PREFACE.

THE plan of "Graded and Higher Lessons in English, will perhaps be better understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which this course is brought into competition. 1\let.hod of One Class of Text-books.-In one class are thop - that aim chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in thf order of Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large space to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules, declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word parsing,- work of which a considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians, and has little value in determining the pupil's use of language or in developing his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the long-endured, unfruitful, old-time method. l'Hethod of Another Class of Text-books.- In another class are those that present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition, Spelling, Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and General Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes these books will have gained something by practice and will have picked pp some scraps of knowledge ; but his information will be vague and disconnected, and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of 11. good text-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as it presents a clear, logical development of its-subject. It must present its science or its art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no justification of its being. The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of 'Vords.- It is the plan of this course to trace with ea~y steps the natural development of the sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to the details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and to disregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcely intelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined only by its function in the sentence, and inflections simply mark the offices and relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically trained to discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an 3

Preface.

organic whole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It is not because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he falls into such errors as " How many sounds have each of the vowels ? " "Five years' interest are due." " She is older than wie." He probably would not say -'each have,'''' "interest aj-e," "me am." One thoroughly familiar with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using correctly the few inflectional forms in English. The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse. Through the study of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge cl the parts o2 speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we In the sentence the student disco \''T the laws of discourse in general. should tiu^ the law of unity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All good writing consists of good sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or unit of discourse, it is all-important that the He should be able to put the principal pupil should know the sentence. and the subordinate parts in their proper relation ; he should know the exact function of every element, its relation to other elements, and its He should know the sentence as the skillful relation to the whole. engineer knows his engine, that, when there is a disorganization of parts, he may at once find the difficulty and the remedy for it. The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation. The laws of thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of the sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired a knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation of a foreign language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his own language he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much greater must be his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue 1 A study of the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation, since the declensions and conjugations in English do

not conform to those of other languages. Teachers of the classics and of modern languages are beginning to appreciate these facts. The Study of the Sentence for Discipline. As a means of discipline nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the sentence. To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and to discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts of the thought, is to learn to think. It has been noticed that pupils thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come to their other studies with a decided advantage in intellectual power. These results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work. Experienced teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence

Preface.
at the beginning of a course

pline

and a few at the end can afford little disciIcnowledge that will endure, and that a knowledge of the sentence cannot be gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis. To compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as "complex adverbial element of the second class" and "compound prepositional adjective phrase," in order to comprehend a few simple functions, is grossly unjust it is a substitution of
and
little
;

form for content, of words for ideas. Teachers Subdivisions and Modifications after tlie Sentence. familiar with text-books that group all grammatical instruction around the eight parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the following lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it

sentence,

of connection unifying this work is the be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of sequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices of the different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is to continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech. The inflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes a separate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enable one to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent. In tracing the growth of the Paragraplis. Sentences in Groups sentence from the simplest to the most complex form, each element, as it is introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences, chosen with the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel the pupil to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand. Paragraphs from literature are then selected and are used at intervals, with questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented, and The to prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow. lessons on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider
is

remembered that the thread

it

will

They lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped into paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other and they lead him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the several models presented. The Use of tlie Diagram. In written analysis, the simple map, or diagram, found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present directly and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence, of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase to picture the complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and subordinate parts in their proper relations. It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture, that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence
scope.

6
as an organic

Preface.

whole made up of many parts performing various funcand standing in various relations. Without such a map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing all these things by piecemeal
tions

or in succession.

