderstandprogramminglanguage.It pioneeredtheideaofeducationalchildrenprogrammingprograms,thefirstofwhichoccurreddown thestreetfromMITinLexington,MA. Studentsandresearcherscouldtypeinthehuman friendlycommandsoverteletype,atypewriterlike contraptionthatwaswiredintothemaincomputerand couldmakesimplemath,wordorwhateverelsethey couldimagineprograms. Thenextmajorinnovationcamewhentheyhookedthe systemuptoa'turtle'robotwhosemovementswere scriptedbytheLOGOprograms.Itprovidedawayfor thestudentsandresearcherstoimmediatelyseetheir programinactionandtestouttheiralgorithmsby LOGOTurtle watchingitsmotion. Bystrappingamarkerorpenciltotheturtlesandinitiatingsomesimplerulesformovements,the robotsbecamefamousfortracingcomplexandbeautifulpatternsonthepaperbeneathit.Usethesame algorithmstocreateapathinpixelsandtheycreatedsomeofthefirstscreensaverlikegraphics. VisionProject,1966:TheythoughttheycouldSolveMachineVisioninaSummer Byconnectingcamerastothecomputers,researchersexperimentedwithwaysofusingAItointerpret

andextractinformationaboutvisiondata.Noonereallyunderstoodhowdifficultthatwouldbeand theinitialMITattemptisoneofmyfavoriteAIanecdotes. Rumorhasitthatthetaskoffiguringouthowtoextractobjectsandfeaturesfromvideocameradata wasoriginallytossedtoaparttimeundergraduatestudentresearchertofigureoutinafewshort months.Whatisknownforcertainisthattherewassummervisionprojectsometimeinthesixties,in whichresearchersfullyexpectedtoestablishmanyofthemainconceptsbythestartofthenext semester. AswouldoftenbethecaseinAI,theyhadvastlyunderestimatedthecomplexityofhumansystems, andthefieldisstillworkingonhowtoomakefullyfunctionalvisionsystemstoday. UNIMATE,1961:TheFirstIndustrialRobot EngelbergerandDevol,GeneralMotors AccordingtotheComputerHistoryMuseum,ThefirstindustrialrobotUNIMATEstartedoutin1961 ontheTVpicturetubemanufacturingline,thenwenttoworkatGeneralMotors.Weighing4,000 pounds,therobotarmthatobeyedcommandsonebyonetostackandsequencediecastmetal. RobotswouldbecomeamajorareainAIexperimentation,withinitialapplicationsinfactoriesor humancontrollersbutlaterexpandingintosomecooperativeandautonomoustasks.Theworld'robot' isderivedfromtheCzechwordforworker,butnowadaysthemachinesareusedfromeverythingfrom actorsintheEntertainmentIndustry(seethemoviesGremlins,JurassicPark,A.I.)tohighprecision medicalsurgeries,toysandautonomousvacuumcleaners. ELIZA,1965:Apatternmatchingpsychologist Weizenbaum,MIT ELIZAisasimplepatternmatchingconversationalmachine,thefirstofherkind,createdbyMIT computerscientistJosephWeizenbaumin1966.IthasnowbecomepartandparcelofallEmacs programsandcrudelysimulatesapsychotherapistusingpatternmatching. WeizenbaumwasnotaproponentofAI.Infact,inthepaperabouthisinvention,hesays,Machines aremadetobehaveinwondrousways,oftensufficienttodazzleeventhemostexperiencedobserver. Butonceaparticularprogramisunmasked,onceitsinnerworkingsareexplainedinlanguage sufficientlyplaintoinduceunderstanding,itsmagiccrumblesaway;itstandsrevealedasamere collectionofprocedures,eachquitecomprehensible. WhetherornotyouagreewithWeizenbaum'scharacterization,thebestwaytounderstandtheprogram istolookatanexample.ThefollowingcomesfromthedescriptionDanielBobrowgaveofan unplannedencounterbetweentheVicePresidentofBBNanabandonedELIZAprogramunwittingly leftrunningonthecomputerscreen:
HereishowBobrowtellsthestory: OneSaturdaymorningabout9am.,aVicePresidentofBolt,Beranek,andNewman [BBN]...foundanoteonthePDP1teletypethatread:"TYPEALLMESSAGESINTO THISTELETYPEANDENDTHEMWITHAPERIOD."Thisnotewasleftthereby

oneoftheprogrammingbumswhohadjustsucceededinmakingrunaLISPversionof theDOCTORprogram(basedonELIZAasdevelopedbyWeizenbaum).However,the VPthoughtthatthisnoteindicatedthatthisteletypewaslinkedwiththeoneinmy home,sinceIoftenusethecomputerallnight.Therefore,hestartedtypingto"me,"but infactwastypingtothisversionoftheDOCTORprogram.Thefollowingconversation ensued: vp:DoyouthinkthatIcanusethecomputerthismorning? eliza:Whydoyouask? vp:ImightbeabletomakesomeadditionalTelcomsales. eliza:Whyaren'tyousosure? vp:Myperspectivecustomershaveneverseenademonstrationofthesystem. eliza:Doesthismeanverymuchtoyou? vp:Ofcourseitdoes. eliza:Youseemverypositiveaboutthat. vp:Thisisridiculous. eliza:Whatdoyoumean,thisisridiculous? vp:IsthereanyreasonwhyIcan'tusethecomputernow? eliza:Tellmemoreaboutyourperspectivecustomers. vp:Pleasedialmeupon4911850 NotethatafterthelastremarktheVPdidnotobeyinstructions,andleftouttheperiod. Therefore,ofcourse,thecomputerdidn'tanswerhim.ThissoinfuriatedtheVP,who thoughtIwasplayinggameswithhim,thathecalledmeup,wokemefromadeep sleep,andsaid: vp:Whyareyoubeingsosnottytome? bobrow:WhatdoyoumeanIambeingsnottytoyou? TheVPangrilyreadmethedialogthat"we"hadbeenhaving,andcouldn'tgetany responsebutlaughterfromme.Ittookawhiletoconvincehimitreallywasacomputer.

