Electric power for industrial processes using dielectric heating

Continuing development of dielectric heating systems allows much wider use by industry to attain higher levels of production efficiency, savings of energy and materials and in some cases to enable entirely new methods of production to be used

by W. Leonard Harrison

Since the early 1960s use of electrical power for process heat in the UK, particularly in the metals production field, has grown at a remarkable rate. From 1960 to 1980 power for steel production more than trebled enabling the UK to regain its competitiveness with internationalsteel producers on price and quality. Metal melting in the UK foundries is now almost entirely electric enabling a newly formed industry to compete successfully in world markets and to be ahead of its own field of technology. As manufacturing processes change to satisfy market demand, availability and cost of raw materials together with the ever increasing demand for automatic and precise heatprocessing techniques, the electroheat route is seen to readily satisfy these requirements. A wide range of industrial processes outside the metals sector can often only be provided by use of an electrical heating system whilst for other, long established heat processes using fossil fuels have become expensive to operate, very inefficient and wasteful of the material being processed. The change of labour skills from manhandling and often of a semiskilled nature to automated lines employing technicians and professional engineers has contributed to the change made by industry of the energy used and type of processing plant employed. Several methods of heat generation and transfer are to be found with the electroheat route, the particular method employed being dependent on the materials being processed and characteristics of the heating cycle. For the production of nonmetals, e.g. chemicals, food, textiles, glass, ceramics etc., heat generated by devices powered at frequencies in the 1-3000MHz range offer ideal systems to give high efficiency, zero or very low loss of the materials being processed, low labour and production costs, low maintenance and high production rates together with excellent POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL MARCH 1988

environmental working conditions. The British National Committee for Electroheat (BNCE)organised and presented an internationalconference at Cambridge University in September 1986 covering the field of heat processing employing the higher frequency range of 1-3000MHz. This article reviews the growing use of the more sophisticated electroheating techniques and developments which have taken place for a wide range of industrial applications, and for its purpose takes material from a selected number of papers presented at the conference. The importance of these developments and their value for industrial production, the author feels, warrants wider acknowledgment and awareness by engineers of several disciplines including electrical. Some of the techniques and systems will be of particular interest to research and development institutions as improved methods for heat-processing equipment for specific research projects are now possible.There is also a growing need for universities and educational institutions to increase their awareness and for the inclusion in their teaching of these new technologies. Technology transfer in industry has proved to be difficult and often frustrating within the UK. Experience suggests that this is often due to industrial engineers concerned with projects being unaware of the change and availability of these new systems of heat-processing techniques. Dielectric heating for industry employs two different types of power systems each covering a band of frequencies, radio frequencies (RF) (13.56 and 27.1 2 MHz), and microwaves (89691 5 and 2450MHz). Each power source converts the 50 Hz incoming supply to an output power at the higher frequencies. The applicators, i.e. the point where the electromagnetic waves are applied to the workpiece (the piece to be heated), are different for the frequencies of the RF and 105

1 Radynefc)ur-station rotary table HF welder rated at 30hrW for production 1of car door panels

microwave bands. The development of both power source and applicator for specific heating processes involves close examination of the characteristics of the materials being processed and the heating system. Developments of equipment and controls to optimise high output levels, the energy input densities and temperature gradients, in many cases making use of modelling and computerised programming, both greatly advance the use and understanding of the techniques and power levels which may be employed. A paper by E. R. Cox Developments in RF dielectric heating reviews the wide range of electroheat equipment employed and user applications. To date some 50000 plastic welding machines are in use throughout the world with a further 4000 units being installed annually. 20 or so years ago equipment was produced only in the leading industrialised countries,Zoday such quipments are being built by many of the newly industrialised countries such as Mexico, Turkey and Hong Kong. The forecast is that within the very near future some of the equipment designs will be produced by Third World countries. Dielectric heating occurs when nonconducting materials are placed in an RF field. The molecules of such materials tend to oscillate in sympathy with the applied field causing molecular friction to increase the material temperature, which is proportional to its loss factor, applied frequency and voltage. With higher voltage and frequencies applied, molecular activity is greater resulting in an increased temperature. Design problems with the RF generators impose limits on the level of voltage applied. This together with an internationally agreed frequency of around 27.1 2 MHz leaves a single variable-loss factor, which is a physical parameter of the material being heated, to establish the basic design of the dielectric heater. Water, having a high loss factor, makes dielectric heating of materials containing moisture very suitable. In spite of 106

