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    Finger Numbers in the Greco-Roman World and the Early Middle Ages Burma P, Williams; Richard S. Williams Isis, Vol. 86, No. 4 (Dec., 1995), 587-608. Stable URL htp:/flinks.jstor-org/sicisici=( 121-1793%28199512%2986%3A4% 3C587%3AFNITGW%3E2.0,CO%3B2-A Isis is currently published by The University of Chicago Press. Your use of the ISTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at hup:/www,jstororglabout/terms.hml. ISTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at hupulwww.jstor.orgijournalsuepress html. ch copy of any part of'a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the sereen or printed page of such transmission, ISTOR is an independent not-for-profit organization dedicated to creating and preserving a digital archive of scholarly journals. For more information regarding JSTOR, please contact support @ jstor.org. hupulwww jstor.org/ Wed Feb 1 06:41:48 2006 Finger Numbers in the Greco- Roman World and the Early Middle Ages By Burma P. Williams* and Richard S. Williams** N THE ANCIENT WORLD, people often indicated numbers for themselves and others by using specific finger gestures. Further, arithmetical computations were commonly carried out by finger manipulations more complex than merely counting on one’s fingers. Although ancient writers (see Appendix A) and archaeological evidence both attest to the use of finger numbers and finger reckoning, it is puzzling that none of the extant ancient sources offers any reason for the continued use of finger numbers long after writing had become common. Modern writers of the history of mathematics, however, have not hes- itated to leap into the gap. A frequently resurrected theory suggests that this ancient finger ‘number system was used to bridge language barriers between foreign merchants and their customers.’ Although finger symbols might have aided such commerce, we contend that this explanation is too simplistic and does not fit either ancient literary or archaeological evidence. Al the ancient references to finger numbers themselves come from Roman sources, but ‘no writer actually described the complete system that was used. Some writers mentioned the use of finger symbols but did not describe how any number was formed. Among these is Dio Cassius, who told how a crowd in Rome reminded Marcus Aurelius of the number of years he had been out of the city by indicating the number 8 on their hands. Pliny the Elder and Macrobius described a statue of Janus that they said displayed the number 365, (on its hands, 300 on the right and 65 on the left. Jvenal commented that Nestor was lucky “NW 815 Charote Street, Pullman, Washington 99163, “* Department of Histor, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4030, An cate version ofthis essay was presented atthe Classical Assocation ofthe Pacific Norwest meeting Jn Apel 1994. We wish to thank the Department of History and the Cllege of Liberal At at Washington Sat University for supporting our research We also wish to thank Wendy Blake, an alumna of Washington State ‘Universi for he suggestion that Romans might have wed finger numbers forthe same reason thi surveyors ‘oday use and gestures: the dificult of hearing in certain stations. Much appreciation is also ve tC. AE. Lschigof the Universi of Kaho and Kathy E. Meyer of Washington State University for thei valuable suggestions and assistance in our tansaions. "ames Gow, A Short History of Greek Mavhematis (1884; rt. New York: Stechert, 1923), p. 27: Eva M. Sanford “De loqulla digitorum,” Classical Journal, 1928, 24:388-S93; Karl Menninger, Nienber Words and [Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Nunbers, ans. P. Brones (Cambridge, Mas. 212; Donald Smelter, Man and Number (New York: Collet, 1962) p. 26, and David Mathemais, 2 wos. (1925; rt, New York: Dover, 1988), Val. 2, p. 197. nis, 1998, 86: 587-608 {©1995 by The History of Science Society. Al ght reserved. (021-1753/957840-0001801.00 587 588 FINGER NUMBERS IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD to be able to count his years on his right hand; that is, he was 100 years old. On the other hhand, an epigram by Martial related that Cotta indicated his age on his fingers on his sixty- second birthday. Three authors, however, did describe specific ways to make five different ‘numbers. Quintilian commented that 500 was made by crooking the right thumb. As part of a discussion of the importance of the ring finger ofthe left hand, Macrobius noted that the number 6 was formed by bending that digit. In the course of attributing rel significance to the numbers 30, 60, and 100, Jerome