Effect of a Retaining-Wall-Supported Berm on the Stability of a Tailings Dam

by James A. Doolittle, Ronald L. Sack, and Robert L. Schuster

The effect o f t h e height o f a retaining-wall-supported berm on t h e slope stability o f an idealized mine-tailings d a m was investigated. The material i n the d a m was idealized as a two-layered system w i t h t h e phreatic surface delineating the boundary between t h e layers. In each layer the tailings were assumed t o be homogeneous and isotropic. T h e effect of variation i n height of the berm was examined for tailings dams w i t h three different, commonly occurring slopes. The stresses and displacem e n t s were obtain'ed using the finite element method. A n incremental analysis technique was employed t o simulate sequential construction of both the tailings dam and t h e retaining-wall-supported berm. A one-dimensional element was used t o represent all interfaces and discontinuities i n t h e finite element model. Assuming a hyperbolic model, t h e nonlinear stress-strain relationship for the tailings w a s approximated using t h e m'ethod o f successive illcrements. T h e stresses obtained i n t h e finite element analyses were used i n co.rlventiona1 slope stability analyses assuming circular failure surfaces. T h e results of t h e study show that the use o f a retaining-wallsupported berm is an effective means o f inzproving the stability o f a tailings dam. s This increased stability i greater for dams w i t h steeper slopes. In addition, t h e increase i n factor of safety is particularly notable for berm heights less t h a n 25% o f the height o f the dam.

In t h e underground t y p e of mining operation, the finer portion o f t h e waste material commonly is pumped as a hydrauiic slurry to a tailings disposal pond.' T h e tailings slurry is deposited via a pipe manifold system located around t h e perimeter o f t h e pond. This method o f deposition produces zoning because t h e coarser material tends t o settle out immediately while t h e finer particles tend to remain i n suspension and are deposited progressively nearer t h e center o f the pond. T h e manifold system must b e raised periodically as t h e pond fills w i t h t h e tailings material. Over a period o f time, this procedure will produce a zoned embankment k n o w n as a tailings dam. A typical pond and d a m are shown i n Fig. 1. In plan view, t h e dimensions o f tailings dams can b e o f t h e order o f miles, w i t h the d a m height reaching 10'0 to 200 ft. Due t o such factors as inadequate compaction, inherently l o w strength o f t h e tailings material, and t h e possibility o f a high phreatic surface, m a n y dams at zome point become unstable, i.e., t h e factor o f safety against a slope failure approaches 1.0. Remedial measures are required t o improve t h e safety factor i n order t o prevent massive failure o f t h e dam. In most cases, stability can b e improved b y effectively flattening the slope o f t h e d a m as shown in Fig. 2, but this is not possible i n every case. Occasionally, a tailings d a m is constructed adjacent t o a natural or legal boundary so that it is not possible to construct a conventional berm or reduce t h e slope angle w i t h earth-moving equipment. Even a terracing process would require removal o f material which m a y not b e practical. In such a situation, an alternate scheme to improve stability must b e found.
J. A. DOOLITTLE is Staff Engineer, Converse, Davis and Associates,
Pasadena, Cal. R. L. SACK and R. L. SCHUSTER are Associate Professor and Professor and Chairman, respectively, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, Ida. SME Preprint 74110, A l M E Annual Meeting, Dallas, Tex., February 1974. Manuscript, Sep. 22, 1973. Discussion of this paper, submitted in duplicate prior to M a r . 15, 1975, will appear in SME Transactions, June 1975, and in A l M E Transactions 1975, Vol. 258.
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L .

