Materials and Corrosion 2006, 57, No.

DOI: 10.1002/maco.200603991

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Models for the propagation phase of reinforcement corrosion an overview

M Raupach*

The deterioration of a concrete structure by reinforcement corrosion proceeds in two phases: the initiation stage and the propagation stage. The first stage describes the time to onset of corrosion due to carbonation of the concrete or chloride ingress. The second stage is the actual deterioration stage. Most methods for life time assessments refer only to the first stage, what is on the safe side with re-

spect to design of structures, but also a model for the second stage can be of interest, e.g. if the remaining life time of an existing structure has to be estimated. This paper presents and discusses the stateof-the-art of models for the propagation stage with regard to their different approaches.

1 Introduction
According to the well-known general corrosion model, developed by Tuutti, corrosion of steel in concrete can be divided into two basic phases. Firstly the so called initiation phase, where carbonation and chloride ingress take place, but the reinforcement is still in the passive state, and secondly the so called propagation phase, where the reinforcement corrodes, induced by the reduction of the pH-level due to carbonation of the concrete or chloride induced depassivation of the steel surface. As the knowledge on the corrosion phenomena of steel in concrete has become more and more important during recent years, different models have been developed to enable scientists and engineers to describe the effects of corrosion quantitatively. Most of these models focus only on the initiation phase, mainly on the ingress of chlorides until the critical depassivating chloride content is reached at the steel surface. Models on carbonation are more rare than for chlorides, as carbonation problems can be avoided relatively simple by adequate concrete covers and concrete quality or by coatings limiting the water content, while the requirements for the concrete cover may be difficult to reach in aggressive environments, especially for high service lifes of e.g. 100 a. However, these models do not take the propagation phase into account, what is on the safe side with respect to design of structures exposed to aggressive environments. However, there are at least two major reasons to consider also the propagation phase: l For new structures in aggressive environments it can be expected that the propagation phase, i.e. the time from depassivation to reaching the first limit state like critical cracking or spalling will be in the order of several years or even decades l For existing structures there is also a need for the designers to be able to estimate the propagation state, when corrosion has already started and the possibilities for repair or protection have to be evaluated.
* M. Raupach Institute for Building Materials Research of Aachen University (ibac), Schinkelstr. 3, 52062 Aachen (Germany), E-mail: raupach@ibac.rwth-aachen.de www.wiley-vch.de/home/wuk

This paper focuses on models for the propagation phase of reinforcement corrosion. Due to the complex nature of the corrosion processes different types of models have been developed, from empirical models via formula based on the electrical concrete resistance or oxygen diffusion resistance to highly sophisticated numerical models taking the kinetics of anodically and cathodically acting steel surface areas into account. The actually available models have been classified into groups with similar levels and described briefly to get an overview on the possibilities how to model the propagation phase. Further research is required to extend these models to use them as engineering tools for the design of new structures or repair measures. Especially more knowledge is required to define the limit states of reinforcement corrosion like critical cracking, spalling or reduction in steel diameter to allow design calculations. However, the overview given in this paper is intended to give a basis for this future work.

2 Overview of the different types of models for the propagation phase of corrosion
Table 1 gives an overview of the different approaches to model reinforcement corrosion, which have been divided into three main groups. Some of the models mentioned in this paper are part of extensive models covering the whole field of durability of concrete structures including the initiation phase and structural consequences like cracking, part of a so-called multi-scale model or parts of approaches for service life design of concrete structures. At first purely empirical models are available not taking the processes and mechanisms of corrosion of the reinforcement into account. They are based on direct relationships between basic parameters of the concrete mix (w/c-ratio, type of binder, etc.) or/and the environment (humidity, chloride content, temperature, etc.). Secondly there are several models based on electrical resistivity or oxygen diffusion resistance of the concrete assuming that they are the controlling factors for the corrosion process. Some more advanced models are using additional factors to consider other parameters influencing the corrosion rate like macrocell action, etc..