described how they were formed on the hands. Thirty symbolized marriage because the thumb and index finger touched in a kiss. Sixty represented widowhood because the index finger pressed down on the thumb. ‘One hundred, he noted, was indicated on the right hand, not the left, and denoted the crown of virginity as the index finger formed a circle with the thumb. Even more authors, both Greek and Roman, referred to instances of finger computation. ‘A few examples will suffice to show the range of these uses. In Aristophanes” Wasps, & character is asked to do a quick sum on his fingers rather than with pebbles (that is, instead of resorting to an abacus). In a letter to Atticus, Cicero used the phrase “if I know your fingers” to express his awareness that Atticus would be doing arithmetic on his fingers ‘while reading Cicero's account of the difference between simple and compound interest. ‘Suetonius criticized Claudius for acting like a common spectator, counting on his fingers the winnings of the victors at the games. ‘That the systems of finger computation and finger numbers were connected is demon- strated clearly by two writers. Quintilian, discussing the qualities of an effective orator, noted that a speaker would be considered uneducated if he hesitated in making a calculation ‘or even made uncertain or incorrect gestures with his fingers. In a series of sermons on John's gospel, Augustine directed his congregation to follow along as he added the num- bers from I to 17 to arrive atthe sum of 153. In one of these talks, he described the method used as computing “by inereasing,” that is, advancing in steps to the answer. Augustine ‘concluded another sermon by announcing that the people would be “carrying 153 on their fingers.” It is apparent from these references that some sort of finger calculation was used, but lacking a systematic treatment of the subject by any ancient writer, we are unable to ‘conclude whether this was an actual computing method involving the fingers or a system of keeping track of intermediate sums while performing mental arithmetic. Several types of archacological artifacts provide additional information and some spe- cifics about finger numbers. A number of reliefs and mosaics survive that depict individuals who soem to be showing numbers on their fingers. On an ersatz tomb relief of a certain LL, Calidius Eroticus and Fannia Voluptus from Isernia, a man with a mule and a woman innkeeper are holding out their hands (see Figure 1). An accompanying inscription presents, ‘a dialogue between the figures as they discuss the cost of food and lodging. Although the relief is worn and the articulation of the fingers is lost the text leaves litte doubt that the ‘outstretched hands of the two people are depicting finger numbers. Countinghouse scenes are featured on other reliefs (see Figure 2 and the cover illustration for examples from Augsburg and Trier). In these, typically, three people are shown: one with writing tablets, the second with money, and the third with upraised hands indicating finger numbers or ‘computation Another relic from Trier, not a countinghouse scene, shows two seated men 2 Fora discussion of the Isernia relief see Sylvia Diebne, Aesemia-Venafrum, 2 vos. Archaeologica, 8) (Rome: Giorgio Breschneder, 1979), Vol. 1, pp. 174-175; 3. Hilton Ture, "Roman Elementary Matheratics: ‘The Operations" CL J, 1951, 47-63-74, 105-108, on p. 69: and Anita Rieck, "Computaio Romana: Finget- len af provnzialomischen Relief.” Bonner ahrbcher, 1986, 186:165-192, on pp. 180-181. Regarding the countinghouse senes Se ibid, pp. 165-167, figs. 1 and 2; 180-182, fg 10; 182, Ag. 1; 182-188, 12 T4185, TS [BURMA P. WILLIAMS AND RICHARD S, WILLIAMS 589 Figure 1. Relet rom Iseria, Feman epoch Louvre, MA 3165, Pai) holding what appears to be either an abacus or a gaming board, while a third person stands with his hands outstretched. Though itis tempting to interpret the standing figure's gestures as finger numbers, these must, in the absence of an inscription, remain ambiguous.’ Finally, there are other artistic depictions that may or may not show the use of finger numbers. ‘Some modern scholars interpret the positions of these figures” fingers and hands as indi- cating numbers, but in most cases we find the gestures to be too vague or the positions ‘wrong.