this fact the greatest area of application has been, certainly in the past, dielectric heating of thermoplastic materials, in particular the bonding of PVC sheet. Various additives to resins and glues make them more receptive to heating for curing and drying. In consequence glues used in binding stationery and books, for making carborundum wheels, and the polyamides used in lining materials for clothing manufacture, have all been modified to enhance heating by radio frequencies. Radio-frequency generators remain efficient with time, their valves, relays, contactors, charge feeding mechanisms etc. are easily replaced and equipment supplied more than 30 years ago is still to be found in service. In more recent times radio interference from some of the older equipment has affected other uses of the frequency spectrum, particularly with the earlier H welders and F their wider bandwidths and unscreened preheaters. Development, particularly with the construction of the power systems and applicators, has been necessary to reduce levels of radiation of the high-frequency fields. In addition the question of operator safety has been more closely examined resulting in design changes. These subjects are discussed by specialist papers which are reviewed later in this article. In earlier times RF generators utilised variations of the classical Colpitt/Hartley oscillator circuits using a triode valve, and some manufacturers for a while utilised a push-pull circuit to reduce the level of radiation from even harmonics. Subsequent development has been mainly limited to the replacement of wound induction coils and plate capacitors by aluminium drum-cavity oscillators having inbuilt inductance and capacitance together with the replacement of valve rectifiers by solid-state devices. Mechanical reliability of valves has been improved, in some cases ceramics instead of glass being employed, giving a guaranteed life of 2000 working hours (which in practice is often several times this figure). Cox points out POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL MARCH 1988

that whereas power thyristors have almost completely replaced the triode valve for induction heating generators now operated at frequencies up to 100kHz, solid-state devices capable of switching at the necessary frequency of many megahertz, even using multiplying circuits, are probably more than a decade away. In consequence the basic design of RF generators remains static at its relatively inefficient power level of around 65%. Power control of dielectric heating systems is achieved by varying the output capacitance between the oscillator and the load circuit. For the single-station RF welding equipment manual control of power is usual. However, for multistation and larger powered units, sophisticated systems exist with automatic control which compares a preset anode current with the actual current level delivered which, through a precise servo system, automatically varies the spacing of the capacitor plate to maintain the preset power. Such autotuning systems are invariably used for equipment handling, the bonding of door panels (Fig. I), seating and for securing precision-type work, e.g. welding of intravenous and other types of medical bags. As microprocessors become cheaper these are being used in new designs of automated dielectric systems giving improved equipment reliability, product quality and reduced capital costs. Future developments for H welding are F seen to be a machine which welds continuously and not intermittently, although this present technique will remain an intermittent process for the foreseeable future, and a solid-state generator to eliminate the rising cost of replacement oscillator valves and so reduce maintenance costs. Whilst very low power designs exist using field-effect transistors which operate up to several megahertz, a commercially viable design is said to be more than a decade away. Dielectric heating, as distinct from welding, has unique advantages and remains for many processes unrivalled and so continues to find new applications as increased output is needed, limited space exists and where moisture control is paramount. For other heatprocessing applications use of a hybrid system, where cheap hot air is combined with the control and speed advantage of dielectric heating, gives economic advantages to the user. Such systems are to be found in the wool industries, which no doubt will give similar advantages for other drying applications. 'Energy efficient radio-frequency drying 1986 by John Holland reports2 on the considerable progress made in cost benefits to industry by use of more efficient systems of heat generation and transfer which are found by using dielectric heating. This direct heating method, the heat being generated wit hin the product, allows:
0