Thebasicalgorithmisthefollowing:(1)Lookatuser'sinput,(2)Findapatternthatmatchestheinput, (3)Lookuptheandprintoutthecorrespondingresponse.Thoughyoucan,ofcourse,formyourown opinion,Ifinditamazingthatsuchasimplesetupcanresultinsuchanamusingandcomplexsituation. DENDRAL,1966:ChemistryExpertSystemanalyzingorganiccompounds Buchanan,Feigenbaum,Lederberg,Sutherland,Stanford OneoftheclearestexamplesofappliedAIresearch,DENDRALanalyzedorganiccompoundsusing massspectrogramandnuclearmagneticresonancedatatodeterminetheirstructure.Itlimitedthe searchspaceusingconstraintsatisfaction,increasingtheprobabilitythatthesystemwouldfinda solution. Theheuristicsandrulesitusedtotracethepathofwhichstructuresandcharacteristicsrespondtowhat kindofmoleculeswerepainstakinggatheredfrominterviewingandshadowingexpertsinthefield.It involvedaverydifferentapproachtointelligencefromauniversalproblemsolvingstructure,requiring

extensivespecializedknowledgeaboutasystem. DENDRALevolvedintotheMetaDendralsystem,whichattemptedtoautomatetheknowledge gatheringbottleneckofbuildinganexpertsystem.MetaDendralmadethefirstscientificdiscoveryby amachineregardinganunknownchemicalcompoundin1975.

V.1970'sARisingIndustry
DirectionsofAIadvancementacceleratedintheseventieswiththeintroductionofthefirstpersonal computers,amedicaldiagnostictoolMYCIN,newconceptualizationsoflogic,andgameslikePong andPacMan. Expandingfromabstracttoolstoapplications,ProjectGutenburgbegancompilingelectronicversions ofbooksin1970,anongoingeffortnowavailableonline.Thefirstreadingmachinewascreatedby Kurzweilin1976andwasusedtoassisttheblind.Whetherrobotsorkeyboards,thenextevolutionary stepinbothAIandcomputersciencecamewiththecontrol,interpretationandcoordinationof peripheraldevices. Computers,inaccessibletoindividualsoutsideofmilitary,academiaandlargebanks,weresuddenly availabletoownoneselfforamerefewthousanddollars.Atthestart,themachinedidnotevenhavea screen,justasetofLEDsandbuttonsonehadtopunchinsequencetoprogramthemachine.Market forcessoonwelcomedinafloodofperipheraldevicestoimproveinputandoutputcapabilities.As MicrosoftandAppleComputersbeganoperationsandthefirst children'scomputercampoccurredin1977,majorsocialshiftsinthe statusofcomputertechnologywereunderway. BackatMIT,formerdirectorRodBrooksrelatesthatintheseventies, PatrickWinstonbecamethedirectoroftheArtificialIntelligence Project,whichhadnewlysplinteredoffProjectMAC.Thelab continuedtocreatenewtoolsandtechnologiesasTomKnight, RichardGreenblattandothersdevelopedbitmappeddisplays,fleshed outhowtoactuallyimplementtimesharingandincludedemail capabilities. Knowledgerepresentation,knowledgebasedsystems,reasoningand naturallanguageprocessingcontinuedtomotivateinnovationsin projectsprogramminglanguagesasthelabexpandedinsize,accepting formerstudentsGerrySussman,CarlHewittandIraGoldsteinintothe facultyranks. EarlyMobileRobots:Shakey,Freddie StanfordandUniversityofEdinburgh Shakey,1968

DARPAfundedvariousinitialrobotprojectsacrossthecountryincludingStanford'smobilerobot Shakey.Inasimilarvein,theUniversityofEdinburghsooncreatedtheirownmobilerobot,Freddie,in

1973.Bothrobotsusedvisualperceptionandotherinputstocreateinternalmodelsoftheworld aroundthem,whichtheywouldthenusetonavigatethroughspace.Morespecifically,wikipedia declares:

SRIInternationalsShakeybecamethefirstmobilerobotcontrolledbyartificial intelligence.Equippedwithsensingdevicesanddrivenbyaproblemsolvingprogram calledSTRIPS,therobotfounditswayaroundthehallsofSRIbyapplyinginformation aboutitsenvironmenttoaroute.ShakeyusedaTVcamera,laserrangefinder,and bumpsensorstocollectdata,whichitthentransmittedtoaDECPDP10andPDP15. ThecomputerradioedbackcommandstoShakeywhothenmovedataspeedof2 metersperhour.

RobotsandNaturalLanguageProcessingatMIT:CopyDemo,SilverArm,SHRDLU MIT Earlyroboticsincludedthe1961MH1robothandprojectand1970copydemoinwhicharoboticarm equippedandcameracouldvisually determinethestructureofastackofcubes andthenconstructanimitation.Bothof theprojectsarewelldocumentedontheAI Filmswebsite. Thefirstfirstcomputercontrolledrobot intendedforsmallpartsassemblycamein 1974intheformofDavidSilver'sarm, createdtodosmallpartsassembly.Itsfine movementsandhighprecisionrequired greatmechanicalengineeringskilland usedfeedbackfromtouchandpressure sensors.PatrickWinstonsoonexpanded theideaofcubemanipulationwithhis CubeStackingExperiments programARCH,thatlearnedconcepts fromexamplesintheworldofchildren'sblocks. AnothermajorprogramthatwasappliedtotheblocksworldwasSHRDLU,anaturallanguage processingsystemcreatedbyTerryWinogradin1970.Accordingtowikipedia:
SHRDLUcarriedonasimpledialog(viateletype)withauser,aboutasmallworldof objects(theBLOCKSworld)shownonanearlydisplayscreen(DEC340attachedtoa PDP6computer). ThenameSHRDLUwasderivedfromETAOINSHRDLU,thearrangementofthe alphakeysonaLinotypemachine,arrangedindescendingorderofusagefrequencyin English. Asideeffectofthismemory,andtheoriginalrulesSHRDLUwassuppliedwith,isthat theprogramcouldanswerquestionsaboutwhatwaspossibleintheworldandwhatwas not.Forinstance,SHRDLUwoulddeducethatblockscouldbestackedbylookingfor examples,butwouldrealizethattrianglescouldn'tbestacked,afterhavingtriedit.The "world"containedbasicphysicstomakeblocksfallover,independentofthelanguage parser.