One possible w a y to improve t h e stability o f a d a m under t h e conditions just stated would b e b y constructing a retaining wall a , t h e base o f t h e dam. T h e e f f e c t o f such a wall upon t h e stability o f t h e d a m is examined i n this paper. T h e finite element method ( F E M ) was used t o analyze stresses and displacements i n t h e system. Conventional circular stability analyses assume a stress distribution associated w i t h a simple gravity system; however, t h e presence o f a retaining wall, berm, and phreatic surface complicates this pressure distribution. In order to accurately investigate t h e stability o f t h e system, the stress distribution obtained f r o m the FEM was used to predict the circle o f failure and factor of safety. T h e e f f e c t o f wall height and t h e slope o f t h e dam were investigated i n this study. For each o f several d i f ferent slopes, t h e wall height was varied b y increments until it reached approximately half the height o f t h e dam. Kulhawy et al.' have developed practical procedures for performing analyses o f embankments during construction using t h e FEM. T h e procedures developed i n their study, which include t h e use o f incremental analysis and nonlinear stress-strain relationships for t h e materials, were incorporated into t h e finite-element computer program LSBUILD. In addition, t h e y developed a procedure for t h e stability analysis o f an earth dam using computed finite-element stresses. T h e analysis uses a circular failure surface and calculates t h e safety factor against sliding using a n equation similar to that o f the conventional method of slices1. T h e finite element procedure differs f r o m t h e conventional method only i n that t h e normal and shearing forces on the slip surface are derived f r o m t h e calculated finite-element stresses. A computer program was written to perform a stability analysis using this technique. T h e one-dimensional element developed b y Goodman, et al:" and adapted b y Clough and Duncan4 for use i n soil-retaining wall interaction, was incorporated into t h e present study, not only for t h e representation o f t h e soil-wall interface, b u t also for t h e interface between

Tailing's Slurry

Fig. 1--Cross section of a typical tailings dam (after Kealy and SoderbergB).

Analysis
The tailings dams discussed in this paper are assumed to be composed of granular tailings materials and to be supported by a stiff, impervious, cohesive foundation soil. The tailings in the area above and also below the phreatic surface are assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic, and to possess nonlinear stress-strain characteristics. In addition, it is assumed that the foundation material is not involved in any sliding failure. The retaining structure is a gravity wall which is founded on the relatively stiff foundation material. The berm is composed of dry granular tailings with a horizontal backfill surface. The dams are all assumed to be 100 ft in height with steady-state seepage occurring, and the elevation of the pond behind the dam is assumed never to be below half the height of the dam. The shape of the phreatic surface is patterned after the results of a seepage study of a similar embankment performed by Kealy and BuschGusing the FEM. A typical dam cross section used in the present study is shown in Fig. 3.

Flattening

Benching

Soil Parameters
The dam studied was assumed to be composed of tailings with engineering properties of a medium-dense type B sandfill material, as given by Pettibone and Kealy.' In addition, it was assumed that the material had a cohesion of 2.0 psi in the unsaturated state, i.e., for material located above the phreatic surface. The engineering properties of the foundation material were chosen such that its strength and stiffness were greater than the tailings material. The assumed engineering properties of the tailings and foundation materials are given in Table 1. The program used in the FEM study is capable of treating both materials which are linearly elastic and those which have a nonlinear stress-strain relationship. Kulhawy et a1.' demonstrated that the nonlinear stressstrain properties of soil, as exemplified in Fig. 4, can be approximated by one equation which will indicate the correct value of Young's modulus at any given confining pressure and deviator stress. This equation involves only the Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters, c and @, three empirical nonlinear modulus parameters, K, n, and R,, and the two variables of confining pressure and deviator

Placement of Bern at Toe of Slope

Fig. 2-Conventional of a tailings damJo methods for improving the stability

the newly placed backfill and the existing dam. The incorporation of this element into the finite element computer program written by Kulhawy et al.? greatly increased its potential problem-solving capabilities. The mechanical properties of granular tailings material, established by Pettibone and Kealy,' were utilized in this study. In addition, the seepage characteristics of mine tailings dams, obtained by Kealy and Busch; were utilized to establish the shape of the phreatic surface.

Phrsatic Surface

Fig. %Tailings

dam analyzed in this study.