F 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

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p yA t

where y: amount of corrosion, depth of corrosion p (mm) A: coefficient of corrosion rate ( 103 mm/ year) t : period of exposure (year) The coefficient of corrosion rate at each exposure location was analysed by the method of multiple regression analysis and was expressed by equation (2).
A 11:5 9:30 X1 0:0306 X2 2:52 X3 0:135 X4 Fig. 1. Overview of the models for the propagation phase 2

Finally, a vast amount of publications is available simulating the propagation phase of reinforcement corrosion using numerical models taking the polarisation behaviour of anodically and cathodically acting steel surface areas into account. Such models vary from simple resistor network models to complex 2- or 3-dimensional finite element (FEM) or boundary element (BEM) models. Within the following sections the different approaches will be described in more detail.

where A: coefficient of corrosion rate X1: annual average temperature X2: annual rain fall X3: annual air-born salt X4: annual SO2

( 103 mm/

year) (  C) (mm) (ppm) (mg/100 cm2)

As a further experiment, bare reinforcing bar specimens were exposed to six environmental conditions (20  C/50 % r.H., 20  C/95 % r.H, 50  C/50 % r.H, 50  C/95 % r.H, outdoors, indoors) and time dependent weight losses were measured for three years. The relationship between the amount of corrosion and the exposure period was expressed by the equation (3): yBt 3

3 Empirical models
3.1 General Empirical models are based on assumed direct relationships between the corrosion rate of the reinforcement and basic parameters of the concrete like w/c-ratio, type of binder, etc. and the exposure conditions considering water content, chloride content and temperature of the concrete. They can be subdivided into empirical formula, fuzzy logic models or fixed corrosion rates for standard cases taken from the evaluation of experts advice (so-called Delphic oracle-approach). Such empirical models allow a quick determination of corrosion rates with limited reliability, because the actual corrosion processes and mechanisms are not taken into account. 3.2 Formula for the corrosion rate calculated from environmental and concrete parameters 3.2.1 Empirical model for steel and reinforcement corrosion according to Morinaga Morinaga has published an empirical model for the corrosion rate based on the evaluation of extensive exposure tests [1]. At first steel plate specimens with the size of 100 100 (56) mm were exposed at 43 locations all over Japan. And the data about the time dependent weight losses and the environmental conditions such as temperature, relative humidity, rain fall, air-borne salt, SO2 concentration, intensity of sun radiation and others during five years were reported and analysed by the author. The relationship between the amount of corrosion and the exposure period at each exposure location was expressed by equation (1).

where y: amount of corrosion ( 104 g/cm2) B: coefficient of corrosion rate (see Fig. 2) ( 104 g/cm2/year) t: period of exposure (year) As to be expected the results show, that the rate of corrosion increases as the temperature and the relative humidity increases. Fig. 2 shows that when the temperature is around 20  C, the rate of corrosion is very small irrespective of the relative humidities under the condition without rain fall, in contrast to the rate of corrosion exposed outdoors to rain fall having values which are 30 times higher [1].

Fig. 2. Coefficients B for equation (3) according to [1] www.wiley-vch.de/home/wuk

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3.2.2 Empirical model for reinforcement corrosion according to Ahmad A similar empirical model has been developed by Ahmad and Bhattacharjee [2] for chloride induced reinforcement corrosion of rebars in concrete under normal exposure at early age. The main factors considered are w/c-ratio, cement content and the chloride content of the concrete. In order to evaluate the simultaneous effects of these factors on rebar corrosion in terms of corrosion indicators such as halfcell potential, concrete resistivity, corrosion rate, free Cl content and pH of concrete, a standard statistical experiment design has been adopted. Through analysis of variance (ANOVA), the factors and their possible interactions affecting each corrosion indicator have been identified. After identifying the effect of factors and their possible interactions on each of the corrosion indicators separately, the empirical models for corrosion indicators have been fitted in terms of the effective factors and interactions, using the method of least squares. During response surface analysis, the original treatment levels of cement content (A), w/c ratio (B) and chloride content (C) were reduced to simplified coded levels as; 1, 0 and 1 through the following relationships: A Cement content Kg=m3 300 50 4