Finally,SHRDLUcouldalsoremembernamesgiventoobjects,orarrangementsof them.Forinstanceonecouldsay"asteepleisasmalltriangleontopofatallrectangle"; SHRDLUcouldthenanswerquestionsaboutsteeplesintheblocksworld,andbuild newones.

Toclarify,anexampleSHRDLUdialogmightconsistofthefollowing:
Person:PICKUPABIGREDBLOCK. Computer:OK. Person:GRASPTHEPYRAMID. Computer:IDON'TUNDERSTANDWHICHPYRAMIDYOUMEAN. Person(changingtheirmind):FINDABLOCKWHICHISTALLERTHANTHE ONEYOUAREHOLDINGANDPUTITINTOTHEBOX. Computer:BY"IT",IASSUMEYOUMEANTHEBLOCKWHICHISTALLER THANTHEONEIAMHOLDING. Computer:OK. Person:WHATDOESTHEBOXCONTAIN? Computer:THEBLUEPYRAMIDANDTHEBLUEBLOCK. Person:WHATISTHEPYRAMIDSUPPORTEDBY? Computer:THEBOX. Person:HOWMANYBLOCKSARENOTINTHEBOX? Computer:FOUROFTHEM. Person:ISATLEASTONEOFTHEMNARROWERTHANTHEONEWHICHI TOLDYOUTOPICKUP? Computer:YES,THEREDCUBE.(wikipedia)

TheSHRDLUresearchwasexcitingbecauseitallowedtheuser,albeitinhighlyconstrained circumstances,tocommunicatedirectlywiththecomputerinEnglish,ratherthanhavingtolearna machineprogramminglanguage. MYCIN:MedicalDiagnosticExpertSystem EdwardShortliffe,Stanford MYCINwasthefirstfullydevelopedexpertsystem,diagnosingandrecommendingtreatmentfor infectiousblooddiseases.Thename'Mycin'wasusedbecauseitisacommonantibioticsuffix. Createdinthebeginningofthedecade,by1979MYCINwasdeclaredasgoodasmedicalexpertsby theJournalofAmericanMedicalAssociation.Thesystemevenadjustedrecommendeddosagestothe patient'sbodyweight.Itsfunctionalitycanbedescribedasfollows:
Mycinoperatedusingafairlysimpleinferenceengine,andaknowledgebaseof~500 rules.Itwouldquerythephysicianrunningtheprogramviaalongseriesofsimple yes/noortextualquestions.Attheend,itprovidedalistofpossibleculpritbacteria rankedfromhightolowbasedontheprobabilityofeachdiagnosis,itsconfidencein eachdiagnosis'probability,thereasoningbehindeachdiagnosis(thatis,Mycinwould alsolistthequestionsandruleswhichledittorankadiagnosisaparticularway),andits recommendedcourseofdrugtreatment. Mycinwasneveractuallyusedinpractice.Thiswasn'tbecauseofanyweaknessinits performanceintestsitoutperformedmembersoftheStanfordmedicalschool.Itwas asmuchbecauseofethicalandlegalissuesrelatedtotheuseofcomputersinmedicine ifitgivesthewrongdiagnosis,whocanbeheldresponsible?Issueswithwhether humanexpertswouldfinditacceptabletousearoseaswell.(wikipedia)

ThecreatorsofMYCINfoundthatdoctorswereunwillingtoacceptitsadviceifthesystemcouldnot

convincethemofwhyitmadeitsconclusions.Therefore,theyincludedtheabilitytoanswerquestions abouthowitwasmakingitsdecisions.AsdescribedinoneAItextbook,[MYCIN]usesrulesthattell itsuchthingsas,Iftheorganismhasthefollowingsetofcharacteristicsasdeterminedbythelab results,thenitislikelythatitisorganismX.Byreasoningbackwardusingsuchrules,theprogramcan answerquestionslikeWhyshouldIperformthattestyoujustaskedfor?withsuchanswersas BecauseitwouldhelptodeterminewhetherorganismXispresent.(Rich59)Itisimportantthat programsprovidejustificationoftheirreasoningprocessinordertobeacceptedfortheperformanceof importanttasks.