But, if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, they may be omitted witliout causing the slightest break in the work. The plan of this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams. The Objections to the Diagram. The fact that the pictorial diagram groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations, and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault. It is, on the contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through the literary order and discover the logical order. He thus learns what the literary order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefinitely, so long as the logical relations are kept clear. The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borne out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than in written. The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination of the sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty, and compels a decision on every point. The Abuse of the Diagram. Analysis by diagram often becomes so interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to be orardone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis. When the ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should be used only for the more difficult sentences or, if the sentences are In both oral and written long, only for the more difficult parts of them. When analysis there is danger of repeating what needs no repetition. the diagram has served its purpose, it should be dropped.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
TWENTY-FIVE CAREFULLY GRADED STEPS IN GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION; AND RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION AS NEEDED.
FAGC
1.

Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Simple Subjects and Predicates Capital Letters, Period, Interrogation Point,

2.

9-33 Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Subjects modified by Adjectives 33-44
Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Predicates modified

Parts of Speech, Nouns, Verbs, Pronouns

....

3.

by Adverbs
4.

44-60

Analysis and

Composition of Sentences with Subjects and Predicates modified by Prepositional Phrases The Para60-66

graph, Prepositions
5.

6.

Expansion of Adjectives and Adverbs into Phrases, and Contraction of Phrases into Adjectives and Adverbs 66, 67 Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Compound SubConjunctions, Interjections, Exclamajects and Predicates
. .

tion Point
7.

70-79

Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Nouns, Pronouns,

and Adjectives as Complements Object Complement, Attribute Complement, Narration, Position and Use of ilodifiers
.

79-84, 95-97
8.

Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Participles and

Infinitive Phrases

The

Participle, Descriptive

Writing

102-108

9.

Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Nouns and Pro-

nouns
10.

as Modifiers

Comma, Argument

115-120

Analysis and Composition of Complex Sentences containing 124-128 Adjective Clauses

11.

Analysis and Composition of Complex Sentences containing Adverb Clauses 129-132

7

Table of Contents.
PAGE

12.

13.

Analysis and Composition of Complex Sentences containing Koun Clauses 136-139 Analysis and Composition of Compound Sentences Inde-

pendent Clauses
14.

140, 141

Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory Sen-

tences
15.
16.

Continued Expansion and Contraction Classes of Nouns and Pronouns in Sentences

Classes of Adjectives in Sentences Classes of Verbs in Sentences Classes of Adverbs in Sentences

....
. . .

141-144

147-150
157-160
161, 162

17.

.....

18.
19.

162-165
166, 167

20.

Classes of Conjunctions and of Other Connectives in Sentences

167-170
21.

Nouns and Pronouns with

all

their Modifications in Sentences

176-192
22.

Adjectives and Adverbs with their one Modification in Sentences

193-197
. .

23.

24.

197-217 Verbs with all their Modifications in Sentences Composition of Sentences in Paragraphs and of Paragraphs
in

Themes

56-60, 86-89. 108-113, 12-'-124, 133-136, 145, 146,

152-156, 171-174
25.

Composition of Paragraphs Syntax, Proof Marks

.

in Letters

Summ nary

Review of Graded Lessons

Arbkeviations

Index

...... .......

A TALK ON LANGUAGE.
The
least

teacher

is

recommended

to

occupy the time of

at

two or three

recitations, in talking

with his pupils

about language, always remembering that, in order to

secure the interest of his class, he must allow his pupils to

take an active part in the exercise.

The
if

teacher should

guide the thought of his class

all

but,

he attempts to do
concludes, that he

the talking, he will find,

left to

when he

has been

do

all

the thinking.

We
self to

give below a few hints in conducting this talk on

is

language, but the teacher

not expected to confine himbe compelled, in some

them.

He

will, of course,

instances, to resort to various devices in order to obtain

from the pupils answers equivalent to those here suggested.

LESSON
Teacher.
distinctly,
letter,

1.

I will
:

pronounce these three sounds very slowly and

Notice,
it

thus

b-u-d.

is

the power, or sound, of the

and not

Pupil.
T.

Give
three

its

name, that I give.

What

did you hear?

heard three sounds.

them.
letters

them,

I will write b-u-d.

on the board, so that you can see

letters,

Are these

taken separately,

signs to

P.

you of anything?
Yes, they are signs to

me
9

of the three sounds that I have

just heard.