quantiles and the maximum values as 99 % quantiles the cumulative frequencies for the estimated propagation periods have been plotted for the limit stages cracking and spalling as a basis for probabilistic determinations of the reliability of structures. However, so far only carbonation induced propagation has been evaluated by the method as mentioned above. As the mechanisms involved in chloride induced corrosion are much more complex, this procedure has not been used for the propagation phase of chloride contaminated concrete. 3.4 Assessment of deterioration using the fuzzy set theory The approach of empirical modelling of the propagation phase using the fuzzy logic theory is also based on experience. Sets of assumed relationships are defined allowing the corrosion rate to be calculated using the fuzzy logic theory. This approach is used for the assessment of deterioration [3] and to estimate the reduction of reinforcement diameter [4, 5]. The propagation phase of reinforcement corrosion based on the fuzzy logic theory is described in the paper by Bjegovic et al. which is included in this issue [6].

4 Models based on resistivity and diffusion

4.1 General

w=c ratio By weight of cement 0:65 B 0:075 %CaCl2 By weight of cement 2:5 1:25

The final form of the fitted model after omitting the insignificant terms through T tests for Icorr has been given as: Icorr 37:726 6:120 C 2:231 A2 B 2:722 B2 C2 with Icorr in nA/cm2 Using this empirical evaluation the corrosion rate can be estimated taking basic parameters including their interactions into account. However, the reliability of this approach has not been checked by comparison with results from other experiments or investigations. 3.3 Experts Delphic oracle approach for the propagation time The actual draft of the new fib Model Code for Service Life Design from 09/2005 is based on full and semi probabilistic models. For the propagation phase of reinforcement corrosion no adequate models were available like for the initiation phases by carbonation or chloride ingress. To overcome this problem a questionnaire has been sent to experts in this field asking for their estimations of service life times for selected cases based on their experience. By this procedure experience based estimates of the duration of the propagation period until the event of cracking and spalling within given conditions like exposure class, concrete cover, temperature, etc. have been gathered. By treating the estimated minimum values of the experts as 1 % quantiles, the mean values as 50 %
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Given the nature of electrochemical corrosion of steel in concrete ion conductivity and oxygen availability at the steel/concrete interface are considered the factors of prime importance dictating the rate of the corrosion process. Most semi-quantitative models are based on the assumption that concrete resistivity is the dominating factor. This approach takes other influencing factors like exposure conditions, water/cement ratio, curing conditions, type of cement, etc. only indirectly into account. According to Langford and Broomfield [7] the following classification may be used for practical purposes: > 200 Xm 100200 Xm 50100 Xm < 50 Xm low corrosion rate low to moderate corrosion rate high corrosion rate very high corrosion rate

The associated corrosion rates are identified by Broomfield et al. in [8] passive condition icorr < 1 mA/m2 low to moderate corrosion 1 < icorr < 5 mA/m2 moderate to high corrosion 5 < icorr < 10 mA/m2 high corrosion rate icorr > 10 mA/m2 According to [9] the following ranking may apply to determine the corrosion risk after depassivation: > 1000 Xm 5001000 Xm 100500 Xm < 100 Xm no distinction between active and passive steel low corrosion rate moderate to high corrosion rate concrete resistivity is not the controlling parameter

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Morris et al. have tested specimens made of 4 concretes in Argentina with respect to electrical resistivity, corrosion potential Ecorr and corrosion rate icorr [10]. They found similar results to those mentioned above: < 100 Xm > 300 Xm corrosion passive state.

proach has been used for the European project DuraCrete to model the propagation phase of chloride induced corrosion [9]. The corrosion rate, in [lA/cm2], is thus given by the following expression: ICorr k0 FCl FGalv FOxide FO2 qt 9

In the following sections models are described, which allow a quantitative determination of the corrosion rate at the reinforcement based on the actual electrical resistivity of the concrete or the oxygen diffusion resistance. 4.2 Models based on electrical resistivity of the concrete A frequently used empirical expression is that derived from the influence of concrete resistivity on corrosion rate: icorr 103 qcon mA=m2 8