VI.1980's:BoomandCrash
ThestartoftheeightieswasthegoldenageforArtificialIntelligenceintheUS,asthefieldcaughtthe imaginationofthelargerpopulation.Institutionsacrosstheboardweresuddenlyspringingup departmentsofArtificialIntelligencefromvideogamecompaniestoCampbell'sSoup.Themost commonutilitiescameintheformofMYCINstyleexpertsystems,wizardsthatcouldgiveadviceor informationabouthowtodosomethinginitsareaofexpertise. Theseexpertsystemswerespecialized,servingtheknowledgebaseofgurusinafield.Forexample,in thecaseofCampbell'ssoup,afactorymanagermightbecuriousaboutthetubcleaningrequirements betweenmakingdifferentbatchesofsoup.AsrelatedintheinterviewwithonAAAIFellow,ifyou weregoingfromChickenBrothtoChickenNoodle,youcouldproceedrightway,butiftheordering wasClamChowdertoVegetarianMinestrone,thetanksbetterbespicandspaninbetween. Familyandworkcomputersstartedtobecomecommonplaceinthe1980'swithsixmillioncomputers soldin1983.MostofthetoolbuildersatMITleftthelabintheeightiestoworkinnewcompaniesand bringtheirworktotheconsumer.IBMintroducedits'PC'andXerox,LMIandSymbolicshada varietyofLispmachines.Inaddition,Apple'sLISAandthenMacintoshhitthemarketandARPANET openeduptocivilians,aprecursortotheInternet.Despitetheseadvances,bytheendofthedecade,the 'AIWinter'leftthefield,especiallycompanies,strugglingtodefendtheirfundingandreputationwitha downturninpublicinterest. In1985,ProfessorNicholasNegroponteandformerMITPresidentJeromeWiesnerstartedtheMIT MediaLaboratory.AccordingtotheMediaLabwebsite:
[TheMediaLabgrew]outoftheworkofMIT'sArchitectureMachineGroup,and buildingontheseminalworkoffacultymembersinarangeofotherdisciplinesfrom cognitionandlearningtoelectronicmusicandholography...Initsfirstdecade,much oftheLaboratory'sactivitycenteredaroundabstractingelectroniccontentfromits traditionalphysicalrepresentations,helpingtocreatenowfamiliarareassuchasdigital videoandmultimedia.Thesuccessofthisagendaisnowleadingtoagrowingfocuson howelectronicinformationoverlapswiththeeverydayphysicalworld.TheLaboratory pioneeredcollaborationbetweenacademiaandindustry,andprovidesaunique environmenttoexplorebasicresearchandapplications,withoutregardtotraditional divisionsamongdisciplines.

TheMITAIlabwasalsoinfullswing,directingitstalentsatreplicatingthevisualandmobility capabilitiesofayoungchild,includingfacerecognition,objectmanipulationandtheabilitytowalk

andnavigatethrougharoom.TomasLozanoPerezpioneeredpathsearchmethodsusedforplanning themovementofaroboticvehicleorarm.TherewasworkdoneonleggedrobotsbyMarcRaibertand JohnHollerbackandKenSalisburycreateddexterousrobothands.Thisdecadewasalsowhenfamed roboticistandcurrentdirectorofCSAILRodneyBrooksbuilthisfirstrobots. Wabot2,1980:RobotthatreadsSheetMusicandplaysOrgan WasedaUniversity,Japan ThenameWABOTisfrom'WAsedaroBOT',honoringtheUniversityinJapanatwhichitwas designed.Inthiscase,thestoryisbesttoldbyitsoriginators.Thedescriptionoftheprojectonthe WasedaUniversitywebsitefollows:

Ithasbeenforecastthatrobotswillpenetratesocietyin21st century...Inthatcase,robotswillberequiredtohave anthropomorphicappearancesandfaculties...Developingthe anthropomorphicintelligentrobotWABOT(WAsedaroBOT) [aimed]tofinallydevelopa"personalrobot"which resembledapersonasmuchaspossible. In1980,ourlaboratories...commencedtheWABOT2 project.Playingakeyboardinstrumentwassetupasan intelligenttaskthattheWABOT2aimedtoaccomplish, sinceanartisticactivitysuchasplayingakeyboard instrumentwouldrequirehumanlikeintelligenceand dexterity. ...TherobotmusicianWABOT2canconversewithaperson, WABOTplayingmusic readanormalmusicalscorewithiseyeandplaytunesof averagedifficultyonanelectronicorgan.TheWABOT2is alsoableofaccompanyingapersonwhilehelistenstothepersonsinging.The WABOT2wasthefirstmilestoneindevelopinga"personalrobot."

ItisinterestingtonotethattheresearchgroupseesWABOT2asthefirstgenerationofanoncoming classofpersonalrobots.Itmayseemfarfetchedatthemoment,butlookhowfarpersonalcomputers havecomesincetheywerefirstconceivedoffiftyyearsago. HEARSAY,1982:SpeechUnderstandingProgram Erman,HayesRoth,Lesser,ReddyatCMU HEARSAYwasaspeechunderstandingprogramdevelopedatCMUin1982thatpioneeredauseful modelforsolvingperceptualproblems,thatis,problemsinwhichamachineistryingtoderive meaningoutofcomplexinputsignals.Thatprocessmightinvolvedecodingwordsfromsomeone's voice,recognizingsomeone'sfacefromasetofvisiondataortactilelydistinguishingdifferentkindsof textures. Becauseitisawidelyapplicableproblem,belowyouwillfindatextbooksummaryofthestepsone mustconsiderinfiguringouthowamachinecangleaninformationfromsensorydata.AsHEARSAY wasaCMUproject,itseemsappropriatetoincludeasummaryfromtheanArtificialIntelligence textbookbyElaineRichofCMU:

TECHNIQUESUSEDINSOLVINGPERCEPTUALPROBLEMS... Itisimportanttodividetheoverallunderstandingprocessintomanageablepieces.We candothisbydividingtheprocessofanalyzingeitheraspeechsampleorapictureinto thefollowingfivestages: Digitization:Dividethecontinuousinputintodiscretechunks.Forspeechrecognition, thiscanbedonebymeasuringtheamplitudeofthesignalatfixedintervals,suchas 20,000timespersecond... Smoothing:Eliminatesporadiclargevariationsintheinput.Becausetherealworldis mostlycontinuous,thesespikesintheinputareusuallytheresultofrandomnoise. Segmentation:Groupthesmallchunksproducedbydigitizationintolargerchunks correspondingtologicalcomponentsofthesignal.Forspeechunderstanding,these segmentscorrespondtologicalcomponentsofthesignal...suchassora.These segmentsareoftencalledphones... Labeling:Attachtoeachofthesegmentsalabelthatindicateswhich,ofasetof buildingblocks,thatsegmentrepresents...Sothelabelingprocedurecandooneoftwo things.Itcanassignmultiplelabelstoasegmentandleaveituptothelateranalysis procedureorchoosetheonethatmakessenseinthecontextoftheentireinput.Orit canapplyitsownanalysisprocedureinwhichmanysegmentsareexaminedto constrainthechoiceoflabelforeachsegment. Analysis:Putallthelabeledsegmentstogethertoformacoherentobject...when surroundingpiecesareconsidered,thenumberofinterpretationsthatleadtoaconsistent overallinterpretation[alsoknownasconstraintsatisfaction]isconsiderablyreduced..In speech,thisresultsfromsuchthingsasintonationpatternsthatcoverwholesentences. (Rich349)

TheactualHEARSAYprogramparsedaudioinformationusinga'blackboardmodel'thatfollowsthe abovetechniquesinawaythattracesupanddownthecomplexitylevelsofsound,syllable,word,as wellasrighttoleft,insentenceswherethereareambiguoussignals.Likeconstructingajigsaw puzzle,thefastestmethodisinvariablyputtingtogethertheeasilyparsedborderandthenfillinginthe lessobviouspieces.Thismethodbecomesparticularlyusefulwhenwordsarenotenunciatedclearly. AARON,1985:AnAutonomousArtist HaroldCohen,UCSD HaroldCohenisanEnglishartistwhoalmost accidentallyencounteredprogrammingatStanfordand thenbecamefathertothefirstrobotartist,AARON. Whoknowswhattherisingtechnologicalartcommunity willcome upwithnext.AccordingtoCohen'shomepage:
TheAARONprogram,anongoingresearcheffortin HaroldCohenwithAARON autonomousmachine(artmaking)intelligence...beganwhen [Cohen]wasavisitingscholaratStanfordUniversity'sArtificialIntelligenceLabin1973.Together, CohenandAARONhaveexhibitedatLondon'sTateGallery,theBrooklynMuseum,theSan FranciscoMuseumofModernArt,Amsterdam'sStedelijkMuseumandmanymoreoftheworld's majorartspaces... Oneofthefewartistsevertohavebecomedeeplyinvolvedinartificialintelligence,Cohenhasgiven invitedpapersonhisworkatmajorinternationalconferencesonAI,computergraphicsandart

technologies... AARONhasproducedmanythousandsofdrawings,toafewdozenofwhichCohenhas addedcolor...ThepaintingmachinewithwhichAARONcoloredrealdrawingsinthe realworldwaspremieredatanexhibitattheComputerMuseuminBostoninthespring of1999.

ApicturebeingcreatedbythelatestversionofAARONsidebysidewithitscreatorappearsabove. Allen,1985:StartingaNewGenerationofReactiveRobots RodneyBrooks,MITAILab OneoftheoriginalMITAILabgroupswasnamedtheMobotLabanddedicatedtomakingmobile robots.'Allen'wasthegroup'sfirstcreationandsharesBrook'smiddlename. AccordingtoauthorKevinKelly:

"Allen"wasthefirstrobotBrooksbuilt.Itkeptitsbrainsonanearbydesktop,because that'swhatallrobotmakersdidatthetime...Themultiplecablesleadingtothebrain box[a.k.a.computer]fromAllen'sbodilysensesofvideo,sonar,andtactilewerea neverendingsourceoffrustrationforBrooksandcrew...Brooksvowedthatontheir nextprojecttheywouldincorporatethebrainsinsidetherobotwherenosignificant wiringwouldbeneedednomatterhowtinythebrainsmighthavetobe. Theywerethusforcedtouseveryprimitivelogicstepsandveryshortandprimitive connectionsin"Tom"and"Jerry,"thenexttworobotstheybuilt.Buttotheir amazementtheyfoundthatthe'dumb'waytheironboardneuralcircuitwasorganized workedfarbetterthana[complex]brainingettingsimplethingsdone.

Sincethen,RodneyBrookshasbecomeoneofthemostfamousproponentsofroboticsandisthe currentheadofCSAIL,MIT'sComputerScienceandArtificialIntelligenceLaboratory.

VII.CatchinguptothePresent
Sincetheeighties,severalprojectsstandoutas majornewshiftsanddevelopmentsinthefield. WhenDeepBluebeatworldchesschampion GarryKaspacovin1996,somesayitmarked theendofanerainwhichspecializedprograms andmachinesreigned.Onenewpotential direction,thefirstofficialRoboCup,kickedoff RoboCup2006 thattheverysameyearposingandrequires integratingallkindsofintelligences.TheirgoalistobeabletobeatthewinningWorldCupsoccer teamby2050. WiththeresultsoftheDARPAGrandChallengethisyear,thatpotentiallyrashaspirationseemsmore plausible.Afterthefirstyear'sracewhennoneoftheautonomousvehiclesmadeiteventenmilespast thestartofthe131.2milecourse,thisyearsawfiveofthetwentythreeDARPAGrandChallenge