These important advantages have led UK manufacturers of biscuits to change over their production heat processing from conventional fossil-fuel heating systems to dielectric heating. As the new heaters with their generators take up much less floor space than the fossil-fuelfired baking ovens, considerable saving in space has been made which allows for installation of more production units. Heat loss is also greatly reduced with the consequential improvement of the working environment. The dielectric heated oven (Fig. 2) has a number of inherent advantages over other types of ovens in that no temperature differential is required to force heat into the inside of products. The oven also has the unique advantage that it generates the heat within products in proportion to the dielectric loss factor which, in the case of baked goods is almost totally controlled by the moisture content. As a result heat is developed in proportion to the moisture content and levelling of moistures takes place automatically. This profiling of the moisture level can normally be maintained within plus or minus 0.2% at an overall level of 2%, this being instantly varied if desired. Complete equipment comprises oven conveyance for the product, closed-circuit demineralised water recirculator and cooler and RF generator with its power supplies. Operating frequency is 27.1 2 MHz *O.6% feeding an electrode system having a variable high-frequency voltage applied to it. Overall efficiency of 60-65% is attained. The energy

post+,aking RF unit for mass production of biscuits

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high concentration of energy selectivity in location of heat accurate control of heat duration precise control of moisture removal automatic moisture profiling. 107

POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL MARCH 1988

3 Nozzle electrode

system for the air radiofrequency-assisted (ARFAI dryer

, ,

R F field developed across nozzle corners

, /

,/nozzle

R F connection t o assembly

in web form

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RF ,nerator
micro turbulance of hot air giving high rate of heat transfer to surface

nozzle fed by ducted hot air

D

loss which is dissipated in the cooling water supply can be recovered and used for heating offices, washrooms etc. In recent years, careful study of the development and heat requirements of bakery products, dielectric ovens and their power control and programming has resulted in great changes in production methods, quality of products produced and manufacturingcosts. Over the last few years several hundred installations of RF dielectric drying of textiles have been installed. This method of drying is ideal as heat is generated in proportion to moisture, the level of which across the mass of the product remains the same within very close limits. Other methods of heating externally cannot possibly attain such levelling of moisture, which is important for treatment of the product. When using RF heating, no temperature or pressure differentials are required to force heat into the product and in consequence quality is enhanced. By use of mechanical extraction systems of water and/or use of conventional rapid dryers to predry down to a level at which they become inefficient, use of RF heating for the final drying to the required moisture levels offers the most economical link with quality of product and high production. Within the textile industry dielectric heating has found many applications where traditional methods of drying had resulted, in terms of moisture control and fibre damage, in overdrying to eliminate the possibility of wet or partially wet packages. Use of dielectric heating has reduced, and in some cases eliminated, the effects of these problems on production to give increased levels of output with much improved control of product quality and less waste. Drying of a product being processed is required for many production lines. Prior to the use of dielectric heating systems this part of the process was energy and time consuming and often had adverse effects on the product

quality, sometimes to render it useless. Operation of the conventional fossil-fuel-fired ovens and use of steam-heating platens also adversely affected the working environment necessitating at the same time round-the-clock availability of heat with consequential misuse of energy. A paper3 by D. Swift 'The ARFA (air radiofrequency-assisted) dryer' outlines the drying system which has been developed and patented by the Electricity Council Research Centre at Capenhurst and now licensed to Swift's firm Greenbank-Darwen Engineering Ltd. The system embraces two drying techniques which minimise the disadvantages and exploit the advantages of each system. Where industrial drying processes involve the application of hot air, either by direct impingementthrough a series of nozzles through the product or by contraflowkounterflow systems where hot air is directed by power to the product, heat transferred from the air to the water causes its evaporation to transport the water vapour from the surface of the material being processed. Development of this system has been to increase the rate and efficiency of heat and mass transfer to the optimum level, the drying rate decreasing dramatically as the moisture content falls below approximately 10%. In consequence such systems are now used in conjunction with a second system where heat is generated in the product; this is a great advantage in lowering costs and increasing production. The paper provides details of work experience when employed for a wide range of materials. Design of the electrode systems for this purpose is most important; experience showing that the staggered 'strayfield' proved to be most successful. A further development, the geometry of the electrode configuration and the arrangement of air flotation nozzles as given in Fig. 3 has produced designs which employ the air impingement nozzles as electrodes for transmission of RF energy. Trials POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL MARCH 1988

108

on a prototype unit of the ARFA dryer confirm the following:

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reduction in the drying times (by a factor of ten in certain cases) with corresponding savings in space or production time reduction in overall energy costs improved moisture profile and accurate control of exit moisture content prevention of skinning or case hardening of product surface continuously wetted surface allows higher drying tem peratu res without production degradation.