in which, qt q0 fe ft  n t t0 10

This relationship between concrete resistivity, qcon, and average corrosion current density, icorr, on laboratory specimens for several types of cement and exposure conditions has been published already in 1988 by Alonso et al. [11]. Polder et al. has carried out further studies to evaluate the relationship between corrosion rate and electrical resistivity of the concrete depending on type of cement [12, 13]. Fig. 3 shows the results plotted as conductivity (1/resistivity) over corrosion rate measured by linear polarisation. Fig. 3 shows a quite good correlation between conductivity and corrosionrate for certain concrete covers or types ofcement, but with different factors for the different concrete parameters. Although plots of corrosion rate against concrete resistivity show a reasonably good correlation, the scatter is relatively high (up to one order of magnitude). 4.3 Extended models based on electrical resistivity of the concrete In order to be able to calculate corrosion rates from electrical resistivities as described in section 4.2, a number of correction factors has been added to equation (8). Such an ap-

where, ko: is a constant regression parameter (104) Fcl: is a factor which takes account of the influence of the chloride content [], Fgalv: is a factor which takes account of the influence of galvanic effects [], Foxide: is a factor which considers the influence of continuous formation of oxides and ageing upon the corrosion rate [], q(t): is the actual resistivity of concrete measured by a compliance test, in [Xm] at time t qo : is the resistivity of the concrete measured by a compliance test, in [Xm] at time to n: is a factor which takes account of the influence of ageing on qo [], fe: a factor which modifies qo to take account of the influence of the exposure, [] ft: a factor which takes into account the influence of the resistivity test method [], The relatively high scatter in the corrosion rate-resistivity relationship should be reduced by taking account of the secondary influencing factors. The commonly observed time dependency of resistivity is treated in a similar fashion as for the chloride diffusion coefficients. This is of particular relevance in the case of blended cements containing pulverised fly ash, ground granulated slag or silica fume. According to DuraCrete [9], this approach has several attractions. In particular, unlike the other approaches, it provides a means for quantitatively predicting corrosion rates on the basis of a scientific understanding of the processes involved. This facilitates future updating of the model and has educational advantages. Unfortunately, there is at present not enough data to quantify the various factors of the model and their interactions. It is estimated that each of these factors may increase the local rate of corrosion by 2 to 3 times. However, a more reliable quantification of these factors is still lacking.

4.4 Models based on oxygen diffusion resistance of the concrete Besides electrical resistivity of the concrete oxygen diffusion is considered to be a controlling factor for the corrosion rate of the reinforcement. Consequently, also models for the propagation phase based on oxygen diffusion control have been developed. Takewaka and Yamaguchi have developed such a model for the propagation phase, which is part of an extensive model on
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Fig. 3. Relationship between conductivity and corrosion rate according to Polder [12]

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durability including initiation and crack development [14, 15]. In this model, the amount of steel corrosion is calculated based on the macro-cell corrosion theory. It is assumed that, when the concentration of chloride ions exceeds the tolerance at any section, a corrosion reaction may start at that section, as shown in Fig. 8. The propagation of the corrosion area is expressed by periodically checking at each section whether the corrosion reaction has already started. The corrosion rate of each section is assumed to be controlled by either the cathodic reaction or the anodic reaction. Under the cathodic control shown inequation (11), the corrosion rate ofthe reinforcement is influenced by the supply rate of oxygen, which is necessary for the reaction in the cathode area: O2 2H2 O 4e ! 4OH 11

Besides chloride and oxygen, water also has a large influence on the reinforcement corrosion reaction. In order to consider the effect of water, the amount of water included in the thin diffusion layer around the surface of the reinforcement is calculated using the following equation. WS WA 1 Ll LM LR 18

where LR thickness of cover concrete (m), LM length of concrete model (m), Ll thickness of diffusion layer around reinforcement (m), WA total volume of water-filled pores in cover concrete (m3), WS amount of water contained in the diffusion layer around each reinforcement section (m3). If the amount of water calculated with equation (18) is insufficient for the amount of corrosion loss estimated with equation (16), it should be corrected according to the following equation (19).
0 CV CV

On the other hand, under the anodic control shown in equation (12), the corrosion rate of the reinforcement is influenced by the consumption rate of the ferrous ions in the anode area. The consumption is also controlled by the supply rate of oxygen according to equation (13) Fe ! Fe
2