competitorsreachthefinishwithtimetospare. Otherdevelopmentsincludetheeffortsstartedin2002torecreateaoncewonderoftheworldstatus libraryinEgyptasonlineebookcalledBibliothecaAlexandrina.Thetransitiontocomputerized medicalrecordshasbeensluggish,butinotherareasofmedicinefromimagerytohighprecision surgery,thenewfacilitatesmachinescangiveasurgeonhassavedlivesandmadenewdiagnosisand operationspossible. WhilewehaveallheardaboutNASAspacerobots,but lessknownwerethe$400,000'His'and'Her'robots featuredinthe2003NiemenMarcusChristmas catalog.Clearly,ourrelationshipswithmachinesin societyisintransition.Oneofthemostimportant examplesofthatwasCynthiaBreazeal'sresearchon machineemotionandsocialinteractionwithherMIT thesisprojectKismetin2002. NewversionsofELIZAlikeprogramsarebecoming commonplacewithAOLInstantMessenger's CynthiaBreazealwithKismet SmarterChild,anagentthatcananswerquestionsand trytosearchthewebtoansweryourquestionsaboutMovietimesortellyounottohavea'potty mouth.' WhilewedonothavefullrealizationofLicklider'smanmachinesymbiosis,theideaofmachinesand toolsbecomingagentsthatworkhandandhandwithhumanbeingsseemsmoreandmorenaturalwith eachgeneration.IRobot'svacuumcleanerRoombaiskickstartinganewhouseholdroboticsindustry withrecordsales. JohnMcCarthybelievesthatfundamentalnewideasarerequiredbeforeAIcanreachhumanlevel intelligence,ratherthanjustneedinglargedatabasesandfastercomputers.Hedeclaresonhiswebsite, Myownopinionisthatthecomputersof30yearsagowerefastenoughifonlyweknewhowto programthem. Whetherornothumanlevelintelligenceiseventhemaingoalofthefieldanymore,itisoneofthe manythatenticeourinterestandimagination.ItisclearthatAIwillcontinuetoimpactandcontribute toarangeofapplicationsandonlytimewilltellwhichpathsitwilltravelalongtheway. HeatherKnightreceivedherB.S.inElectricalEngineeringwithaminorinMechanicalEngineering fromMITin2006andhasbeenacceptedintotheirEECSMastersofEngineeringprogram.Shehas alsoworkedattheMITMediaLabsince2002withProfessorCynthiaBreazealoftheRoboticLifeas wellasProfessorDebRoyofCognitiveMachines.

Appendix
I.ProjectBackground
TheRecoveringMIT'sAIFilmHistoryprojectwasbornin2001,whenacollectionofoldfilmreels showeduponsomedustyshelvesduringthemovefromTechSquaretoFrankGhery'sarchitectural creation,theRayandMariaStataCenter.TheStataCenteristhehomeofthenowjoinedAILaband ComputerSciencedepartmentsknownasCSAIL,theComputerScienceandArtificialIntelligence Laboratory. ThankstothesupportoftheNationalScienceFoundation,thesefilmsandmorearenowavailableon theprojectwebsite,http://projects.mit.edu/films.TheoriginalNSFproposaltodigitizeandcreatea websitewaswordedasfollowed: Thisprojectwillcollect,organize andpreservehistoricmaterials, particularlyfilm,thatarepartofthe historicalrecordofthefieldof ArtificialIntelligence(AI).Itwill createanorganizeddigitalarchive andusehighlightsselectedfromthe archivetoillustratetheintellectual historyofAI...Sourcesforthis projectincludednotes,memosand technicalreportsfromMITand elsewhere,andinparticular,a LucyandtheMinskyBennettArm uncatalogued,unconservedand uncuratedcollectionoffilmsthatrecentlycametolightatMIT...The projectwillcreateawebsiteorDVDtoshowcasetheselectedclips,the connectingnarrative,andothermoretechnicalmaterials.

Theopeningofthewebsitefortuitouslycoincidedwithboththe50thanniversaryofArtificial Intelligence(asthetermwascoinedattheDartmouthconferencein1956)andtheAmerican AssociationofArtificialIntelligence(AAAI)conferenceinBoston,MAJune1622,2006.Therewe hadtheopportunitytointerviewonvideomorethanonequarteroftheAAAIFellowsinattendance. Thefootagesisnowpartofthesite.TheFellowsincludethemostinfluentialinnovatorsinthefieldof ArtificialIntelligenceandmanyoftheoriginalfoundersofthefieldwerepresent. AnotherprimarysourceforthesitewasRickGreenblatt,whobeganhisMITcareerinthe1960s.He wasextraordinarilygenerouswithhistime,watchingeachandeveryofthesite'sfilmclipsandleaving anaudio'podcast'ofhisreminiscencesforeachone. TheRecoveringMIT'sAIFilmHistorywebsiteitselfwascreatedoverthesummerof2006,ledby CSAIL'sOutreachOfficerTomGreeneandproducedbyLuisGomez(UniversityofFlorida undergrad),HeatherKnight(MITMEngstudent)andMattPeddie(MITundergrad),whocollectively

didtheresearch,webdesignandinterviewscontainedwithinthesite. IwouldliketopersonallythankMITElectricalEngineeringandComputerScienceProfessors FernandoCorbatoandBobFano,aswellHarvardHistoryofSciencePhDcandidateHallamStevens forreadingdraftsofthispaper.Ihavenotdonefulljusticetothefeedbacktheyoffered,butthecontent ismorecompleteandlesserrorriddenbecauseoftheirhelp.

II.ArtificialIntelligenceinPopularCulture
Asimov,Isaac.I,Robot(1950),CavesofSteel(1954),RobotsofDawn(1982).RobotScienceFiction, book.ConceivesfictionalThreeLawsofRobotics Orwell,George.1984(1949).BigBrotherusescomputerstoenslavehumanity,book. Shelley,MaryFrankenstein.book. Kubrick,Stanley.2001:ASpaceOdyssey(1968),movie.(BasedonbookbyArthurC.Clark) StarWars(1977),movie.