Table

1. Assumed Material

Properties
Nonlinear Modulus Parameters

Strength Parameters

Material Tailings (dry) Tailings (saturated) Foundation Concrete Tailings-wall interface Foundation-wall interface Tailings-backfill interface

c Cohesion. Psf

Friction Angle, Degrees

Unlt Wt.,
Lb Per Cn Ft

Poisson's Ratio

Modulus Constant

n Modulus Exponent

Rr Reduction Factor

E = Kpa($y i
f Modulus numbers for K . ; K , = constant = lo9 lb per cu f t

stress (See Table 2 for symbol definitions used in this paper). This equation is used in the program to calculate Young's modulus for each element according to the state of stress. The nonlinear modulus parameters K, n, and R, are derived from data obtained from triaxial tests at different confining pressures with axial strain measurements. The interfaces between the retaining wall and the foundation, between the retaining wall and the backfill, and between the backfill and the tailings dam are all represented by one-dimensional elements as discussed by Clough and Duncan;" Also, they all are assumed to have a nonlinear shear stress-displacement relationship of the same general form as the nonlinear stress-strain relationship of the soils. The nonlinear parameters of the interfaces are identical in definition and are determined in the same manner as the nonlinear modulus parameters of the soils; however, the variables of the interface shear stress-displacement modulus equation (analogous to the equation for determining

Table

2.

Definition of Symbols

P.1
Rt

u
Y

A (c)
-

b {a} ..
?:

ul,aa (al - 63) (a, - as) r

T

Total stress cohesion intercept Elastic modulus Initial tangent modulus Sliding and resisting forces on base of slide Shear modulus Modulus factor Normal stiffness modulus for the one-dimensional element Shear stiffness modulus for the one-dimensional element Length Bulk modulus Exuonent for stress-dependent modulus gos spheric pressure Reduction factor Nodal point displacement Unit weight Incremental value Element strain matrix Poisson's ratio Total stress angle of internal friction Element stress matrix Major, minor principal stress Deviator stress Deviator stress at failure Summation Shear stress

Young's modulus discussed previously) are the shear and normal stress on the interface. The assumed values of the nonlinear parameters for both the soils and interfaces are presented in Table 1.

Failure Criteria and Postfailure Behavior

Two types of material failure can occur in soils: shear failure and tensile failure. The Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope shown in Fig. 5 is used to define shear failure. Tensile failure is assumed if the minor principal stress becomes tensile. This is based on the common assumption that soils have negligible tensile strength.
Deviator Stress Deviator Stress At Failure Stress Level (%I

= (6-0;) = (q-q),

=kq-q)/tq-~)Ji~~

Mohr -Coulomb Failure Envelope

10

11

AXIAL STRAIN ( X )
Fig. &Typical family of stress-strain material (after Pettibone and Kealyl).
TRANSACTIONS

curves for tailings Fig. &The

c--:_L,
-1

stress-level concept.

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256

rr.

- .

In most earlier plane-strain finite-element programs, the relationship between stresses and strains has been expressed in terms of Young's modulus ( E ) and Poissons' ration ( as
1 1 )

{G)

E
( 1 - L,) (

7 -, 12,)

I - )

;
where
la:

=:

'

G.r.1

C I . i

u!~!i

I
i

and

It)=

. , !

6.r!1

,i'

Local failure can be simulated by setting the value of E equal to a very small number. Local postfailure behavior, which results when this form of the stress-strain relationship is used and the value of E is reduced, differs from the behavior of real soils.' When shear failure occurs in real soils at constant confining pressure, the shear stress cannot increase, but the ability to carry additional normal stress is retained even after failure. It has been found that postfailure behavior corresponding more closely to the actual behavior of soils can be obtained by using a n alternate stress-strain formulation suggested by Clough and Woodward:"

proximates the true physical situation, is best understood through a brief explanation of the incremental analysis technique employed in the FEM program. The basic idea of incremental analysis is to more closely simulate the effects of sequential embankment construction by placing the finite elements and their inherent gravity loads in layers or "lifts" as would be done in the actual construction of an embankment. The gravity loads of the new layer are the only loads on the mcldel during any one "construction" increment. The nodal displacements and the corresponding element stresses are calculated for all the nodes and elements which have been placed previous to that increment. These incremental displacements and stresses are then added to the previously calculated incremental displacements and stresses of each node and element respectively. The total values at the end of the analysis are the summation of the incremental values:
G