These benefits are achieved with an RF contribution of around 10-50% of the total drying energy. The applications of the ARFA drying systems in industry are many and varied, however, the liquid to be removed must be water and not a solvent and in addition the host materials must not contain conductive materials, i.e. ferrous metals, carbon etc. The combined heating system with its short processing times makes it suitable for drying processes previously handled in batch to be processed continuously. This gives considerable advantage for reduction of production costs with a substantial increase of throughput. Over 100 successful trials have been carried out on a wide variety of materials including:
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0
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cellulose and leather-based pressboards impregnated nonwoven materials impregnated synthetic foams cellulose sponges acoustic and insulating board ceramic refractory materials food products: bread, biscuits, breakfast cereals, pet foods impregnated or treated textiles wool hanks confectionery, sweets etc.

In many cases the reduction in drying time could be sufficient to consider a continuously operated drying process in place of a batch system. Further use of dielectric heating is given in the paper4 Dielectric applications in textiles and auxiliary industries by G. A. Smith. This deals with drying techniques used in the dying and bleaching of fibres and the auxiliary applications such as softening, scrooping and water repellency. Using RF heating gives minimum fibre damage, and no thermal gradients within or between fibres, resulting in substantial reduction of production costs. The author provides background to the dying and printing processes and the introduction of RF heating systems which led to the development of the Smith-Fastran electronic dye-fixation machine. Energy savings are in the order of 3070% depending on the type of fibre and liquor ratio used. In the case of wool or other animal fibres such as cashmere, with a 1 : 1 liquor ratio and with minimal washing off, the total energy consumption has been reduced by 62%. In addition to savings of energy, the performance of the dyed/dried fibre is enhanced and high yields are obtained in the conversion of raw materials into final yarns (up to 4% on wool). POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL MARCH 1988

Use of RF heating allows for greatly improved systems for control of temperature and time which are essential for the process. The compact equipment allows for elimination of a purpose-built dryhouse. Fluorite flotation under electromagnetic irradiation, a papers by J. M. Thiebaut, J. I? Vaubourg and R Rousey, discusses the . investigation and applications of irradiation of a mixture of fluorite and collecting solutions when irradiated by an electromagnetic field. The results are presented in terms of thermal and nonthermal effects. Distribution of the dissipated electromagnetic energy in a heterogeneous medium is modelled and the parameters evaluated by dielectric measurement. The authors give the method for modelling and for determining the dielectric constants of the materials involved in the microwave cleaning process. In conclusion the authors state that the energy balance in each phase of the heterogeneous medium can be evaluated from dielectric measurements. The temperature gradient at the solid/solution interface can be determined with the same hypothesis which concerns heat exchange. The electromagnetic energy supplied to the mixture changes the recovery rate curve and thermal effects are observed when the collector is oleate and nonthermal effects in the case of dodecylsulfonate (DDS)ions. Coal de-ashing and desulfurization utilizing microwave irradiation at 2450 MHz by D. D. Bluhm et a/. reports6 on an experimental microwave applicator system for cleaning 509 samples of coal using caustic treatment and microwave irradiation. The authors explain that best results were obtained for removal of ash by mixing one part coal with two parts of dry caustic, adding 10% water and irradiating at 1 .O to 1.5 kW for one to two minutes; for removal of significant amounts of sulphur, multiple treatment and further refinements of the process are required. The paper describes the equipment employed and experimental procedures including itudies regarding the dielectric properties and measurements of the materials under investigation and the reactions of the mixtures.