III.AIOrganizationTimeline*
*manyappendixtimelineeventsadaptedfromMarkKantrowitz'scompilation 1951IEEEfounded. 1956TheDartmouthAIConference,McCarthycoinsname. 1958DARPAcreated. 1958Teddington(UK)Conference.McCarthy,Minsky,Selfridge 1969FirstIJCAIConferenceinWashingtonDC. 1974FirstSIGGRAPHconference. 1980FirstAAAIconference.Stanford. 1982ICOTformed.Japan.

IV.MITResearchCentersTimeline
1959ArtificialIntelligenceProjectstarts,ledbyMinskyandMcCarthy 1963ProjectMAC,ledbyMinskyandPapert 1969AILabsplitsofffromProjectMAC,ledbyPatWinston 1975LSC(LaboratoryofComputerScience)replacesProjectMAC 1980TheMediaLabfoundedbyNegropante? 2003CSAIL(ComputerScienceandArtificialIntelligenceLaboratory)growsoutofaLCSandAI Lab merger,codirectedbytheformerheadsofboth,VictorZhuandRodBrooks prospectively.

V.AcademicResearchCentersTimeline
1959*MIT'sArtificialIntelligenceProject,foundedbyJohnMcCarthyandMarvinMinsky. 1963StanfordAILab(SAIL),foundedbyJohnMcCarthy 1963*MIT'sProjectMAC,begununderMinskyandSeymourPapert,$2millionDARPAgrant.

CMUAILab,founded 1966EdinburgAILab,foundedbyDonaldMichie. 1979CMURoboticsInstitute,foundedbyRajReddy. 1980*MITMediaLaboratory

VI.MajorEarlyAICompanies:
(rashlyincomplete) DEC,ArtificialIntelligenceCorp.,Apple,Microsoft,Symbolics,Xerox,Intel,LMI,Teknowledge, ThinkingMachines,Google

VII.AIProjectsTimeline
1947GreyWalterbuildselectromechanicalturtle 1949TuringandcolleaguestrytocreateachessprogramonMach1. 1950ChessProgramproposedassearchproblem.Shannon. 1956TheLogicTheorist,solvesmathproblems.Newell,ShawandSimon. 1957GeneralProblemSolver,meansendanalysis.Newell,ShawandSimon. 1959CheckersProgrambeatsbesthumanplayers.Samuel. 1959Timesharing.KurtzandKemeny. 1961*SAINT,firstLispprogram.PhDwork.J.Slagle. 1962*TECO,texteditorforPDP1.MurphyandGreenblatt.MIT. 1962FirstCommercialIndustrialRobots 1963*ANALOGY,solvesSATlevelanalogyproblems.PhDwork.ThomasEvans. 1963*SKETCHPAD,drawingtool.Sutherland. 1963Parser,testedonTimeflieslikeanarrow.Susumo. 1964*STUDENT,solveshighschoollevelalgebrawordproblems.PhD.DannyBobrow. 1964*SIR.PhDwork.BertRaphael. 1965*ELIZA,conversationalpsychotherapist.JosephWeizenbaum. 1965*FirstVirtualRealityheadmounteddisplay.IvanSutherland. 1966DENDRAL,chemistryknowledgebasedsys.Buchanan,Feigenbaum,Lederberg,Sutherland. Stanford. 1967*LOGO,earlyAIlanguage.Papert. 1967*MACSYMA,symbolicreasoningforintegrationproblems,logicbasedsystem.JoelMoses. 1968*TentacleArm,akaMinskyBennettarm. 1970PROLOG.AlainColmerauer. 1970Shakey,firstcomputercontrolledmobilerobot.Stanford. 1970INTERNIST,aidindiseasediagnosis.PopleandMyers. 1970*SHRDLU,naturallanguageprocessing,blocksworld.TerryWinograd. 1970*ARCH.Winston. 1970ProjectGutenburg,freeelectronicversionsofbooks.M.Hart. 1971PARRY,paranoidconversationagent.Colby. 1971STRIPS,firstmotionplanningsystem?.NilsNilssonandRichFikes.

1972Smalltalk.XeroxParc. 1972PONG,earlyvideogame.NolanBushell. 1973Scriptsdeveloped.SchankandAbelson. 1973MYCIN,medicaldiagnosticexpertsystem.PhDEdwardShortliffe.Stanford. 1974*SilverArm,firstcomputercontrolledrobot,intendedforsmallpartsassembly.DavidSilver. 1975MetaDendral,firstscientificdiscoverybyamachine. 1976Adventure,firstadventuregame.CrowtherandWoods. 1976*FirstLISPmachine.Greenblatt. 1976Firstreadingmachine.Kurzweil. 1976AutomatedMathematician.Lenat. 1976*PrimalSketchforVisualRepresentation.DavidMarretal. 1979StanfordCartcrosseschairfilledroomwithouthelp.HansMoravec. 1978VisiCalc.Bricklin. 1978VersionSpaces.TomMitchell.Stanford. 1978MYCINgeneralized.PhD.BillVanMelle.Stanford. 1979PacManbroughttomarket. 1980HEARSAY,usesblackboardmodel.Erman,HayesRoth,Lesser,Reddy.CMU. 1980Expertsystemsupto1000rules. 1980Japanese5thGenerationProject.KazuhiroFuchi. 1981ConnectionMachineDesigned,powerfulparallelarchitecture.DannyHillis.ThinkingMachines. 1983SOAR.JohnLaird&PaulRosenbloomwithAllenNewell.PhDs.CMU. 1984NeuralNetswithbackpropagationwidelyused.JohnHopsfield. 1984Wabot2readssheetmusicandplaysorgan. 1985Aaron,autonomousdrawingprogram.HaroldCohen. 1985*Allen,autonomousreactiverobot.RodBrooks. 1990HumanGenomeProjectbegins 1997DeepBluebeatsworldchesschampionGarryKaspacov. 1997FirstOfficialRoboCup,startofanewparadigm 2000*Kismet,robotthatrecognizesanddisplaysemotion.PhD.CynthiaBreazeal. 2000AIBOintroduced. 2002BibliothecaAlexandrina 2003NiemenMarcus'sChristmascatalogfeatures$400,000hisandherrobots.