2
i-1

,,,

Ao;

where the bulk modulus is expressed as

where JU, is the ith incremental element stress, ~ u is i the ith incremental nodal polnt displacement, u is the total element stress, 21 is the total nodal point displacement, and m is the number of layers. It should be noted that by zetting the shear modulus of a failed element to zero, the shear stress of that element is limited to the value which it sustained during the load increment in which it failed. Any additional shear loads incurred by subsequent incremental loads must be redistributed to the surrounding elements.

Idealization
The finite element idealization used in this analysis is shown in Fig. 6. This model, which varies only slightly from one case to another, consists of a total of 306 nodal points and 270 elements. The materials above and below the phreatic surface are represented by different material types so that the phreatic surface is defined by the boundary between these two materials. The foundation is extended 100 ft below the base of the dam and 150 f t horizontally from the toe of the slope to reduce the effect of the imposed boundary conditions on the area of primary interest (the backfill and tailings dam). The elements in the dam section are placed in seven layers and the elements of the retaining wall and backfill are placed in five layers. One-dimensional elements are used to represent the interfaces between the soil and the wall and to represent the discontinuity at the boundary between the backfill and the original slope.
Tailings Dam

and the shear modulus is

Using this formulation, local failure is simulated by setting the value of G to zero while holding the value of the bulk modulus constant. Prior to failure, the values of M,, and G are calculated using the appropriate values of E and ". The process just described. reduces the reserve strength of the failed material to that of a compressible liquid capable of sustaining additional hydrostatic loads if the material is confined. This technique, which ap-

Fig. &Finite element idealization used in the analysis.

Base Material

Sequence of Analysis
The general procedure followed in the analysis of each of the different slopes is to first perform an incremental finite-element analysis of the embankment using a program designated by the authors as LSBUIL~. This program is a modified version of the LSBUILD program written by Kulhawy et aL2 The modifications to the original program include: (1) the capability to analyze a generalized problem geometry, (2) the incorporation of a one-dimensional interface element, (3) a revised iteration scheme, and (4) the capability to vary boundary conditions after each construction increment. representing the results Punched output from LSBUIL~, of the stress analysis of the embankment, is read into was adapted by the authors program STABILTY.STABILTY from the program FEMFS. FEMFS was written b y Kulhawy et al.,z utilizing a stress interpretation subprogram by Wright.? sTABILm includes: (1) effects of pore water pressures under steady-state seepage conditions, (2) generalized problem geometry, and (3) the capability to automatically search for the circle of minimum factor of safety. This program then calculates the minimum factor of safety of the embankment assuming a circular slip surface. The program determines the center point of the critical circle to within 3.5 ft of its actual location and the radius to + or -2.5 ft. The factor of safety for any given slip circle is obtained by summing the sliding and resisting forces on planes tangent to the slip circle, simil a r to the procedure used in the method of slices. These planes are located at the centers of segments of equal arc length. The normal and shearing stresses on the tangent planes are calculated from the stresses obtained using the FEM, and the sliding and resisting forces of the segment are calculated from the following equations:

stress level = % mobilized strength

The terms in this equation are defined and illustrated in Fig. 5.

