Theory

Theory
The Noun
The Noun is a part of speech which names animate and inanimate things and abstract notions. According to their structure nouns can be simple and derived: Simple: Derived: boy, girl, mother, father, horse reader, writer, Buddhism, toy, tiger, friend, body, spirit, etc. examination, childhood, friendship, bookcase, forget-me-not, etc. According to their grammatical peculiarities and semantics nouns can be divided in to classes: Nouns: Proper and Common Proper nouns are names of human beings: Geographical areas (continents, countries, states, cities, towns, oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, mountains, etc.) the months, the days of the week, holidays, newspapers, magazines, theatres, cinemas, museums, libraries, hotels, restaurants, etc. Proper nouns are always written with capital letters. Common Nouns are of three main groups: countable /count/, those that can be counted and distinguish singular and plural; uncountable /non/count/, those that can be counted and consequently have no number distinctions; collective, those referring to groups of individuals or objects. Concrete and Abstarct nouns Countable/count/ nouns can be concrete (book, tree, house), or abstract (word, idea, hardship) Uncountable/ non-count/nouns can also be concrete or abstract. Uncountable concrete nouns are names of materials (butter, gold, water). Uncountable abstract nouns are words with general meaning expressing a property, quality, or state apart from any object or thing (honesty, whitness, homework)
Number
Present day English distinguishes two numbers: the singular and the plural. The singular form of the noun has a zero ending. The plural in the majority of cases takes the ending s. But there are a lot of exceptions: a) Nouns ending in s(ss), sh, ch, x, z form their plurals by adding es glass--------glasses brush-------brushes bench-------benches box---------boxes quiz---------quizzes
b) Most nouns ending in O preceded by a consonant take es in the plural: hero-------heroes potato-----potatoes But some nouns of foreign origin and abbreviated words ending in O add s only: piano------pianos
solo--------solos dynamo-----dynamos photo-------photos demo-------demos All nouns ending in O preceded by a vowel take s in the plural: radio-------radios cuckoo-----cuckoos studio------studios zoo---------zoos Some nouns ending in f or fe change f into v and add (e)s. These nouns are : wife, knife, life, self, calf, shelf, leaf, loaf, thief, sheaf, half, elf, e.g: wife-------wives knife------knives Some nouns ending in f may take both s or ves forms: scarf wharf hoof roof handkerchief scarfs or scarves wharfs or wharves hoofs or hooves roofs or rooves handkerchiefs or handkerchieves
Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form their plural by changing y into i and adding the suffix es: baby----------babies story----------stories country-------countries Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel form their plural regularly: boy---------boys day---------days A few nouns form their plural irregularly, ie the way they did in Old English: manmen, woman-women, foot-feet, goose- geese, tooth-teeth, mouse-mice, louse-lice, childchildren, ox-oxen. Some nouns have the same form both in the singular and the plural: a. sheep grouse plaice salmon b. series species means headquarters gasworks barracks sheep grouse plaice salmon series species means headquarters gasworks barracks
Some nouns denoting animal names have two forms in the plural. The s plural sometimes stresses the meaning of different species or individuals and is less common, e.g. fish herring deer trout fish, fishes herring, herrings deer, deers trout, trouts
Some foreign nouns, especially of Greek or Latin origin retain their original plural forms and not take - s in the plural: stimulus larva addendum stratum analysis basis hypothesis criterion phenomenon stimuli larvae addenda strata analyses bases hypothesis criteria phenomena
The majority of borrowed foreign nouns have both the regular s plural and the original irregular plural forms. The s plural is common in everyday language whereas the foreign plural is natural in the language of technical literature: cactus nucleus medium symphosium formula cactuses, cacti nucleuses, nuclei mediums, media symposiums, symposia formulas, formulae