~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : ~ l i c a t o r system(EMAS) for cleaning samples of coal

-,-inlet I discharge region exhaust system

Ccber generot (2L50 M H z 6kW

inlet/ discharge region

109

The configuration of the microwave applicator systems (EMAS) (Fig.4) and its development is discussed together with methods to determine the depth of penetration measurements. The EMAS treatment of Illinois No. 6 coal is reported together with other forms of experimentation including dielectric property studies using the four-probe sensor and classical methods. These have provided some useful information applicable to caustic-microwavetreatment of coal, e.g. lower caustic concentrations are preferred for:
0

reduced power reflections (increases effectiveness of microwave irradiation) improved desulphurisation of coal lower processing costs due to reduced consumption of reagents.

Microwave energy in heating processes of composite materials by 5. Aussudre and A. Priou, discusses7 the use of microwave heating for rapid and uniform curing of composite materials. The paper describes procedures for the experimental equipment and processes. Results show that microwave curing of glass and Kevlar, a carbon-fibrereinforced epoxy matrix, achieves economical curing times (savingsof 5: 1 on time and I O : 1 on energy) and improved thermomechanical properties of the materials tested in the region Of 1 5%. Dr. S. B. Worms in his paper8 New magnetron with composite magnetic system simplifies power stabilisation and regulation briefly discusses the construction of the magnetron and its main operating features. The principles of power regulation and stabilisation against mains fluctuations are explained. The paper deals with a new 6 kW magnetron, model YJ 1600, for use with industrial microwave heating at 2450 MHz, this being the first of its power class which integrates permanent magnet and electromagnetic field generation. The power supply for the Y 1600 magnetron is described J including its controls. In conclusion the author states that the combined magnet system enables use of a simple power supply and provides an excellent performance now being employed in a wide variety of applications. Road maintenance with a mobile microwave heating system, by G. Baillot, reports9 on a 24 kW microwave prototype heater specifically designed for repair of road cracks. The author having studied the dielectric properties of road materials used microwave to heat whole asphaltic layers without causing any damage. After heating and compaction, cracks and cold joints are completely sealed along the whole asphaltic road thickness, the material structure being restored. When submitted to climate and traffic conditions, no deterioration of the sealed joints were observed, although during the winter months cracks were found to re-open due to movement of the supporting bed layers. The paper presents new procedures and studies and discusses the potential industrial developments of the technique from the economical point of view. 110

Microwave energy for curing has many industrial applications. In-line microwave curing of charged polymer films and electronic component assembly by A. J. Berteaud, R. Clement and A. Germain describes10 a specific type of applicator and a typical cure assembly employed in a microwave processing system to cure resistive and conducting polymer paste for electronic components. The paper gives an introduction-the curing of polymers and other organic coatings by using microwave energy-and describes the processing technique and conductive properties of the microwave-curedfilms, carbon, silver and copper paste. The authors emphasise the advantages in using microwave heating and the convenience of its in-line location for continuous production systems. The processing cycle time is considerably reduced as compared with batch-type ovens (several hours). In conclusion, microwave processing techniques at 2450MHz with a specific design of applicator to obtain a homogeneous electric field parallel to the substrate plane and a purpose-designed assembly to allow conductive or resistive polymer paste to be cured have been proved by the authors to give various advantages such as:
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a shorter curing time (near 10 min) as compared with conventional furnace curing (several hours) a curing temperature lower (say 20C) than that conventionally used which makes the substrate selection easier a better degree of cure which can lead to higher value of the sample conductivity a low oxidisation degree in the case of copper film, due to the shorter processing time, which leads to greater conductivity values and low aging factor.

Cross linking of composite materials with polymeric matrix and metallic fillers under microwaves a t 2450 MHz by A. Gourdenne deals11 with the manufacture of composites from DGEBA epoxy resin and metallic powder of aluminium and copper being cross linked under progressive microwave energy of 2450MHz. Variations of the time of average temperature of samples and of the electrical power loss inside the composite matter, which is due to the dielectric relaxation of the organic resin and the conduction of metallic fillers (Joule effect), are recorded during the experiments. Their analysis in terms of material science proided information on the kinetics of the cross-linking reaction and the electrical properties of the final products in relationship with their studies. The experimental parameters which are taken into account are the nature, the concentration and the size of the conductive particles together with the electrical power of the incident beam. A detailed study of the dielectric properties between 1OHz and 800 kHz of the solid composites is briefly presented to corroborate the results obtained from studies using microwave energy at 2450 MHz. POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL MARCH 1988