2e

12 13

WS WN

19

4Fe2 8OH O2 2H2 O ! 4FeOH3 #

The reaction rate of reinforcement in both cathodic and anodic control can be estimated with equations (14) and (15), respectively (JCI 1992, Report of Repairing Method Research Council for Concrete Structures (I), in Japanese).
Fe2 VC CXO

AC DOA AA LXC DOA LXA

0 where CV corrected sum amount of corrosion, WN amount of sufficient water for CV. As the amount of corrosion products (rust) increases, concrete can develop cracks as the result of the expansive pressure caused by rust. In this simulation, the limiting amount of corrosion that can cause cracks is assumed to be 0.02 g/cm2 based on past research, under the following conditions: w/c 0.5, 100 % relative water content, 5 cm cover thickness, and 1.6 cm reinforcement diameter [16].

in cathodic control

14

Fe2 CXO VA

in anodic control

15

Fe2 where, VC reaction rate of Fe2 in cathodic control, Fe2 VA reaction rate of Fe2 in anodic control, CXO concentration of oxygen in the air, AC cathode area in the reinforcement, AA anode area in the reinforcement, LXC mean length of oxygen diffusion route in cathode area (m), LXA mean length of oxygen diffusion route in anode area (m), DOA effective diffusion coefficient of oxygen (m2/s).

The smaller one of the two above values is to be used as the corrosion rate. However, these values are continuously changing as deterioration progresses. Therefore, in this model, the reaction rate of each section is repeatedly checked and reset by comparing both reaction rates for every section of reinforcement. Using the reaction rate, the amount of corrosion loss generated by unit time can be obtained with equation (16). Moreover, the sum of loss on reinforcement is obtained with equation (17). CT V Fe2 Fe CV
Fe2 VC

Environmental conditions have a great influence on the durability of concrete structures. In the case of deterioration due to chloride attack, the worst conditions are usually found in sea areas. Therefore, in this model, as the environmental condition factor, the concentration of chloride ions at the concrete surface is determined according to the distance from the seashore of the structure. Figs. 4 to 8 show the concept of the model. Using this model numerical simulations have been carried out to study the corrosion propagation of the reinforcement in coastal concrete structures: The corrosion crack generation time has been determined as a function of environment, w/c, initial crack width, distance from the sea, etc. as demonstrated in [14]. Similar assumptions for the propagation state have been made in the so-called multi-scale-model for durability of concrete developed by Maekawa et al. [17]. Also Song et al. have developed an extensive model for the prediction of service life

16 17

CT DT

where VFe2 reaction rate of Fe2 (smaller value for both Fe2 and VA is used), CT amount of corrosion in unit time, CV sum amount of corrosion.

Fig. 4. Concrete model according to Takewaka and Yamaguchi [14, 15]

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Fig. 5. Diffusion route of Cland O2 according to the model of Takewaka and Yamaguchi [14, 15]

Fig. 6. Diffusion line according to the model of Takewaka and Yamaguchi [14, 15]

Fig. 8. Progress of corrosion according to the model of Takewaka and Yamaguchi [14, 15]

including the propagation state based on the oxygen diffusion rate of the concrete [18]. 4.5 Evaluation of the models based on electrical and diffusion resistance The validity of the propagation models is depending on the effective controlling influence of the electrical resistivity or oxygen diffusion resistance of the concrete. Laboratory tests and calculations have shown, that the controlling factor for chloride induced reinforcement corrosion is not always the same, but depending on the concrete properties and environmental conditions, especially the water content of the concrete and consequently also the availability of oxygen (see e.g. [19, 20]). The general relationship between the controlling level of electrical resistivity and oxygen diffusion on the corrosion rate and humidity is shown in Fig. 9: for a dry environment

electrical resistivity is supposed to be the corrosion controlling factor, while for wet environments oxygen diffusion becomes the controlling step. As a consequence the models based on electrical resistivity are highly valid in dry environments and models based on oxygen diffusion resistance in wet environments with concrete near water saturation. To model the propagation stage correctly for conditions between wet and dry or for changing humidities, additional factors have to be introduced as described in section 4.3 or numerical models taking the polarisation behaviour of the reinforcement under the actual environmental conditions into account, as described in the following sections.