Discussion of Results
This analysis procedure was carried out for three different, commonly occurring slopes: 3: 1, 2: 1, and 1.5: 1. 3:l Slope: It can be observed from the stress-level contours for the 3: 1 slope, shown in Fig. 7, that the stabilizing effect of the retaining-wall-supported berm is confined only to the material beneath the berm. The stresslevel contours in the material above the elevation of the wall remain nearly unchanged. The distortion of the contours near the surface of the slope is probably due to the idealization of the stress-free boundary and the resulting high stress gradient. This phenomenon occurs in this area for each of the slopes investigated. An examination of the critical failure surfaces in Fig. 7 reveals that these surfaces are always found to emerge at or near the point where the berm and the slope meet. The positions of these critical failure surfaces indicate that the retaining-wall-supported berm effectively transforms the original dam into one of lesser height with a firm base located at a depth below the toe of the slope equal to the height of the wall. In addition to this reduction in the effective height of the dam, the relative vertical position of the phreatic surface is also reduced as the wall height increases. It can be observed that as the wall height is increased, the critical failure surfaces are found to pass through the most highly stressed material in the embankment. The effect of this phenomenon is offset by the decrease in the relative position of the phreatic surface with respect to the critical failure surfaces (see Fig. 7). The overall effect on the stability of the 3: 1 slope is illustrated in Fig. 10 where the variation of factor of safety with wall height is shown. It can be observed from this curve that the stabilizing effect for an equal increase in wall height is less for heights below a b m t 30 ft than it is for heights greater than 30 ft. The general shape of this curve (steeper slope for low wall heights) is probably due to the fact that if the wall is low, the amount of material stabilized is so small in relation to the total, and is located at such a distance from the critically stressed region, that the effect on the overall stability of the embankment is small. The particular characteristics of the curve, e.g., the initial slope, the wall height at which the slope decreases, and the final slope, are influenced by such variables as the postition of the phreatic surface and the position of the critical failure surface in the original slope. The position of the phreatic surface governs the influence of the pore water pressure. In Fig. 7 it can be seen that there is less change in the percentage of the slip circle which is above the phreatic surface in going from the first increment to the second than from the second to the third. This corresponds to the change in the slope of the wall height vs. factor of safety curve which occurs between the second and third height increments. This gives reason to suspect the influence of the phreatic surface in the sudden change of slope. In addition, it is logical to conclude that if the position of the critical failure surface is low in the original embankment, a low wall will cause greater increase in stability than if the original failure surface were high because there is a greater chance that the low surcharges will affect the material through which the critical circle originally passed.
n c r ~ u n r1 ~ 7 4 0
,LO

where j\ is the sliding force, f, is the resisting force, T is the shearing stress, u is the normal stress, L is the , arc length of each segment, p,,. is the pore water pressure, c is the cohesion of the soil, and @ is the internal friction angle. In order to obtain a system on the verge of failure, the vertical position of the phreatic surface in the embankment is varied. The entire procedure is then repeated for each new position, until the minimum factor of safety against slope failure falls to within the range of 1.10 to 1.20. It is assumed that this would be the minimum range to which the factor of safety would be allowed to drop before remedial measures would be taken. At this point, the simulation of the construction of the retaining wall is begun. Referring to the finite element model of Fig. 6 , the backfill, wall, and interface elements are placed by increments. After each increment of wall height is completed, the relative effect of the increment is determined by calculating a minimum factor of safety for the entire combination of wall, backfill, and embankment. Plots showing the variation of the minimum safety factor with wall height were made and are presented in the following section. To gauge the effect of the backfill surcharge upon the stresses in the embankment, contours of the percent of available strength mobilized in the material were plotted on cross sections of the dam and backfill for the various heights of the retaining wall. These also are presented in the following section. The percentage of available strength mobilized, which subsequently shall be referred to as the stress level, is defined as the ratio of deviator stress to the deviator stress at failure with the confining pressure held constant, i.e.,
TRANSACTIONS - VOL. 256

Society of Mining Ellgineers, A l M E

Assumed Phreatic Surface

BOX-

Assumed Phreatic Surface

a) Original Slope

F.S.= 1.18

d ) Retaining Wall 34 Feet

F.S.

= 1.57

Assumed Phreatic Surface Assumed Phreatic Surface

b) Retaining Wall

19 Feet

F.S.= 1.29

e ) Retaining Wall 42 Feet

F.S.