Some nouns have two plural forms each carrying a different meaning: brothers sons of the same family brother brethren members of the same society geniuses people of great talent genius genii spirits indexes tables of contents index indices signs used in mathematics pennies the individual coins penny pence pence the value (in British currency) datums occurs in the sense of a `point`, etc used as reference in surveying datum data information ready for analysis NOTE that the noun die which formerly had two distinct plural forms (dies, dice) is no longer used in British or American English. The word dice has replaced the singular die; `pass me the dice, will you?` is commonly used even if the speaker
means only one. The form die is preserved in the old saying `The die is cast` = The decision has been made and cannot be changed. Compound nouns form the plural in different ways. Usually the more important element of the compound is pluralized. Accordingly, sometimes, the first element takes the plural ending: mother-in-law passer-by mothers-in-law passers-by
Sometimes the last element is pluralized: boyfriend stepson boyfriends stepsons
And there are cases when both components are made plural, e.g: woman doctor manservants Some nouns do not usually take the plural form and are known by the Latin name singularia tantum: a. mass nouns: gold, tea, music, poetry, etc b. the word`news`: No news is good news. c. some diseases: measles, mumps, rickets, shingles d. subject names ending in ics: linguistics, phonetics, mathematics, physics, etc. e. some games: billiards, cards, dominoes, draughts. Some nouns in English are used only in the plural. They are known by the Latin term pluralia tantum: a. nouns denoting tools and articles of dress consisting of two equal parts: scissors, spectacles, scales, glasses, trousers, shorts, braces, pants, etc. b. nouns that no longer have the corresponding singular meaning: the Middle Ages, arms, clothes, contents, customs, funds, goods, greens, holidays, means, minutes, headquarters, spirits, thanks, wages.
CASE
Case in English is a form of a noun or a personal pronoun that expresses different relationships of the nominal elements to other words in the sentence. English nouns have only two cases: the common case and the possessive or genitive case. The common case in present-day English has a very board meaning and we define it negatively: the common case expresses everything that the genitive does not express. The syntactic functions of a noun in the common case are subject, predicative, object, adverbial modifier and attribute. The genitive case expresses mainly the idea of possession. Possession is used here in the broad sense: Tom`s book, Tom`s lips, Tom`s wife, Tom`s story, Tom`s answer and etc.
The syntactic function of a noun in the genitive case is that of an attribute. The genitive case is used with nouns denoting: a. living beings: Ann`s hat, the soldier`s uniform, the dog`s tail
b. geographical areas and heavenly bodies: Georgia`s future, the

country`s wealth
c. names of instructions: the theatre`s exit, the school`s history d. space, time, weight, measure: a stone` throw, a day`s journey
Some similar relations are expressed in English by of-phrase: the the the the town`s population book`s title table`s leg wheel`s hub the population of the town the title of the book the leg of the table the hub of the wheel
Article
The article is the structural part of speech which signals nouns and specifies their application. The English language distinguishes two articles: the indefinite article a/ an and the definite article the. We use a/an only with singular noun; the plural or uncountable equivalent is some, or no article. We can use the with all types of nouns. We use the, when it is clear which one we mean. We also use a/an as complement when we are describing something: It was an unfortunate incident. The form of the articles audio Before a co sonant sound, the articles are a // and the //.
A shelf // + / / The shelf // + / / Before a vowel sound the articles are an /n/ and the / i/. An accident /n/ + / / The accident / i/ + / / It is pronunciation which matters, not the spelling of the word after the article. Note especially words beginning with o, u, or h, or abbreviations.
The Indefinite Article

Form
The indefinite article is represented by two forms: a and an. A is used when the word immediately following it begins with a consonant or a vowel sounding like a consonant. An is used when the word immediately following it begins with a vowel. Words beginning with h take a when sounded and an when unsounded: A hotel A hair An heir An hour
USAGE
The indefinite article is common with count nouns in singular number, though it may occur with mass nouns when a distinctive value is expressed. I have a sister and two brothers. The indefinite article is used: 1. with a noun denoting a person or thing introduced by the speaker as something new not mentioned before and thus known to the hearer.