Fig. 7. Diffusion route according to the model of Takewaka and Yamaguchi [14, 15]

Fig. 9. Range of validity of the models based on electrical resistivity and oxygen diffusion of the concrete www.wiley-vch.de/home/wuk

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5 Numerical models
5.1 General Simulation of the corrosion process based on electrochemical models is a complex task, since several factors have to be introduced which have to be determined by electrochemical testing. Bazant has developed a complete physical-mathematical model which describes the corrosion process in submerged concrete exposed to sea water [21]. A complete set of equations has been derived for the transport of oxygen and chloride ions through the concrete cover, the mass sources and sinks of oxygen and corrosion products, the cathodic and anodic electric potential, and the flow of ionic current through the concrete electrolyte. This model is largely based on theoretical assumptions and is completed by formulating the problem as an initial-boundary-value problem which can be solved e.g. by using the finite element method. In order to arrive at numerical solutions, the spatial distribution and geometries of anodic and cathodic areas on the reinforcing bars have to be assumed. The model takes all relevant chemical and physical processes involved in reinforcement corrosion into account, but several processes are not adequately addressed, such as the polarisation behaviour of the anodic and cathodic reactions. Despite these imperfections and the lack of experimental data, the model results in an improved understanding of the complex nature of the problem. Electrode kinetics are considered of great practical importance to understand the corrosion process. The electrochemical behaviour of reinforcing steel can be expressed in terms of polarisation curves which define the relationship between potential change and current. The numerical models can be divided into models on different approaches: l Resistor networks and transmission line models l finite element models (FEM) and l boundary element models (BEM). These numerical models are presented briefly in the following sections. 5.2 Resistor networks and transmission line models Figs. 1012 show the basic relationships of simple planparallel and coplanar arrangements of anodically and cathodically acting surface areas of the reinforcement, which can be used to simulate the propagation phase of chloride induced corrosion of steel in concrete. Such calculations have been

Fig. 11. Schematic representation of a coplanar macrocell arrangement simulated by an electrical circuit model consisting of discrete anode and cathode elements

Fig. 10. Schematic representation of a simple planparallel macrocell arrangement simulated by an electrical circuit model consisting of three resistances www.wiley-vch.de/home/wuk

Fig. 12. Schematic representation of the assumed relationships between potentials and electrical currents in a coplanar macrocell [22]

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used to simulate experiments in laboratory or exposure tests with defined conditions, especially with well defined geometrical conditions (see e.g. [21]). It has been shown, that the corrosion process can be simulated satisfactorily under such defined conditions. The details explaining Figs. 10 to 12 may be taken from [20, 22]. The following symbols have been used in Figs. 10 to 12: A C U Ue DU UR,c UC,a UC,c I R RA RC Rel rel anode cathode voltage, potential driving voltage of a corrosion element consisting of anode and cathode potential drop over the concrete electrolyte rest potential of the cathode corrosion potential of the anode corrosion potential of the cathode electrical current resistance anodic polarisation resistance cathodic polarisation resistance electrolytic resistance of the concrete electrolytic resistance between two adjacent elements

To select the optimal method for the estimation of corrosion rates several factors have to be taken into account: availability of empirical data for the corrosion problem, controlling step for the corrosion rate (electrical resistivity or oxygen diffusion), geometrical arrangement of anodically and cathodically acting steel surface areas. l Especially for the numerical methods more data have to be gathered, for the potentials as well as for the anodic and cathodic polarisation under different conditions. As outlook the ongoing work of the German Research group working on modelling the propagation phase of reinforcement corrosion and the RILEM activities in this field should be mentioned, as described by Gulikers, Raupach and Warkus in a separate paper of this issues [34].