VIII.AIPapersTimeline
1930*DifferentialAnalyzer,VannevarBush,MIT 1937OnComputableNumbers,TuringMachine.Turing. 1943NeuralNetworks.McCullochandPitts. 1945*AsWeMayThink.VannevarBush,MIT. 1948Cybernetics.NorbertWiener. 1949InformationTheory.Shannon.

1950ComputingMachineryandIntelligence,TuringTest.Turing. 1957*SyntacticStructures.Chomsky. 1958*Perceptron,Rosenblatt. 1962StructureofScientificRevolutions.Kuhn. 1962PossibleWorldsSemantics.Kripke. 1963SemanticNetworksasaKnowledgeRepresentation.M.RossQuillian. 1963*StepsTowardArtificialIntelligence.MarvinMinsky. 1968*SemanticInformationProcessing.MarvinMinsky. 1968*TheSoundPatternofEnglish.ChomskyandHalle. 1969*Perceptrons,discusseslimitsofsinglelayerneuralnetworks.MinskyandPapert. 1969*PhilosophicalProblemsfromthePerspectiveofArtificialIntelligence,situationcalculus McCarthyandPatHayes. 1972WhatComputersCan'tDo.Dreyfus. 1974*AFrameworkforRepresentingKnowledge.MarvinMinsky. 1974CreativeComputing.Ahl. 1974ComputerLib.Nelson 1976Metalevelreasoning,PhD.R.Davis.Stanford. 1979Mycinasgoodasmedicalexperts.JournalofAmericanMedicalAssociation. 1979*AILabFlavorsOOPmemo.WeinrebandMoon. 1979*Nonmonotoniclogics.McDermottandDoyle(MIT),McCarthy(Stanford). 1980TheKnowledgeLevel.AllenNewell. 1980Gdel,Esher,Bach,winsPulitzer.Hofstadter. 1983TheFifthGeneration.FeigenbaumandMcCorduck. 1984CommonLISPthelanguage.Steele. 1985*TheSocietyofMind.MarvinMinsky.

IX.LandmarksinComputation
1940TheABC,firstelectroniccomputer.AtanasoffandBerry. 1941Z3,firstprogrammablecomputer.Zuse.Germany. 1944MarkI,firstprogrammablecomputerinUS.Aiken. 1945Firstcomputerbug.GraceHopper. 1947Transistor.Schockley,BrittainandArdeen.BellLabs. 1950UNIVAC,firstcommercialcomputer.EckertandMauchley. 1952Compiler.GraceHopper. 1956FORTRAN,programminglanguage.IBM. 1958IntegratedCircuit.JackSt.ClairKilby. 1959PDP1sellsfor$159,000.DEC. 1960Defensecomputermistakesmoonforincomingmissile. 1960LINC,firstcomputerwithintegratedCRT.LincolnLabs.

1961AllDartmouthstudentsrequiredtobecomputerliterate.Kemeny'stimesharingsystem. 1964PDP8,firstmassproducedmicrocomputer.DEC. 1964IBM360series. 1964BASIC,programminglanguage.KemenyandKurtz. 1967IBMdistinguisheshardwareandsoftware. 1967Mouse,windowsandmultiplerastermonitorsdemoed.Englebart.SRI. 1968FirstPhDinComputerScience.Mexelblat.UniversityofPennsylvania. 1969UNIX,ThomsonandRitchie.AT&T. 1970FloppyDisks. 1971Intel8008,firstmicroprocessorinUS. 1975BASICforamicrocomputer,GatesandAllen. 1975Altair8800,firstpersonalcomputerwith256bytesmemory. 1975BYTE,magazine. 1977AppleComputer.WozniakandJobs. 1977AppleII,RadioShackTRS80,CommodorePET. 1977Firstchildren'scomputercamp. 1977Microsoftfounded. 1980Lispmachineswidelymarketed.Xerox,LMI,Symbolics. 1981IBMIntroducesPersonalComputer(PC) 1983Sixmillioncomputerssold. 1984AppleLISA 1984CompactDisk(CD)technology.Sony. 1984AppleintroducesMacintosh. 1987ARPANETopenstocivilians *atMIT

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PhotoCredits
1.GraceHopper(SanDiegoSupercomputerCenter) <http://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen/hopper.html> 2.JohnMcCarthy(ComputerHistoryMuseum) <http://www.computerhistory.org/about/press_relations/chess/> 3.PDP1(ComputerHistoryMuseum)<http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/timeline.php? timeline_category=rai> 4.Chess(ProjectWebsite)<http://projects.csail.mit.edu/films/pictures/Screenshots/13cubechess2.jpg> 5.LOGOTurtle(ProjectWebsite)<http://projects.csail.mit.edu/films/pictures/Screenshots/22 turtle.jpg> 6.Shakey(ComputerHistoryMuseum)<http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/timeline.php? timeline_category=rai> 7.CubeStacking(ProjectWebsite)<http://projects.csail.mit.edu/films/pictures/Screenshots/13 cubechess.jpg> 8.WABOT(WasedaUniversity)<http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp/booklet/kato02.html> 9.AARON(SciNetPhotos)<http://www.scinetphotos.com/aaron.html> 10.RoboCup(RoboCupWebsite)<http://www.robocup2006.org/sixcms/detail.php?id=117&lang=en> 11.Kismet(MITMediaLab)<http://web.media.mit.edu/~cynthiab/NewFiles/research.html> 12.LucyonMinskyBennettArm(ProjectWebsite) <http://projects.csail.mit.edu/films/pictures/Screenshots/61arm.jpg>