2. to refer to one representative of a class of things 3. in a generic sense to refer to a class of things as a whole 4. with the meaning of one: a. in a certain numerical expressions She bought a dozen pencils. b. in a few combinations: Rome was built in a day. She finished a drink at a gulp. 5. with a distributive force in expressions of ratio, approaching in meaning to each/every 6. with the meaning of one and the same in some set expressions Birds of a feather flock together. The boys are of an age and get on well together. We are of a mind once more. 7. in exclamations before singular count nouns: What a pretty girl! What a funny story he told! 8. in various set expressions, eg: He took a fancy to the boy. He was in a hurry.
The Definite Article
Form The definite article the is pronounced / / when the word immediately following it begins with a consonant sound, and / i/ when the word immediately
following begins with a vowel sound. USAGE The definite article is used with both count and mass nouns when a definite reference is stressed; definite reference makes the noun unique. The definite article is used: 1. to represent a noun or thing referred to by the speaker as something identical with the one mentioned before and thus known to the hearer. 2. to refer to a particular member of a class of things differentiated by some features from other representatives of the same class. The differentiation may be realized: a. linguistically, ie by the addition of a phrase or clause: The dining table in her room is oval. Give me back the pencil I lent you. b. situationally, ie by reason of locality or cultural conventions. The definite article is used with unique nouns which are: a. concepts common to mankind as a whole: the sun, the moon, the earth, the sky, the air, the world etc b. concepts restricted to a particular society, nation or localilty: the climate, the press, the radio, the television. 3. with singular nouns to refer to a whole class of things, ie to give the noun a generic meaning. The camel is the ship of the desert. 4. with substantivized adjectives or participles to represent a whole class of things The rich must help the poor. 5. with some proper nouns a. A family name in the plural: The Robinsons, The Abashidzes b. Geographical names:
Oceans and seas, rivers, canals and channels, straits, mountain ranges, group of islands. c. Public institutions: Hotels and restaurants, theatres, cinemas, clubs, museums, libraries, etc d. Newspapers: The Times, The Observer, The New York Times, The Guardian, The Daily News
The articles: some special uses

A. We go to the cinema/theatre even if we do not mean a specific one. We havent been to the cinema for ages. B. If we are talking about television or radio in general sense as a medium or a business, then we use the noun on its own. Radio leaves more to the imagination than television does. C. When we are talking about playing musical instruments, we use the. Can you play the piano. D. We use the bus and the train in a general sense as a means of transport. But we use by bus and by train without the. I usually go to work on the bus. Our cat was run over by a bus last month. E. We say the police. The police arrived within five minutes. F. We can use a/an in expressions of frequency, price and speed. My brother shaves twice a day. These potatoes cost one pound twenty a kilo. But we can also use per in expressions of price and speed, e.g seventy miles per hour/70mph. G. We can say by the to say how something is measured. Carpets are sold by the square metre.
A/an or one?
A. A/an and one both refer to a single thing, but one puts more emphasis on the number. The family have a car. (They can travel by road) The family have one car. (They dont have two cars) B. We use one when we mean a single one among a larger number. One often contrasts with other. One shop was open, but the others were closed.
Absence of the article

The article is not used: A. with nouns in the plural when they are used in a general sense: Books are our friends. Tigers are beautiful animals. Men are very different from women. B. with mass nouns (concrete or abstract) when they are used in a general sense: Milk is good for babies. Butter is made from milk. BUT, when used in a limited sense, plural count nouns as well as mass nouns have the definite article. The books I bought were all by the same author. The gold in my ring is too soft.
C. with names of illnesses often considered as mass nouns: appendicitis, anaemia, diabetes, cholera, rickets, scarlet fever. But the plague. D. with count nouns in abstract meaning: 1. We go: to school, university to study to bed to sleep to sea as sailors to hospital as patients to prison as prisoners to court as litigants 2. Before names of meals regarded as a regular event: Breakfast is at eight I am afraid well be late for dinner. E. with nouns of rank, position or title: He was appointed Vice-President of St Andrews University. F. with most proper nouns: 1. Personal names: Mary Brown, Mr. Rayfield. 2. Temporal names, ie names of the months. 3. Names of festivals: May Day, Christmas 4. Geographical names: Names of continents Names of countries, republics, states Cities and towns Lakes Single mountains and mountain peaks Single islands G. In notes, notices, signs, posters, newspaper headlines, telegrams etc. H. with most magazines and periodicals: Time, Punch, Newsweek, Language, Life BUT, The Tatler I. In notes, notices, signs, posters, newspaper headlines, telegrams, etc Level Crossing Ahead Private Road Soft Verges Super Cinema Ritz Hotel Miners Ban Overtime Champion Retains Title
Certain points of article contrast

A. A noun in its abstract, general sense is used with no article. If you want to write a letter you need pen and paper. Man is a hunter, woman is his game. B. Proper nouns have unique reference. They are usually used with no article. But they can sometimes be reclassified as common nouns, ie take articles and plural number: Napoleon was born in 1769. He is a Napoleon of finance (one of several). He is the Napoleon of finance ( the only one).
