1,3 2

1
3

[]

E-mail: mickey@tfri.gov.tw

1998 2002 150

3
6

Spatial Statistical Analysis on Pattern of Canopy Gaps

of Natural Broad-Leaved Forests
Han-Ching Hsieh1,3 , Che-Chang Chang2
1

Division of Forest Management, Taiwan Forestry Research Institute, Council of Agriculture, 2Fushan

Research Center, Taiwan Forestry Research Institute, Council of Agriculture, 3Corresponding author
E-mail: mickey@tfri.gov.tw
ABSTRACT
In this study, applicability of various spatial statistical methods was
examined in order to understand spatial distribution patterns and correlations of natural
broad-leaved forests canopy gaps at landscape and class levels in different periods. An
experimental area of 150ha in the Experimental Forest of Taiwan Forestry Research
Institute was studied. Nnatural broad-leaved canopy gap thematic maps of the
experimental area in 1998 and 2002 were made by adopting a digital aerial photograph
stereo interpretation approach. An integrated multivariate statistical procedure including
correlation analysis, factor analysis, two-stage cluster analysis and discriminate analysis
was applied to obtain optimal three clustered classes as the main canopy types in the two
periods. Canopy gap change analyses and discussions between the two periods were also
conducted. Sampling distance was determined using the ranges from the analyses of

45

semivariogram, and six different spatial statistical analytical methods were adopted to
execute comprehensive analysis and method comparison. The results show that using
simple to complex algorithm, different spatial statistical methods would lead to
considerably different spatial correlation. Furthermore, scale can also influence the
results obtained at the landscape level and class level. Local spatial correlation analysis
model can be used to display canopy gap distribution with geographical information
layers, find high and low clustered positions and avoid spatial heterogeneity problems in
distribution pattern.
Keywords: canopy gaps, landscape ecology, spatial statistics, spatial correlation

(gap)

1947 (A. S. Watt)

(Smith TM and RL Smith 2009)

(niche)
(Canham 1988)

(patch

dynamics)(Pickett and White 1985

150.4 ha ( 1)

2007)

2007 25 ha

2009

(Grubb 1977)

144

39 86

(Chang et al.

2010)

(sustainable forest management)

1.

(ecosystem management

approaches)

1998

(Franklin 2001)

150.4

2008

1998 2002

2002 5m

46

1.

( 2) 1

Strahler (

15000

TWD97

(vector data) 3 1998 2002

1998

221 2002 286

2.

3.

1998 2002

(1)

2 1998 2002

1 m

(raster) FRAGSTATS 3.0

(8-neighbor

rule)(patch)

47

2.

3. (a) 1998 (b) 2002

48

(patch) 8

(Ward method)

(patch level):a. AREA()

b.PERIM()c. GYRATE(Radius

of Gyration ) d. PARA

(Perimeter-Area Ratio)e.

SHAPE(Shape Index ) f.

3 6

FRAC(Fractal Dimension Index-

g.

(nonhierarchical) K-means

CIRCLE(Related Circumscribing Circle

) h.

CONTIG(Contiguity Index

) (McGarigal et al. 2002)

8 (variable)

1998 3

(4)(Discriminate Analysis)

(2)(Factor Analysis)

1998
6

1998 8

(classifiers)

( 2002)

1998 3

(Ritters et al. 1995) 8

1998

2002

( 2007)

6 1998

2002

(3)(Cluster Analysis)

2002 3

1998

4.

1998 2002

matrix) 4

(Baker 1989,

6 6

Turner 1990)

5.

()

()(objects)

2002)(hierarchical)

49

(spatial

correlation)

()

-(hat-cold spot)

(Mitchell 2005)

( 2002Wong and Lee

2005, Mitchell 2005)

()

(spatial

:a. (Average Nearest

weight matrix)(Wong and Lee 2005)

Neighbor Analysis) b. K

(Ripleys K-function ) c. Morans I d.

(1)

G-statistics(general G-statistics)e. LISA(local

(global)

indicators of spatial Association) f. Local

(geostatistics)

G*-statistics abcd

(Kriging)

ef K

(multidistance)

(semivariogram)

ce df

(range)

(Forman 1999, Chang 2010)

()(

2007Chang 2010, Turner 2001)

(anisotropy)

1.

1998 8

(2)

GYRATE PERIMPARA SHAPEFRC

SHAPECIRCLE FRAC CONTIG

PARA 8.0

(clustered)(random)(dispersed)

(pattern)

()

11998 221

KMO(Kaiser Meyer Olkin) =

(OSullivan and Unwin 2010)

0.670 0.5 Bartleet 0.01

(global)(local)

50

1. 8

(%)

(%)

AREA

0.845

0.722

PERIM

0.941

0.898

0.883

0.941

PARA

-0.849

0.870

CONTING

0.855

0.870

GYRATE

47.138

47.138

SHAPE
FRAC

39.505

86.642

CIRCLE
3.838

0.925

0.918

0.965

0.949

0.847

0.764

3.094

KMO=0.670kaiser Varimax

2. 6 K-Means

(W=113)(K=67)

(W=67)(K=102)

(W=41) (K=52)

0.763

0.039

-1.060

86.81**

0.484

-0.627

0.607

56.28**

0.183

0.092

-0.415

6.32**

0.144

0.318

-0.810

28.68**

0.188

-0.478

0.695

32.78**

-0.574

0.374

0.007

21.56**

**P<0.01WWard KK-Means Z

(commonality)

0.72

Varimax 1

1 3.838

2.