= 1.74

~~
Assumed Phreatic Surface
I

c ) Retaining Wall

27 Feet

F.S. = 1.37
contours for

f ) Retaining Wall 49 Feet

F.S. = 1.95

Fig. 7-Stress-level

3:l slope. Dashed lines represent critical failure surfaces.

2:l Slope: The stress-level contours and positions of the slip surface and phreatic surface for the 2: 1 slope are similar in appearance to those shown in Fig. 7 for the 3: 1 slope. Wall height vs. safety factor is plotted in Fig. 10. The results of the FEM analysis for the 2: 1 slope indicate that there is a more noticeable reduction in the stress levels of the material below the berm than that which occurred in the 3: 1 slope. The most likely reasons for this are first, that the zone of high stress level originally extended well down into the area which would be affected by the berm and, second, that the area of highest stress level is always closer to the berm than it was in the 3: 1 slope simply because the 2: 1 slope is steeper. The plot of wall height vs. safety factor has the same general shape as the curve for the 3: 1 slope, but the initial slope of the curve is less. Although there is a change in the slope at the first increment of wall height, it is not as pronounced as it was for the 3: 1 slope. Both of these differences in the particular characteristics of the curves are probably associated with the fact that the zones of high stress level extend to near the toe of the 2: 1 slope. First, the high stress levels near the toe brought the critical failure circle for the original slope quite low in the embankment. When the first increment of the berm was placed, it reduced the stress levels in the toe area, and forced a greater change in the vertical position of the critical failure surface than the corresponding increment for the 3: 1 slope; furthermore, it caused a greater reduction in the average stress level of the material through which the critical slip surface then passed. On the whole, the curves of wall height vs safety factor for the 3: 1 and 2: 1 slopes indicate that the retaining-wall-supported berm is more effective in improving stability on the 2: 1 slope than on the 3: 1 slope.

1.5:l Slope: The steepest dam to be examined had a slope of 1.5: 1. Noting that the internal friction angle of the tailings material is 35.0, and that the angle which a 1.5: 1 slope makes with the horizontal is 33.7", it was anticipated that this would be the limiting slope, i.e., the steepest slope possible with the assumed embankment material. The results of the FEM analysis of this slope confirmed this suspicion. A progressive localized shear failure was shown to occur in the embankment as it was being "constructed". The progression of the failure zone is shown in Fig. 8. In spite of the extensive zone of failed material, there was no overall sliding failure of the embankment. This situation, in which large areas of localized failure are not accompanied by a general slope failure, has been noted in other FEM studies.' The initial factor of safety for this slope was 1.10. A probable reason why the failure zone did not progress through the entire embankment is that the shear strength of the material is assumed to remain constant after failure. This assumption is consistent with the stress-strain curves of Fig. 4, which do not indicate a peak and residual strength for the tailings material. With no reduction in strength after failure, there is no tendency toward progressive failure unless additional loads are applied to the material; furthermore, it appears that there should be no overall failure unless the failure zone intersects two of the embankment boundaries. The reserve strength of the material that is intact holds the critical sliding mass in place. Two examples of the stress-level plots for the 1.5: 1 slope are shown in Fig. 9. In general, it was observed that the berm failed continuously as it was placed. The mode of failure in the berm was tensile, not shear. The cause of this tensile failure appears to be the nonuniform set-

Failed Elements When Dam Reached 75 Feet In Height Failed Elements When Dam Reached 90 Feet In Height Failed Elements When Dam Reached 100 Feet In Height

----------, 75 Ft.