7 Literature
[1] S. Morinaga, in: Durability of Building Materials and Components. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference held in Stockholm, Schweden, 1923 May 1996, (Sjostrom, C. (Ed.)), London, E & FN Spon, 1996. Vol. 1, 127136. [2] S. Ahmad, B. Bhattacharjee, Journal of Structural Engineering 2000, 27, 195. [3] T. Lucken, F. Stangenberg, in: International Symposium Non Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering (NDT-CE), Berlin, September 1619, 2003, DGZfP, 2003 Berlin, Programme Nr. 44. [4] D. Bjegovic, D. Mikulic, Z. Pause, in: Durability of Concrete. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference, Thessaloniki, June 17, 2003, (Bouzoubaa, N. (Ed.)), Farmington Hill, American Concrete Institute, 2003. Supplementary Papers, P. 573586. [5] D. Mikulic, V. Krstic, Z. Pause, D. Bjegovic, in: Werkstoffwissenschaften und Bausanierung. Berichtsband zum vierten Internationalen Kolloqium, Band II, (Wittmann, F.H. ; Gerdes, A.(Ed.)), Freiburg : AEDIFICATIO, 1996. P. 12011209. [6] D. Bjegovic, V. Kritic D. Mikalic, Materials and Corrosion 2006, 57, 642. [7] P. Langford, J. Broomfield, Construction Repair 1987, 1, 32. [8] J. P. Broomfield, J. Rodriguez, L. M. Ortega, A. M. Garcia, in: Concrete Bridges in Aggressive Environments, Philip D. Cady International Symposium, Minneapolis, November 910, 1993, Weyers, R.E.(Ed.)), Detroit, American Concrete Institute, ACI SP-151, 1994. P. 163181. [9] Brite Euram; European Union: DuraCrete Final Technical Report. DuraCrete Probabilistic Performance based Durability Design of Concrete Structures, Brussel: European Un ion Brite EuRam, 2000. Contract BRPR-CT95-0132, Project BE95-1347, Document BE95-1347/R17, May 2000. [10] W. Morris, A. Vico, M. Vazequez, S. R. Sanchez de, Corrosion Science 2002, 44, 81. [11] C. Alonso, C. Andrade, C. J. A. Gonzalez, Cement and Concrete Research 1988, 18, 687. [12] R. B. Polder, M. Valente, R. Cigna, T. Valente, in: Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures. Proceedings of the International RILEM/CSIRO/ACRA Conference held in Melbourne, 31 August2 September 1992, Melbourne: RILEM, 1992. P. 475486. [13] S. Fiore, R. B. Polder, R. Cigna, in: Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Construction, 4th International Symposium, Cambridge , UK, 14 July 1996, (Page, C.L.; Bamforth, P.B.; Figg, J.W.(Ed.)), Cambridge: The Royal Society of Chemistry, 1996. P. 273282. [14] K. Takewaka, T. Yamaguchi, S. Maeda, Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 2003, 1, 139. [15] T. Yamaguchi, K. Takewaka, H. Yasuda, S. Matsutake, in: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conferecne on Concrete Under Severe Conditions Environment and Loading, Vancouver, 1820 June 2001, (Banthia, N. (Ed.)), Vol. 2, Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 2001. P. 11901197. www.wiley-vch.de/home/wuk

5.3 Finite difference, finite element (FEM) and boundary element methods (BEM) Transmission line models and resistor networks are suitable to estimate electrical fields of simple geometries. However, when the corrosion systems become more complex and when more accurate results are required, computational methods like finite difference, FEM or BEM methods are used. Corrosion models based on FEM are published e.g. by Balabanic et al. [23] and [24], Kranc and Sagues [25, 27]. BEM based models have been presented e.g. by Jaggi et al. [28] and recently by Brem et al. [29, 30] as well as Bertolini et al. [31]. As the papers by Redaelli et al. (FEM) [32] as well as Warkus et al. (BEM) [33] within this issue describe these methods by selected examples, they are not further described in this paper. Generally, the most reliable results of calculations of the corrosion rate are to be expected using these methods, as they will simulate the actual electrochemical conditions better, provided that suitable parameters have been selected for the electrochemical input parameters. However, future efforts are required to get a better data basis for the input parameters depending on typical concrete parameters and environmental conditions.

6 Conclusions and outlook

It can be concluded that several models are available to simulate the propagation phase of chloride induced corrosion of the reinforcement. The following points seem to be of importance: l Models with different levels of accuracy are available, from empirical over models based on resistivity or oxygen diffusion resistance up to highly sophisticated numerical models l The models mentioned above show different complexities from simple empirical models to detailed numerical simulations. With increasing complexity the expected results are more reliable, but a sufficient data basis for the input parameters is required.

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(Received: May 17, 2006)

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