10
T.

Graded Lessons
these letters,

in English.

What then do taken your eye? They the sounds that came my then what Letters are the signs sounds. pronounce the same sounds uniting them more hud. These form a spoken word. Of what do you think when you hear the word hud? think a round thing that grows branch be a a Did you the thing when you were thinking No. Then you must have had a We your mind. mental picture an What up was up by the word hud, which A spoken word then the what A spoken word the sign an write another way. up the same and them thus hud. What do you the word hud. we the we word hud a spoken word, what This a written word. they stand the same how do they heard and
separately, picture to
to
ear.

P.
T.

picture

Letters

are the signs of

P.

of

T.

I will

rapidly,

closely

sounds, so united,

P.

of

little

to

leafy

or

flower.

T.

see

of

it ?

P.
T.

picture of

it

in

call this

idea.

called

this idea?

P.
T.

It

called

I heard.

is

sign of

P.
T.

is

of

idea.

I will call

idea in
:

I will
?

three letters

unite

see

P.

I see

T.

If
?

call

other

shall

call this

P.

is

T.

If

for
I

idea,

differ?

P.
T.

I see this,

that.

You
;

will observe that

viz.,

ent tilings

the real

which we have called an

we have called attention to four differbud your mental picture of the bud, idea and the two words, which we have
; ;

called signs of this idea, the one addressed to the ear,

to the eye.
If the

and the other

pupil be brought to see these distinctions,

it

may

aid

him

to

observe more closely and express himself more clearly.

Talk on Language.

11

LESSON
Teacher.
Pupil.

2.
1

What
I
;

did you learn in the previous Lesson

learned that a spoken

is

word

is

composed of certain
;

sounds

that a written word

composed of

letters

that letters are

signs of sounds
ideas.

and that spoken and

Avritten

words are the signs of

This question should be passed from one pupil to another

these answers are elicited.

till all

of

All the written words in all the English books ever

made

are formed

of twenty-six letters, representing about forty -four sounds.

ters

These

let-

and these sounds make up what

these twenty-six letters, a,
e,

is called
i,

verbal language.
y,

Of

o, u,

and sometimes "w and

consonants.

are called vowels,

and the remainder are

called

In order that you

stand
for,

may

understand what kind of sounds the vowels

will tell

and what kinds the consonants represent, I

you

something about the

human

voice.
flat

The
causes

air

breathed out from your lungs beats against two

muscles, stretched like strings across the top of the windpipe, and

them

to vibrate.

This vibration makes sound.

Put one end

it

of a thread between your teeth, hold the other end of

fingers,

in your

draw
made.

it

tight

and

strike

it,

and you

will

understand

how

voice

is

If the voice thus produced comes out through the

is

open mouth, a class of sounds

But,
if

formed which we

call

vowel sounds.
lips,

the voice

is

held back by your palate, tongue, teeth, or

i

one kind of consonant sounds

is

made.

If the breath

is

driven out

without voice, and

is

held back by these same parts of the mouth,

^

the other kind of consonant sounds

is

formed.

Called respectively sonants and surds.

We

suggest that you have

the pupils give the sounds of the vowel a in ale, care, am, arm, ask, and

12
The teacher and

Graded Lessons

in

English.
the three

pupils should practice on these sounds

till

kinds can easily be distinguished.

You

are

now

prepared to understand what I mean when I say

are the letters which stand for the

that the

vowels

open sounds

of the voice, and that the consonants are the letters which stand
for the

sounds made by the obstructed voice and the obstructed

breath.

The teacher can here

profitably spend a few minutes in showing

how

ideas

may be communicated by Natural Language,

the language

of sighs, groans, gestures of the hands, attitudes of the body, expressions of the face, tones of the voice, etc.
versation,

He

can show that, in con-

we sometimes

couple this Natural Language of tone and

gesture with our language of words in order to

impression.

make a

stronger
feel-

Let the pupil be told that,

if

the passage contain

ing, he should do the

same

in

Reading and Declaiming.