A curing of thermosetting resins by pulsed microwaves by H. Jullien, M. Delmotte and F. M. Thullier deals?with the use of pulsed microwaves to cross-link thermosetting macromolecular resins as polyurethanes or epoxies. The paper shows that energy transfer can be greatly enhanced by using specific pulse-repetition frequencies which correspond to dielectric relaxation of polar structural elements in the polymer. The hardness of polyurethane films is then increased without direct correlation with the thermal behaviour of the samples, but as a function of pulse regimes. The authors state, as expected, that energy transfer to samples is more efficient by using continuous or pulse microwaves than when a conventional oven is employed. Treatment times are decreased: 5 to 7 min for microwave curing polyurethanes, compared with 20 to 30 min in an oven; 30 min for epoxy resins as against 3 h in an oven. The conversion rates of epoxies can be raised from 62 to 95% by a convenient procedure slightly increasing the average microwave power during the treatment. In consequence, use of microwave energy can be said to be more economic than oven curing for heating processes. The application of microwave heating in the foundry industry by P J. Rickards deals3 with the use of microwave heating in foundry applications. The paper introduces the reader to foundry practice in regard to the preparation of the raw material into which liquid metal is poured covering several well established techniques and goes on to reveal the extent to which microwave heating has already been employed and describes some experiments which have been carried out at the British Cast Iron Research Asociation Laboratories.The paper gives details of use of a microwave oven rated at 1.5 kW at a frequency of 2450MHz. The following experiments were conducted:
0
0

measurements of moisture in green sand tests with chemically bonded sand curing of silicate-bonded sands together with a review of the results obtained.

compounds. In the conventional granuiation process most problems, the author reports, occur in the granule drying, namely granule attrition, biologically active dust emission, dust explosion hazards and the need to clean down between product changeovers. Poor heat transfer and handling of solids in tray ovens led to change and the introduction and wide use of fluidised bed dryers; however, the problems mentioned still existed. In consequence a dryer which did not possess these processing difficulties but retained the high efficiency of the fluidised bed dryer was sought. Use of microwaves for drying has been investigated and designs developed to enable production-scale equipment to be built. The paper provides the background and examination of process requirements for specific products, close attention being given to biological, fire and explosion risks. A preproduction prototype vacuum microwave dryer rated at 9 kW and suitable for drying 35 kg batches of wet granules was built and tested giving better results than that obtained with conventional dried granules with a much less dusty environment than that found when using a fluid bed dryer. The paper provides detailed descriptions of a production scale dryer, power source, method of operation and controls. The author states that the simple technology of using microwaves to heat polar liquids has been applied to the drying of pharmaceutical granules. In conclusion, the problem of determining drying end-point has been overcome and a viable process defined. The machine design has been refined and highly efficient and productive equipment has been built. Incorporated into the production machine are all the security requirements for products and operators without detracting from the equipment finish. Fiq. 5 shows diagrammatically features of the prototype microwave dryer. Food product development for microwave processing by R. F. Schiffmann acknowledges15

Prototype microwave dryer for production of highly active pharmaceuticalproducts

In conclusion, the author finds that whilst the capital cost of microwave heating equipment is relatively high as compared with gas heated ovens there are no standby losses for the microwave heater, as is the case for ovens, and with the advantage of flexibility and hence speed of production, energy savings are found. An improved core or mould quality should result from better through-hardening and higher strength. There are also considerable savings in binder of catalyst and improved process control. Drying of highly active pharmaceutical products using microwaves by Dr. M. J. Cliff reports14 on a new application of microwave heating. A new production plant at the works of IC1 PharmaceuticalsDivision calls for facilities to provide production of coated tablets which contain highly potent active agents, and adequate protection to personnel and the environment from the highly potent POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL MARCH 1988

waveguide

mode stirrer
7

I2 magnetrons one+
microwave housing polypropylene window E - field detector

o n e = -

magnetrons of 12

drying chamber -vacuum offtake

pneumatic cylinder temperature probe

to controller

F
support table -air purge inlet t o recorder

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Table 1: Commercial microwave processing systems in the food industry (from Reference 15)
chicken cooking bacon cooking sausage cooking meat patty cooking pasta drying vegetable drying potato chip drying snack food drying juice concentrate drying meat/fish/butter tempering doughnut/bread proofing doughnut frying bread pasteurisation