* Another class of ancient artifacts provides unambiguous information about finger nu- ‘meration. Elisabeth Alfoldi-Rosenbaum has made an extensive study of round tesserae » Rieche, “Computatio Romana” pp. 184-186 i, 14; Anita Rieche, Ramiche Kinder- und Gesellchats spel (Seatgat Limesinaseum Aalen, 1984), p. 71 ig. 22, The Ther reli i diferent from similar relies of {vo seated figures holding aboard in that it comains atid gue. While the interpretation of his see a #0 peopl using an abacus would fend more support fo the use of finger numbers in conjunction with computing, ‘ve agree with Riche tha this s more likely a gaming board scene. Noe, however, hat even if tbe seated men {Se playing a gume the third figure could stil be indicating numbers with his Hinges. “Rice, "Computatio Romana" pp. 176-177, fg. 5: 177-178, fg 6; 178, Bg-7 178, 180, Bg. 8: 186-187, fig 15. There are also two examples of Greck vase paintings tht we do think show the use of fger numbers ‘See Paolo F. Aras and Max Hirmer, Tauond Jae griechsche Vasenkunst (Musick: Hirer Vetlag, 1960), pp. 41-42, ig. 47, S48, plate 24 590 [FINGER NUMBERS IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD Figure 2. Grave rate of Pompanus Sivanus, right end (Romishe Museum der Stadt Augsburg, Augsburg) that depict hands with the fingers in certain positions on one side and Greek or Roman numerals on the other (see Figure 3). These tesserae are concrete evidence for how some numbers were expressed on one’s fingers. But the extant disks display only the numbers 1 through 15, omitting 11. Although the purpose of these disks is perhaps debatable, their Widespread distribution by the beginning ofthe frst century A.D. coafirms that by the ime of the late Roman Republic a common finger representation for various numbers was in use throughout the Mediterranean’ Fortunately, two early medieval documents provide complete descriptions of these finger » Fiabe Alf Rosenbaum, “The Finger Calcul in Antiquity and in the Middle Ages: Stadis on Roman Game Counters," Frikmirelateriche Studien, 1971, 51-9; Se esp. plates 1-3 fr additional examples, For the use ofthis system inecher Mediterancan areas see iid, p. 2; Alfld- Rosenbaum, "Alxandraca Studies ‘on Roman Game Counters, I” Chiron, 1976, 6:205-239, on p. 206; and Alfld-Rosenbaum, "Ruler Portals ‘on Roman Gane Counters fom Alexadia (Studies on Roman Game Counters, I [se] “im riechischen und romischen Bldes: Hans Jucker2um seczigten Geburtstag genes (Been: Fancke, 1980), pp. 29-39, on p. 29. [BURMA P. WILLIAMS AND RICHARD S, WILLIAMS 591 i k Figure 3. Tessarae, ivory, approximately 3.cm in diameter. a: Obverse showing “ton the fingers (Cabinet des Médailies, Pars): Reverse "ll (Cabinet des Médalles, Pans). e: Obverse showing ‘7-on the fingers (Cabinet des Médales, Pars). d: Reverse "VI" (Cabinet des Médale, Pars). 6 Obverse showing 8" on ihe fingers (British Museum, London).t- Reverse ‘llV" (retrograde Vil) (Griish Museum, London).q: Obverse showing ° onthe fingers (Briish Museum, London). ‘Reverse “Vii (Brtish Museum, London). Obverse showing “10” on the fingers (Egyptian Museum, Cairo). Obverse showing “12"on the fingers (Cabinet des Médailes, Paris) ki Reverso XI" (Cabinet dos Médails, Pari) symbols: the seventh-century Romana computatio and the first chapter of Bede's De tem- orum ratione, written in the eighth century (see Appendix B and Figure 4).* Several “Although the Romana computaio (688) i eater than Bede's ext (725), the later is beter known and has smote specie directions forte formation of the numbers. See Append B forex and ansltion of bath Works See also Charles W. Jones, Beda pseudepigrapha:Sclenaic WruingsFalsely Auibuted to Bede (aca, NY. CComell Univ. Pres, 1939), pp. 106-108, and Bedae Opera de temporibus, ed Jones (Cambridge, Mass: Me- 592, FINGER NUMBERS IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD Figure 4. Finger aumbers from 1 1098. (From J. Hiton Tuer, "Roman Elementary Mathematics: ‘The Operations, “Classical Journal, 1951, 47°66; reprinted with the permission of the Classical Journal) ‘modern writers have shown conclusively that Bede’s written descriptions depi used throughout the Mediterranean world by the late Roman Republi the system ? The only known, Giaeval Academy of America, 14), pp. 329331, Bede also neluded a stem of denoting numbers on dhe Joints ofthe fingers, «system used at that time to calculate the date of Esser (De tempor ratione 38.1). ‘Tas system has no known ancient rots. For further information see Jones's discussion in Bedae Opera de temporibas, p38 "Indeed, emsably uniform stm of Hager symbols continued from the ancient world into the Middle ‘Ages in he Latin West ain the Byzantine East. Auber of authors have noted this contin. Among them fr Biward A Bechtel, “Finger Counting among the Romans i the Fourth Century,” CLI. 1909, 425-51. on 2.29; Leon J. Richardson, “Digial Reckoning among the Anciets,” American Mathematical Monthy 1916 25:7-12,0n pp. 1-8; Turner, "Roman Elementary Mathematics” (i. 2). 