----

Fig. &Incremental 1.5:l slope.

failure

of

elements,

Original Slope

F.S. = 1.10

tlement of the retaining-wall-supported berm due to the tendency of the failed material to flow from under the load. There were also some additional shear failures of the material above the failure zone. This was especially noticeable when the retaining wall and the berm reached a height of 45 ft. The critical failure surfaces followed the same pattern that could be observed in the previously discussed slopes, generally lying entirely in the material above the elevation of the berm. This was true with the exception of the slip surface for the first increment which passed through the berm and intersected the wall. The plot of wall height vs factor of safety for the 1.5: 1 slope is shown in Fig. 10 and indicates that even with the large percentage of failed material, the overall stability of the slope improved greatly. In fact, the final value of the factor of safety is greater than for either of the two previous slopes. The shape of the curve more closely resembles that of the 3: 1 slope than the 2: 1 slope, indicating that no general relationship between the shape of the curve and the slope of the embankment can be formulated from the results of this study.

From the three curves of wall height vs. factor of safety in Fig. 10, the following generalizations can be made: (1) the general shapes of the curves indicate less increase in stability per ft of height at low wall heights than at higher wall heights, and (2) at high values of wall height the curves seem to be three nearly parallel lines.

Conclusions
The results of the study discussed lead to the following concluding statements: 1) The use of a retaining-wall-supported berm seems to be an effective means of improving the stability of a homogeneous dam constructed of granular tailings material. The factors of safety for the highest berms studied fall in the range of about 2.0 to 2.7. 2) The overall efficiency of the wall-supported berm, with respect to improving stability, increases with an increase in the slope of the embankment. 3). The efficiency of a berm on a given slope, with respect to improving stability, varies with the height of the berm. In general, the berm is less efficient at heights less than 25% of the slope height than at heights greater than this. 4) The stability of an embankment with a retainingwall-supported berm can probably be analyzed using a

a] Retaining Wall 22.5 Feet Failure Zone

F.S.

= 1.29

[ Dashed

Lines Indicate Crltlcal Fallure surface]

F C O O SAFETY ATR F

Fig. 9-Stress-level
TRANSACTIONS

contours for 1.5:l slope.

Fig. I O - W a l l height vs. factor of safety for 3:1, 2:l. and 1.5:l slopes.
Society of Mining Engineers, AlME

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DECEMBER 1974

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conventional method o f stability analysis b y assuming that the ground surface c3incides w i t h the top o f the berm. All but one o f the critical failure surfaces determined i n this study were toe failures o f slopes whose toe coincided w i t h the top o f the berm.

Acknowledgments
This study was conducted at the University o f Idaho under the sponsorships o f the U.S. Bureau o f Mines. Special thanks are due C. D. Kealy o f the Spokane Mining Research Center for his technical advice.

References
I P e t t i b o n e , H.C., a n d Kealy, C.D. "Engineering Properties of Mine Tailings," J o m n a l , Soil Mechanlcs a n d Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 97, No. SM9, 1971, pp. 1207-1225. 2 K u l h a w y , F.H., Duncan, J.M., a n d Seed, H.B., "Finite Element Analyses of Stresses a n d Movements in Embankments D u r i n g Con-

struction." Contract Report S-69-8, Nov. 1969, U.S. A r m y Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss. ::Goodman, R.E., Taylor, R.L., a n d Brekke, T.L. "A Model for the a Mechanics of Jointed Rock," Journal, Soil ~ e c h k i c s n d Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 94, No. SM3. 1968. on. 637-fi5Q -' Clough, G.W., and Duncan J.B., "Finite Element Arlalyscs of Retaining Wall Behavior," ~ o u j n a l ,Soil Mechanics a n d Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers. V o l . 97, No. SM12. 1971. pp. 1657-1673. "Keal?, C.D., and Busch, R.A., "Determining Seepage Characteristics of Mill Tailings Darns b y the Finite-Elements Method." Report of Investigations 7477, U.S. B u r e a u of Mines, J a n . 1971. ': Clough, R.W., and Woodward, R.J.. 111, "Analysis of Embankment Stresses a n d Deformations," Journal. Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 93, No. SM4, 1967, pp. 529-549. 7 Wright, S.G., "A Study.pf Slope Stability and t h e Undrained Shear Strength of Clay Shales, Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1969. 'Dunlop. P., a n d Duncan, J.M., "Development of Failure Around Excavated Slopes." Journal. Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 96, No. SM2, 1970, PP. 471-493. :'K?al?. C.D., a n d Soderberg. R.L., "Design of D a m s f o r Mill Tailings." Information Circular 8410. U.S. B u r e a u of Mines, 1969. "'Casagrande, L., a n d McIver. B.N., "Design and Construction of Toilings Dams," Slability f o r Open P t Mining, C.O. B r a w n e r a n d i V . Milligan, cds., AIME, New York, 1971.