Pronouns
The pronoun is a part of speech which has a deictic meaning and substitute or replace a noun, noun phrase, or even a whole situation. Pronouns are divided into the following groups:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Personal pronouns Reflexive pronouns Emphatic pronouns Possessive pronouns Demonstrative pronouns Interrogative pronouns Relative pronouns Indefinite pronouns
1. Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns are words like I , me , you or he. Personal pronoun dont always refer to people , although they often do. personal means first person (I, me, we, us),second person (you), and third person(he, him, she, her, it, they, them). We cant normally leave out a pronoun: Well he is quite tall. (not Well is quite tall). You describe him to me. (not You describe to me). But we can leave out some subject pronouns in informal speech. Subject and object forms These are the forms of the personal pronouns. Singular Subject Object First person Second person Third person I you he she it me you him her it Plural subject we you they object us you them E.g
2. Reflexive pronouns
Form We form reflexive and emphatic with self/selves. First person Second person Third person Singular myself yourself himself, herself, itself Plural ourselves yourselves themselves
Preposition + pronoun a. After a preposition we sometimes use a reflexive pronoun to make the meaning clear or to emphasize it. E.g Tom read an article about himself in the newspaper. (The article was about Tom and not about someone else.) b. We use a reflexive pronoun to refer to the subject after combinations such as verb + preposition, adjective + preposition, or noun + preposition.
The man next to me kept talking to himself. I was annoyed with myself for making a mistake. c. When a reflexive pronoun comes after a preposition, it can refer back to the object rather than the subject. E.g I showed Tom the article about himself in the newspaper. Idioms with reflexive pronouns a. There are some idiomatic uses of a verb + reflexive pronoun. E.g I hope you enjoy yourself. (= have a good time) Can we just help ourselves? (= take e.g. food) b. In the idioms with help, we stress self/selves. By yourself means alone. E.g Lauren was sitting in the corner by herself/ on her own. c. These verbs do not usually take a reflexive pronoun: bath, change(your cloth), dress, shave, undress, wash. E.g Tom dressed quickly and went down to breakfast. d. But we can use a reflexive pronoun with an action needing skill or effort. E.g The old man was unable to dress himself. e. We can use a reflexive pronoun after be, feel, look, or seem. E.g Claire didnt look herself/her usual self yesterday.
E.g
3. Emphatic pronouns
The emphatic pronouns (myself, yourself, etc) have the same form as reflexive pronouns. We use an emphatic pronoun to emphasize a noun phrase. Self/selves is stressed. E.g Walt Disney himself was the voice of Mickey Mouse. (Walt Disney and not someone else). An emphatic pronoun can also mean without help. E.g We built the garage ourselves . Did you do all this electrical wiring yourself? In this meaning , the pronoun usually comes at the end of the sentence. By + reflexive pronoun has a similar meaning. E.g Did you do all this electrical wiring by yourself/on your own? Myself and yourself are sometimes used instead of I/me and you even when there is no reflexive or emphatic meaning. This can happen after and or or. E.g The Sales Manager and myself will be attending the meeting. Enquiries should be answered either by Alice or yourself. This usage is rather formal. Myself sometimes means as for me, as far as I am concerned. E.g You can deal with the matter. Myself , Ill be on holiday. I cant stand football, myself.