6S; AIG Rosenbaum, “Finger Calcul” (ee. 5) pp. 4-5, esp an. 17-19: Menninger, Numer Words and Nanber Symbols (2-1. Be 201-202, 211-214; and Riece, "Computato Romana” (itn. 2) pp. 168, 172-173. The main Western example ‘ofthe contin isthe eight-century English monk Bede's “De compulatio vel louela digitorum,” Ch. 1 of etemporum ration. Te primary Byzantine example i given by the foureenth-cetur author Nicolas Rhabdas (co Styema, whose two letters om athmetc are edited an transated into French in Paul Tanery, “Node sur les ux lees ardmtiques de Nicolas Rhabdas," Norices et Extdits der Manuscripts de le Bibliotheque ‘ationae, 1886, 2:121-252. See J-G. Lemeine, "Les ancien proved de calcu sr les doigts en orient et ‘ccident Revue dev Etudes ilamiquer, 1932, 6:1-60. Lemoine contends that various Ringer mimeral systems Ive been sed from Sumer (hit millenium o.c; be gives po suppor for his claim) to India and China (he ‘bse his views about these later ystems on nineteenth cetury anecdotal evidence). We find that his discussion, in gene either deals with ings number systems far later in ime tan the Greco-Roman word ot lacks proper [BURMA P. WILLIAMS AND RICHARD S, WILLIAMS 593 discrepancy concerns the number 6; here Bede and Macrobius are in agreement, but the tesserae show a different finger arrangement. The Byzantine writer Nicolas Rhabdas de- scribed a finger numeration system that corresponds with Bede's, thus demonstrating that a common system was known in both East and West for a considerable period after the demise of the Roman Empire. ‘Although the existence of a common system of finger numbers is clear, the reason for its use is not. We do not believe that multilanguage trade accounts for the use and continuity of this system; the extant sources do not support such a conclusion, nor does the reality of ancient commerce. Literary evidence shows the use of finger numbers in various contexts, but none of them involved communication with someone who spoke a different language. Some references show finger numbers being used in public settings. Aristophanes and Quintilian mentioned Jaw courts; Suetonius, the arena; Dio Cassius, a public assembly; and Augustine, church, Quintilian further commented that finger numbers and finger calculating were an integral part of a Roman’s education. As Appendix A shows, Herodotus, Cicero, Pliny the Younger, Tertullian, and Jerome all related instances of people using finger reckoning for their own, needs. Even the Venerable Bede, though he wrote later in time, did so to teach finger ‘numbers to fellow monks with whom he shared a common language, Latin. In none of these cases is there any indication that finger numbers were being used to overcome lan- ‘guage barriers. Certainly, clear communication in trade was necessary; but the idea that the common finger numeration system alone would suffice makes little sense when one delves into the specifics of ancient commerce. To begin with, knowledge of multiple languages was not always necessary, for on a local scale everyone spoke the same language. In terms of international trade and commerce, unfamiliarity with local languages was not necessarily a hindrance. In the Greco-Roman world, depending on the time period and geographic area, three languages served as international tongues. From the third century B.C. to the sixth century a.b. Aramaic and Koine Greek were widely used as trading languages in the eastern Mediterranean from Mesopotamia to Egypt. By the first century 8.c. Latin served the same function in the West. It would not have been difficult for a merchant to learn ‘enough of one or more of these languages to do business. Nor would it have been unusual for local vendors to speak enough of several languages to carry out transactions with foreign suppliers or foreign customers. Sellers of souvenirs at tourist attractions around the globe today can usually come up with enough words, in a bewildering variety of languages, to sell their wares Finally, if a trader chose not to lear a language in addition ‘Schoary verification. For popular discussions see Georges Miah, From One to Zero A Univeral History of ‘amber, wan. Lowell Ba (New York: Viking Pengui, 1983, pp. 58-80; and Mesninger. Number Word and Number Symbol, pp. 201-217. Several of the above authors ricludeilkstrations ofthe finger mamber ‘Stem. See esp Aor Rosenbaum, “Finger Cale,” plates 4-8, for an extensive collection of medieval ilustaions. "The teserte show 6 with al ingers extended and 2 separation between the index finger and the mile finger; see Alf Rosenbaum, “Finger