3.094 47.138%

39.505% 86.642%

3 3

6 Z

(factor loadings)

3 ()

(factor 1)

K-Means

10 3

(factor 2)

51

3 6

( 2) F 3

Wilks Lambda

()

52.9% 47.1% 100% 4

75%

95.5%

113 67 67

102 41 52

1998

1998 3

2002 3

3.

2002 6

6 6

1998

0.288

6 1998

2002 3

() K-Means

4 5

Boxs M

3
95.8% 1998

3. 3 6

(%)

Wilk's
Lambda

1.43

52.9

0.767

1&2

0.181

368.46**

1.275

47.1

0.749

0.440

177.08**

**P<0.01

52

4. 3 6

0.522

0.769

0.578*

0.499

-0.419

0.593

-0.437*

0.436

0.329

0.770

0.429*

0.016

0.588

0.020

-0.415*

0.206

-0.478

0.338

-0.188*

0.077

0.037

-0.728

0.070

-0.387*

* : 1 2

5. 1998 3 2

(%)

65

67

102

102

44

52

97

100

100

100

9.6

5.8

84.6

100

95.5%

1998

7 1998 2002

(matrix) 4

4 (a)(b)

6 6

1998 2002

42% 48%)

7 3

2002 3

1998

1998 460m 1

2002 1998

2002

2002 3

53

4. (a) 1998 (b) 2002

6. 1998 2002

1.
2.
3.

4.

m2

1998

2002

1998

m2

2002

70

84

15223

11271

31.67

29.37

33.23

24.85

107

138

12306

12580

42.35

48.25

26.84

27.72

44

64

18285

21503

14.91

22.38

39.86

47.36

145820
1

3
150401

150401

222
222

287
287

1998

2002

217.4

134.2

115.0

91.2

415.6

336.0

145866

145820

145866

207.3

158.6

207.3

158.6

150401

150401

% 3

54

7. 1998 2002
2002 m2
% (=100)

1998
%

2
3
4

1256

956

13

13002

15227

8.25

6.28

0.09

85.39

100.00

168

880

192

11050

12290

1.37

7.16

1.56

89.91

100.00

136

3350

14786

18272

0.00

0.74

18.33

80.93

100.00

9853

10619

17938

1419835

1458245

0.68

0.73

1.23

97.36

100.00

11277

12591

21493

1458673

1504034

0.75

0.84

1.43

96.98

100.000

=2694897.25**:P<0.01 1m1m

8.

Nugget Partial Sill

Range

1998

221

16

11650.3 88666.6

296.2m

2002

286

16

11650.3 128857.3

154.9m

1998 0.000392002 0.049

Sill 2002

1.

1998

()

2.

1998 (major range)

296 m 2002

1 Z

1998 2002

155 m

Nugget Partial

55

a.

1150 m 50

b.

m 23 (distance bands)

(Queen

method) c.(row)

(edge

d.(

effects) L L(d) L(d)

1998 750m

2002 650m

(L(d))

115m 1998

L(d)

155 m

(Chang 2010)

2002 296 m 1998

750 m

650 m750 m 2002 1998

650 m

K 750 m

1125 m

1125 m

MoransI G-statistics

2002

1998

Moran's I

G-statistics Z 1998

5. 1998 L(d) 2002 L(d)

56

2002

3. 3

1998
725 m 2002
2002 625 m

1998
2002

3
3
9
2002

Moran's I G-statistics

1998 296 m

3 Moran's I

2002

G-statistics

2002

(scale effects)
3 K

L(d)L(d)

1998
2002

(Withers and

Meentemeyer 1990, Wu 2004)

9 1998

9. 3
1998

2002
3

18.86

15.27

24.79

16.14

17.95

19.82

13.20

16.34

10.91

13.56

24.78

12.69

**

**

**

825

875

1075

975

875

825

**

K
m
Morans'I

G-statistics

*<0.05

**: P<0.01orans I -statistics 296m

50m

57

4.

2002

LISA( local

Moran's I ) Local G*-statistics

7b

LISA

Local

G*-statistics

7b 2002

LISA

Local G*-statistics

1998 296 m

LISA
6 7

1998 2002

()

(Turner et al.

) Z

2001)1999 921 4

()

921

(outlier)(OSullivan and Unwin

2010) 6 1998

2002 3

2002 1998

2002

2002

2002

1998 296m

Local G*-statistics

7a 7

()

()

( 7)

Z ()

(Markov)

2001) 3

7 1998

()

2002 1998

58

( 2)

(Mitchell 2005)

1998 296 m

Moran's I

G-statistic

1998 2002

Moran's I Gearys

C Gearys C Moran's I

(Wong and Lee 2005)

Moran's I

1998 3

G-statistics

()()

1998

LISA

Local

2002

G*-statistics

95%

Moran's I G-statistics

(spatial heterogeneity)

(Wong

and Lee 2005, 2002)

1:2500

(quantitative variable)

2007)

61

(Chang et al. 2010)

(Miller et al. 2007)

()2002
:243
2003-
:388
()2007:SPSS
:
728
()2001-
:305
2007-
()
266
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