Table 2: Parameters affecting the heating of materials in microwave systems (from Reference 15)
microwave power frequency mass moisture content thermal conductivity temperature physical geometry conductivity specific heat density dielectric properties

that at least 200 systems of microwave heating in the food industry now exist, some of these being listed in Table 1. The author reviews the area of food product development which continues to take place as a result of heating processes using microwave and not conventional systems. The paper comments in detail on the general lack of understanding of microwave heating and its interactions with food systems which accounts, in part, for the rather slow growth and adoption of microwave heating. The author deals with the major points which technologists, he suggests, must consider when developing food products for successful microwave processing and Table 2 gives an account of interaction of microwave energy with materials and the parameters affecting the system. Microwave-power output levels and their effect on speed of cooking and production provide satisfactory products for a considerable market; these are discussed. Mass, moisture content, density, temperature and physical geometry together with microwave energy are all areas of influence on the product. The paper gives details and quotes experience in use of the subject. In conclusion, the author stresses the need for understanding microwave heating as this is a key to product development and states that no other heating method demands so much from the product development specialist; however, the potential rewards are great and the resulting products unique in their field. 'Microwave thawing and tempering of frozen meat' by 5. J. James covers'6 the requirements for preparing frozen blocks of boned-out meat to allow preparation for further processing prior to delivery to consumers. An even temperature distribution is critical for most post-tempering operations and the author quotes that a survey has shown that existing conduction systems can take up to 14 days to achieve the required results whilst with microwave tempering times of 3-5 min are possible. The paper provides detailed background to the work of experimentation using microwaves for thawing and the problems which can arise such as 112

runaway heating at the surface of the blocks. Further development reported is the use of a hybrid microwavehacuum thawing system, the purpose of which is to produce evaporative cooling thus reducing the likelihood of excessive surface temperatures. Results of experimental trials are given in the paper and the findings discussed. The paper reports on a tempering survey, conduction tempering systems and batch microwave tempering units, comparing each. In conclusion, the author reports that an experimental hybrid microwave/vacuum thawing system will thaw 27 kg 'standard' meat blocks in either a 1 h or 2 h thawing cycle compared with a 1 5 h minimum required in conductive systems. The engineering and economic feasibility of a largescale production plant still needs to be investigated. Industrial microwave tempering systems provide a practical alternative to the conventional air-based systems in many situations the author reports, especially where flexibility and/or large throughputs are required. 'Recent advances in industrial microwave processing in the 896/915 MHz frequency band' by R J. Meredith reviews17the industrial . use of microwave energy. The author comments on the slow acceptance by industry of microwave energy because of the earlier problems of reliability, in some cases its inappropriate application and the relatively high capital costs involved. With improved reliability of magnetrons and the more recent development of a 60 kW microwave generator working at 896 or 915 MHz with a conversion efficiency of 85-90%, the capital cost has significantly been reduced. The author states that several of these generator installations working at 896MHz are to be found: meat tempering, tobacco processing, agricultural product processing, butter tempering, impact sterilisation, and continuous blanching. The author feels that further uptake of microwave energy by the food industry will be rapid in the coming years. Continued growth in the use of dielectric heating equipment depends not only on new developments, better engineered and more reliable equipment, but on maintaining a good record of safety in its use. Recent years have seen a great deal of work done by health and safety authorities and allied institutions both here in the UK and abroad. A paper18 by A. M. Bandle 'Safety in the use of RF dielectric heating equipment' reviews published work regarding growing public concern as to the possible health risks associated with the use of industrial equipment such as RF heatedsealers and drawing attention to attempts to quantify this by the Health & Safety Executive (HSE)and the National Radiological Protection Board (NRPB). The paper refers to the work of authorities and experts in the field, examining possible effects including those of a longer-term nature as a result of stray RF fields from, in particular, plastic welding equipment. The opportunity for closer examination and discussion between users, manufacturers and the Health & Safety POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL MARCH 1988