Calculus, plate I. Bede (De temporum ratone 125-26) lke Macrobius (Gaturmaie7.139-10) nthe fourth century, described the ring finger ax bent Note tat Tuner Roman Ele- ‘mentary Mathematics,” pp 68-69) corel interprets 10-0n the tesstrae as being, lke Bede's description of 450 (De temporionratione 132-33), formed with the tips ofthe index finger and tum. Figure 3 demonstrates ‘hat the 10s made as Bede described it with the index finger toching the joint ofthe thumb, not he ip id, 1130-31) Se also Afi Rosenbaum, "Finger Calculus.” plates 1 and 2 The eit fom Trier on the cover of this sue clearly shows 100 (the right-hand analogue o 10) being formed inthis sane manner. "We once dealt with a merchant in Athens who Was caning on simultaneous conversations with customers in English, French, and German, 594 FINGER NUMBERS IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD to his own, he could always buy a slave who spoke the necessary language or languages ‘and thus have his own “universal translator.” Furthermore, a common numeration system by itself would not have sufficed for any but the simplest transactions. In addition to ‘quantity and cost, many other details of commerce had to be discussed and decided: types and qualities of merchandise, shipment dates, terms of sale, and different denominations and forms of currency. Although these items involved communicating numbers, numerical representation alone would not have been enough. For all this, language was required. ‘Since the argument that finger numbers arose and continued in use to overcome language barriers does not fit reality—ancient or moder, local or international—then why were these common gestures used so extensively and for such a long time? We propose that finger numeration continued in use in the Greco-Roman world for two reasons. First, finger numbers became and remained an integral part of arithmetical computation.® Second, finger numbers provided clarity of communication in everyday situations where noise, confusion, or distance made vocal communication difficult." Ancient writers spoke of finger computation and finger numbers in one breath, as it were, While no Greek sources explicitly mentioned finger symbols, there are several ref- crences to finger reckoning that imply that the answers to such arithmetic problems would also be indicated on the fingers. The Homeric verb reyndax means to compute by fives (e., on one’s fingers).” Herodotus remarked that the Spartan king Ariston determined a son’s illegitimacy by reckoning months on his fingers. The clearest indication of wide- spread knowledge of finger reckoning in Greece is contained in Aristophanes’ Wasps. AS Appendix A shows, many Roman writers who mentioned either finger numbers or finger calculation connected the two. Quintilian and Augustine, as already noted, gave the clearest examples of the Tinkage. Quintlian did so in discussing the value of mathematics in a proper education, Augustine in exhorting his congregation to compute on theit fingers and to read the answers on their hands, ‘Some archaeological material also demonstrates the connection between finger numbers and various methods of computation. The relief from Isernia mentioned earlier is a clear ‘example, Unfortunately, other reliefs remain ambiguous. In the countinghouse scenes from ‘Augsburg and Trier, also mentioned previously, there is hint of a connection. Without accompanying texts, however, one cannot be certain whether these people are engaged in computations or are merely denoting numbers as counting occurs. Following the generally held assumption that early medieval writers reflected Roman imperial learning, we believe that the works of Bede and other such authors support our contention that finger symbols and arithmetical computation were linked. Bede's De fem- ° Sith (Historyof Mathematics etn 1, Vol. 2p. 197) sas that, ion to being use in overcoming 1 supposed language barr finger numbers were used in connection sith the abges and to perform simple “alotlations, but he doesnot labore or provide evidence. Richardson (‘Digital Reckoning rong the Ancients {eit m7. pp- 9-12) devises his own methods for performing ation and subracton on one's Rogers and Suggests 2 method for muliplication based on systems used by mover Romanian and French peasants, but he ‘offers no ancient literary or archaeological evidence to connect these methods othe lasseal Word. Menninger (ender Words and Nuber Symbol (et. 1} pp 208-210) sss that one can understand how the Romans ‘ded on thei gers from Augustine's summing ofthe numbers from 1 to 7: but fone reads Augustine fll it cleat that his not 0. A more balanced approach othe connection Between finger numbers sha Finger computation s piven by Turer Roman Elementary Mathematics” (et m2), p. 9) "Rieehe (Computaio Romana” [el 2),p. 189) mentions noise and distance i the arena as factors promoting thease of finger numbers Te the eleences in Henry Lidell, Robert Scott Henry Jones, and Rowerick MeKenrie, Grek English Lexicon (Oxford: Oxford Uni. Press, 1940-1966), . 