.~.-

Depositional History and Hydrology of the Green River Oil Shale, Piceance Creek Basin, Rio Blanco County, Colorado
by Bernard E. Weichman
T h e oil shales o f the Green River formation were deposited zn an inland lake which contained abundant plant and animal life. A high percentage of sodium bicarbonate existed in the lower water layers. Digestion of the kerogen-rich m u d accumulating o n the lake floor lowered the pH of the interstitial waters and precipitated the sodium minerals dawsonite and nahcolite i n the kerogen-rich m u d . After about five million years o f existence, u p l i f t of land areas around the lake caused a n inJEux of clastic sediments which filled u p t h e lake. Continued tectionics gently folded the basin and caused fracturing of t h e kerogen-lean oil shale. Nahcolite existing i n the fractured lean oil shale was dissolved b y subsurface waters leaving a tremendous aquifer i n a portion o f the oil shale. The extent and porosity of the "leached zoi~e" aquifer is dependent upon the pel-cent o f kerogen and nahcolite originally deposited i n the oil shale.

T h e oil shales i n the Piceance Creek basin o f northwest Colorado occur i n the Parachute Creek member o f the Green River formation. T h e oil shales were deposited i n a deep lacustrine environment o f deposition which caused the mineral nahcolite (NaHCO.,) to be precipitated within the oil shaes. Postdepositional tectonics resulted in extensive fracturing o f the middle zone o f the Parachute Creek m e m ber, and to a lesser degree portions o f the lower zone, which allowed percolating ground waters to dissolve t h e nahcolite i n the fractured portion o f t h e oil-shale beds. This created a leached zone filled w i t h saline water, certain beds o f which have collapsed into rubble and debris. T h e extent o f the permeability o f t h e leachedzone aquifer is dependent upon the percentage o f kerogen and nahcolite originally deposited in the oil shale. A n y oil-shale development program i n the Piceance Creek basin will need t o be preceded b y an extensive

study o f t h e leached zone i n order to determine its e f Cects on a mining program.

Geologic Setting
T h e Piceance Creek basin lies i n northwest Colorado, as shown on Fig. 1. In Eocene time, t h e basin was part c ~ ft h e vast lake system which covered parts o f Utah, W y o m i n g , and Colorado. T h e oil shales i n the basin were deposited in related environments o f this lake complex.' Most of the economically significant oil shales are i n the Parachute Creek member o f t h e Green River formation and they contain t h e minerals nahcolite (NaHCOd and in dawsonite (NaA1[OH]BCO:l) varying amounts within the oil shale. T h e hydrology o f the Parachute Creek member is directly related to the deposition o f the mineral nahcolite i n the oil shale. In order to understand the existing hydrology o f the oil shale, a brief summary o f the depositional environment and history o f the Parachute Creek member is necessary.

B. E. WEICHMAN, Member SME, is with The Superior O i l Co., Houston, Tex. TP 73AG97. AIME Annual Meeting, Chicago, Feb. 1973. Manuscript, Feb. 25, 1973. Discussion of this paper, submitted in duplicate prior to Mar. 15, 1975, will appear in SME Transactions, June 1975, and in AlME Transactions, 1975, Vol. 258.
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Environment of Deposition of the Parachute Creek Member

In Parachute Creek time, the lake i n the Piceance Creek basin became separated f r o m the rest o f the lake