Executive is suggested. More recently in 1982 a consultative document was published by the NRPB and formal advice is now in preparation. Fig. 6, taken from the document, compares a number of the current exposure standards. The preparation of a guidance note 'Safety in the use of RF dielectric heating equipment' prepared by a working party consisting of equipment suppliers, users and trade unions had the supportive influence of the HSE, NRPB and the BNCE resulting in its publication in January 1986. The paper discusses this guidance and the basic strategies, there being potential hazards such as tissue burns, shock, mechanical hazards, emissions of, and exposure to, RF fields, and energy absorption. The paper deals with statutory requirements for minimising exposure to stray RF energy, emission measurements, exposure control and practical considerations. In conclusion, the author states that publicationof the guidance note offers a unique opportunity ahead of establishing any firm UK exposure standards, for suppliers and users supported by the trade unions and specialists in the spheres of measurement of electromagnetic fields and also evaluation of dielectric heating-equipment performance, to develop effective engineering controls and procedural arrangements for minimising occupational exposure. A total of 42 papers were presented at the Cambridge conference. This article refers to those covering the field of application. The extent of interest in this highly specialised electroheating technology has been emphasised in recent times as costs have grown for energy, materials and labour. Inevitably further development of the technology and its use is seen to allow for processing new materials which are needed for many sectors of industry and programmes for research.

I I

1MHz

lOMHz

100MHz frequency

lGHz

lOGHz

7 ASSUDRE, S., and PRIOU, A,: 'Microwave energy

8 9

Acknowledgment The author would like to thank the British National Committee for Electroheat for permission to use material from papers presented at the conference. References All the following papers were presented at the Conference of the British National Committee for Electroheatat Cambridge University, UK, in September 1986. Copies of papers can be obtained from the BNCE, 30 Millbank, LondonSW1 4RD, UK.
1 COX, E. R.: 'Developments in RF dielectric

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4 5 6

heating HOLLAND, J.: 'Energy efficient radio frequency drying 1986 SWIFT, D.:'The ARFA (air radio frequency assisted)dryer' SMITH, G. A,: 'Dielectric applicationsin textiles and auxiliary industries' THIEBAUT,J. M., VAUBOURG, J. I?,and ROUSEY, R.: 'Fluorite flotation under electromagnetic irradiation' BLUHM, D. D., et a/.:'Coal de-ashing and desulfurizationutilizing microwaveirradiation at 2450 MHz'

in heating processesof composite materials' WORMS, 5. B.: 'New magnetronwith composite magnetic system simplifies power stabilisation and regulation' BAILLOT,G.: 'Road maintenancewith a mobile microwave heating system' BERTEAUD, A. J., CLEMENT, R., and GERMAIN,A.: 'In-line microwave curing of charged polymer films and electronic component assembly' GOURDENNE, A.: 'Cross linking of composite materials with polymeric matrix and metallic fillers under microwavesat 2450 MHz' JULLIEN, H., DELMOTTE, M., and THUILLIER, F. M.: 'A curing of thermosetting resins by pulsed microwaves' RICKARDS, F? J.: 'The applicationof microwave heating in the foundry industry' CLIFF, M. J.: 'Drying of highly active pharmaceutical products using microwaves' SCHIFFMANN, R. F.: 'Food product development for microwaveprocessing' JAMES, S. J.: 'Microwave thawing and tempering of frozen meat' MEREDITH, R. J.: 'Recent advances in industrial microwave processingin the 896/915MHz frequency band' BANDLE, A. M.: 'Safety in the use of RF dielectric heating equipment'

6 Equivalent plane-wave power density 8h exposure standards

0 IEE. 1988

W. L. Harrisonis a Consultant in Electrotechnology, basedat 'Trefusis', Barrack Lane, Truro, Cornwall TRI 2DW. UK. He is an I E Fellow E 113

POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL MARCH 1988