Let,

the following definitions be learned, and given at the next recitation.

Definition.

Verbal

language, or language proper, consists

of the spoken and written words used to communicate ideas

and thoughts.
Definition.
language.

English grammar

is

the science which teaches

the forms, uses, and relations of the words of the English

aU ;
orb,

the sounds of e in ye, end, and fern

of

i in ice

and

ill; of

and odd; and

of

in ufe, rude, full, up,

in get,
j, 1,

and urn.
r,

o in old, The sounds of

the sonants b, d, g in gin, g

in

m,

n,

s in

is,

s in vision, v,

z
of

Xenophon,
surds, c

x
in

in exact,
cent,

z
in

in zero,

and z

in seizure;

and the sounds

tJie

cut,

i,

h, k, p,

q, s, s in sure, t,

and

in wax.

A Talk on Language.

13

LESSON
Let
tlie

3.
in the

pupils be required to tell

what they learned

previous

Lessons.

Teacher.
star bud,
Pupil. T.

When
see

jironounce the

two words star and bud, thus

I call

swelling,

Do you any connection between ideas? P. No. T. When the two words bud and swelling thus bud do you any connection the they stand P. imagine that a bud expanding, growing
these
I

Two.

how many

ideas, or

mental pictures, do

up

to

you

utter

see

in

ideas

for

.Yes,

see

or

larger.

T.

is

Avill
'^

connect two words more closely, so as to express a

swell."

thought:

Buds
^'

thought has been formed in

my mind

when
thing

I say,

JBuds swell" ; and these two words, by which some-

said of something else, express that thought,

and make what

it

we

call

a sentence.

In the former expression, bud swelling,

;

is

assumed, or taken for granted, that buds perform the act

latter,

in the

the swelling
falling.

is

asserted as a fact.

Leaves
P.
T.

Do

these

two words express two ideas merely

associated, or

P.

leaves.

They "Leaves A Why? P. When

T.

do they express a thought?

express ideas merely associated.
fall."

What

do these two words express

thought.

Because, in these w^ords, there

is

something said or asserted of

T.

I say,
?

"Falling leaves rustle," does /a/^*f/

tell

what

is

thought of leaves

P. No.

14
T.

Graded Lessons

in English.

P.
T.

P.
T.

What What word You

Rustle.

does falling do ?

It tells the kind of leaves

you are thinking and speaking

is

of.

does

tell

what

thought of leaves

see then that in the thought there are

two parts
it.

some-

thing of which

we

think,

and that which we think about

Let the pupils give other examples.

LESSON
Commit
words.
to

4.

memory

all definitions.
is

Definition.

A Sentence^

the expression of a thought in

Which
ated,
1.

of the following expressions contain

words that
associ-

have no connection,^ which contain words merely

and which are sentences

13.
'14.

Flowers bloom.
Ice melts.

12. Sugar graze.

23. Birds chirp. 24. Gentle cows. 25. Eagles are soaring.
"26.
^27.

2.
'

Dew

sparkles.

3.
4.

Bloom

ice.

Hissing serpents.

Grass grows.

15.
16.

Smoke Smoke

curls.
hiss.

Bees

ice.

5.
'6.

Brooks babble.
Babbling brooks.
Grass soar.

Serpents

Working

bees;

17.
18.

curling.

28. Bees work. 29. Crawling serpents. 30. Landscape piano.

31.
32.

7.
8. 9.

Serpents sparkles.

Doors open.

19. Melting babble.

10.
^11.

Open Cows

doors.

20. Eagles soar. 21. Birds chirping.

Serpents crawl. Eagles clock.

graze.

Curling smoke.
if

22. Bird are chirping.

33. Serpents crawling.

Or,

preferred,

Sentence

is

a group of words expressing a thought.