1359, See alo the atc on “digitorum computa” by H. Homme! in Pause Real-Eneylopddie der Kaichen Alertunnwistnschahe, A. Pauly. G. Wisowa, W Krol, and K.Zieper (Munich: Drockeniler, 1893-), Suppl. Vol. 14 (1974), pp. 112-113, [BURMA P, WILLIAMS AND RICHARD S, WILLIAMS 595 Porwm ratione was based on earlier works on computation, and presumably he was fol- owing tradition when he listed and described the finger numeration system before going, ‘on to his main topic, calculating the date of Easter.” There is also the riddle mentioned by Symphosius and Alcuin: “Seven from eight equals six.” This puzzle is admirably ex- plained by Bede's finger symbols and implies finger calculation. The number 8 is indicated by lowering the ring finger and the small finger of the left hand; 7 is shown by lowering Just the small finger. Raising the small finger to remove “7” leaves just the ring finger lowered, which isthe symbol for 6." This is only one case, but it does suggest the existence of a tradition that combined finger numbers and finger computation, All of the existing evidence indicates that finger numbers continued in use because they ‘were an integral part of everyday arithmetic. Unfortunately, direct and unambiguous in- formation about how finger numbers were used in computation in the ancient world does not exist at the present time. Knowledge of the methods and exact nature of such com- putations, whether true finger arithmetic or memory aids, awaits the discovery of precise texts or reliefs that also contain commentary about the depicted scenes. The lack of spec- ificity, however, does not alter the fact that finger numbers were used in mathematics. All the existing evidence supports our general contention that finger numbers continued in use because they were part of everyday arithmetic. ‘We suggest, furthermore, that finger numeration played an important part in settings and situations where hearing was difficult, The marketplace, for example, was a site where noise hindered clear communication. The use of finger numbers could have prevented disputes over quantity or price, for both seller and buyer could see and represent on their hands exactly the values being negotiated, Both hand and finger symbols are used in ‘modern-day situations where communication is difficult. In the chaos of stock and com- rmodities exchanges, bids are signaled by hand. In football games, referees indicate first through fourth downs by raising specific fingers. Land surveyors also use hand and finger gestures—for distance, like noise, hinders communication. An example from the Roman world, already cited, shows just such a use of finger numbers. When Marcus Aurelius was addressing the Roman people after an extended stay abroad, he referred only generally 10 the length of time he had been away. The eager crowd, expecting to receive an aureus for each year of his absence, not only shouted "Eight!" but also indicated the number 8 on their hands for emphasis. ‘Ancient writers did not feel the need to explain why finger symbols for numbers were used or why they continued to be used long after writing and the abacus were available; any reason offered by modern interpreters must clearly explain the available evidence and be consistent with current understanding of the ancient world, Itis significant that none of the extant literary sources relates any instance of finger numbers being used to overcome language barriers. In addition, the widespread use of Aramaic, Koine Greek, and Latin, the ability of merchants to speak more than one language, the availability of translators of fone sort or another, and the need for communication of more than simple quantities and prices make the modern theory of a “language barrier” to trade untenable. We suggest instead that this common finger number system continued to be used because it was an integral part of arithmetical computations and, as such, was part of Roman education, © Jones, Beda pseudepirapha (tn 6). $4 ° Sce Tamer, “Roman Elementary Mathematis” (itn. 2), pp. 74,106, and Sanford, "De logulla digitorum” (cit. 1, pp. $88-590, fora discussion ofthe idle, The riddle ist i probably of medieval ori, inserted Ino ast of ils supposedly by Calis Fimnianus Symphosis (fourthfith century) and also inlade inthe Carolingian Dispuatie realise nobilis lavenis Pippin cum Albino Scholaaico (Alcan), 596 FINGER NUMBERS IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD Moreover, finger numbers facilitated communication in noisy markets and other public places in the Greco-Roman world. As Latin spread under Roman hegemony in the Med iterranean, $0 t00 a common system of finger numbers spread throughout the area. APPENDIX A ANCIENT REFERENCES TO FINGER MATHEMATICS ‘The following are the extant ancient Greek and Latin literary references to finger numbers and finger computation. This list is more exhaustive than that found in the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae ("digitus,” definition c, p. 1125). We have followed the sentence capi- talization used (or not used) in the various texts from which we have taken the Latin, ‘There is no consistency from text to text, and we have not tried to force a consistency here. Authors are listed alphabetically Ambrose, De Tobia 7.25 “Ambobus in digtis usurarum repettursaepius caleulatio, Both, rather frequently reckoning on their fingers, recalculate the interest Apuleius, Apologia 89.21-27 Si triginta annos pro decem dixisses, posses uideri computationis gestu errasse, quos circulate debueris digits aperuisse. curt wero ‘quadraginta, quae facilus ceteris porrecta Palma significantur, ea quadraginta tu dimidio auges, non potes digitorum gest errasse, nisi forte triginta annorum Pudentilam ratus binos ‘cuusque anni constles numerast, If you had said thiny years for ten, you might be considered to have erred through a gesture ‘of counting: you should have opened those fingers in a circle, Since in tuth you suid forty, ‘which more easily than the rest is shown with an open palm, this forty you enlarge by hal you cannot etr by a gesture ofthe fingers, lnless perhaps thity years is calculated for Pudentila by counting both consuls ofeach year. Aristophanes, Wasps 655-657 al npGrov nev ASptoa Gains, Hi rigors, dia 'énd xerp6e, tov dépov ftv ino cov nOheav GvILANpARY TOV pooisvea:xéw tobrav 1a tn yopig Kal is noha bxaroords. ‘And first calculate a litle amount, not with pebbes,*! but on your hands, the tribute which {s sent in collectively from the cities; and beyond that separately the taxes and the many ‘one-per-cents [duties levied} Augustine, Civitas Dei 18.53 Omnium vero de hac re calcuantium digitos resolvitet quiescereiubet ille qui dict: non est vestrum seire tempore, uae pater posuit in sua potestate ‘Truly he relaxes the fingers ofall who calculate concerning this subject and orders them f0 be quiet, who says: it is not for you to ‘know the time which the Father has placed in his own power In the Greco-Roman world, a abacus was any surface with ines or grooves indicating columas, upon which pebbles or other markers were manipulated fr eslultons, [BURMA P. WILLIAMS AND RICHARD S, WILLIAMS 397 Augustine, Enarrationes in Psalms 31.2.16 Dicant ili electos et doctos numeratores serum: dicant ili sapientes €0s qui quasi Aligerunt in digits fata humana, They set apart as elect and leamed the calculators of the stars; they set chem apart as wise men as if they can interpret on their fingers the fates of men. Augustine, Sermones 175.1 (Quid est ad nonaginta novem pertinent? In Sinistra sun, non in dexters. Nonaginta enim et rovem in sinistra numerantur: unum adde, ad ddexteram transit. ‘What is pertinent to ninety-nine? They are on the Tet hand, not on the right hand. For ninety- nine is counted on the left hand: add one, its transferred tothe right hand, Augustine, Sermones 248.5, Si computes ab uno usque ad decem et septem, fiunt centum quinguaginta et tres. Non opus est ‘omnia nune numerare, apud vos numerate: sie computate, unum et duo et tia et quatuor sunt decem. Quomodo decem sunt unum et duo et tri et quatuor, sic adde ceteros numeros usque ad decem et septem: et invenis numerum sacrum fidelium atque sanctorum in coeestibus cum Domino futurorum. If you compute from one to seventeen, it adds ‘up to one hundred fifty-three. There is no need {o count it ll now, count for yourselves at hhome: calculate it like this, one and two and three and four are ten Inthe same way that ten is one plus two plus tree plus four, so add the rest of the numbers up to seventeen: and you ‘will find the sacred numberof the faithful and ofthe future saints in heaven withthe Lord. ‘Augustine, Sermones 249.3 ‘Ab uno usque ad quatuor decem sunt sed si ‘omnes addas. Unum sequantut duo; adde et duo jam tia sunt: post duo sequantur ta, jam Sex Sunt: post tria Sequantur quatuor, jam

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