4. Possessive pronouns
The possessive pronoun points out possession. They appear in two forms: conjoint (bound) forms and absolute (free) forms. Conjoint (bound) forms My (book) Your His Her Its Our Their Absolute (free) forms Mine Your His Hers Its Ours Theirs
Sometimes own is used with possessive pronouns to avoid ambiguity, or for the sake of emphasis. E.g He did his own work (He did his work may mean his own or somebody elses work). I hurt my own hand (emphatic). The possessive pronouns in the bound form function as attribute: E.g That isnt my hat! Where is you r keys? b.The possessive pronouns in the free form always stand alone. They are independent and are never followed by a noun. Like nouns, these pronouns can functions subject, predicative and object. E.g Hers was certainly a very beautiful voice(subject). This problem is mine! (predicative). This is my book. I want yours, too(object).
The possessive pronouns in the absolute form are sometimes used with the preposition of to express possession this construction is equivalent to the double genitive in nouns. The form a friend of mine, a sister of hers refer to one of my friends, or one of her sisters, unlike my friend and my sister which points to a definite (only one) friend or sister.
5. Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns have a distinct deictic meaning. They express reference to object near or remote in distance or time. They distinguish singular and plural numbers: Near reference Remote reference Singular this that Plural these those
In colloquial English this and that are often used as adverbs as degree, instead of so: E.g I didnt realize it was going to be this hot. I dont like the book that much.
6. Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are those used to form a question. They take the place of unknown subjects or objects in questions. They are: who, whom, whose, what, which. The pronouns who, whom, whose refer to persons only, and what and which may refer both to persons and things. Who and whom function as nouns, whereas whose, what, which have both determiner and noun functions. 1. Who and whom are used to ask about a persons identity. Who is the nominative case and it is used in the function of subject. Its corresponding objective objective case form whom functions as object. In present-day English there is a tendency to use who instead of whom, especially in informal usage. When governed by a preposition, preposition + whom is typical of formal English, whereas in informal English the preposition stands at the end of the sentence and question word is who (not whom). E.g Whom did they invite? (direct object, formal) Who did you invite? (direct object, informal) 2. Whose asks about possession. It refers to persons only. Whose may be used as determiner or noun pronoun and function as attribute or predicative in the sentence: E.g Whose house is that? (attribute) Whose was that voice? (predicative) Prepositions can come either before whose in formal speech or at the end of the sentence in informal speech: E.g For whose benefit were all these changes made? Whose side are you on? In short questions with no verb, prepositions come before whose: E.g Im going to buy a car.- With whose money? 3. Nounal what may function as subject, object or predicative and determiner what functions as attribute in the sentence: E.g Whats making noise? The washing machine (subject). Whats David making? Football (predicative). What color are your eyes? (attribute). What may refer to a person as well, to ask about a persons profession, role or status: E.g Whats her husband? Hes a film director. It is worth mentioning that there is a difference between the constructions What kind of + noun and What kind of a + noun. The first asks about the class or category individuals or things belong to, the second
inquires about the quality of a thing, or capability or proficiency of an individual, sometimes with a negative connotation. E.g What kind of man is he? What kind of a man is he? What kind of doctor is he? What kind of a doctor is he? 4. Which implies selection. It may be used of persons and things. Which can serve both as determiner and noun pronoun. Which functions as subject, object and attribute in the sentence. E.g Which is your car? (subject) Which would you like tea or coffee? (object) Which way shall we go up the hill or along the river bank?(attribute) Which suggests, primarily, a choice of two alternatives either this or that. Limited selection is often expressed by which + an + of phrase or which + one (ones): E.g Which of these girls is your friend? Which of you will go with me
7. Relative pronoun
Relative pronouns introduce subordinate attributive clauses. At the same time, the retain an independent syntactic function in the subordinate clause. Relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, what, that. Who and whom are used of persons; which is used of things; whose and that refer to persons and things. E.g A vegetarian is a person who eats no meat. I have a TV which is not working. What differs from the other relative pronouns in that it contains its antecedent. It implies the meaning that which. E.g What I mean is this. What I like is her style. The usage of relative pronouns largely depends on the type of attributive clause. Attributive clauses may be defining (restrictive , identifying) and non-defining (nonrestrictive, non identifying). Non defining attributive clauses do not identify the antecedent but provide additional information, not essential to the meaning of the sentence. They are separated from the principal clause by pauses in speech, and by commas in writing. E.g One of the girls, who played in the volleyball team, twisted her ankle. Non defining attributive relative clauses are heavy and formal and therefore unusual in spoken English. But they are common in written English. Whom is typical of non-defining clauses: E.g The small man in the raincoat, whom nobody recognized, turned out to be Olivias first husband.
8. Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns are general and indeterminate in their reference to persons and things. They do not specify the identity of their object, i.e they do not stand for a definite person or thing. Indefinite pronouns can be subdivided into the following three groups: 1. indefinite pronouns proper: a. some, any, no with their compounds (somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything, nobody, no one, nothing), none. b. One 2. distributive pronouns: each, every, with its compounds (everybody, everyone, everything), both, all, other, another, either, neither. 3. quantitative pronouns (quantifies): many, much, more, most, few, fewer, fewest, little, less, least, a little, a few, a lot (of), several, enough. Some and any express uncertain, indefinite or unknown number or quantity. They are used both as determiner and noun pronouns. As determiners they are used with non count nouns and plural count nouns. E.g Please give me some milk. We havent any tea. Have you got any pens? Some is generally used in affirmative sentences, any is used in interrogative and negative sentences. E.g I want some pens. Have you got any pens? Some may occur in interrogative sentences, especially in offers and requests, when a positive answer is expected. E.g Will you have some cake? Can I have some bananas, please? Some can be used with singular count nouns in the meaning of an unknown person or thing ( , , ). It often suggests lack of interest, or contempt, lack of respect. E.g man. Hes living at some place in East Africa. Some (always stressed) is often contrasted with the rest, other (s), and all: E.g Some children learn languages easy (and others with difficulty) All work is not dull; some work is pleasant. All is used in affirmative sentences containing a negative meaning realized by adverbs, verbs, prepositions. E.g They hardly had any time for lunch. The noise of the party prevented me from getting any sleep. Mary went off to Australia with some
Any is used in affirmative sentences with the meaning of practically every, no particular(one), no matter which. In this meaning it is usually stressed. E.g Come any day that is convenient for you. You can choose any book you like. If some and any are followed by another determiner (article, demonstrative or possessive pronoun)some of or any of must be used. When there is no other determiner in the noun phrase, of is not used E.g Some of the people BUT, Some people. Some of these cigarettes BUT, Some cigarettes. No has a negative meaning. It means almost the same as not a or not any. No is more emphatic than not any. E.g We had no milk = we hadnt any milk. No, like some and any con not be used when there is another determiner; none of is used instead: E.g None of the trees are still alive. None of my friends live near hear. None of means not any of. It is used, like no, at the beginning of a sentence, and in other positions when it is necessary to emphasize the negative idea. E.g None of your excuses are acceptable. None of this paint is still usable. Compound indefinite pronouns(somebody, anybody, nobody, someone, anyone, no one, something, nothing) are noun pronouns. They obey the same rules of usage as their corresponding simple pronouns some, any, no. The compound pronouns in-body and one are used only of persons and may have the genitive case form: E.g I took somebodys pen by mistake. Hes nobodys fool. The compound pronouns in- thing are used only of inanimate objects. Somebody often occurs with the indefinite article to mean a person of some importance. E.g hes a somebody in his own village. He fancied himself a somebody. One is a noun pronoun. It distinguishes singular and plural numbers (oneones) and has the genitive case E.g One con not escape ones destiny and what is to happen will certain take place. Hes nobody here in town but I suppose
One is often used as a substitute for a noun to avoid repetition. One can only replace count nouns: E.g I havent got a pen. Can you lend me one? I havent got any stamps. Will you please give me one?
The Adjective
The adjective is a part of speech which denotes the features, qualities, or properties ascribed to a noun. It tells us what someone or something is like. According to their structure adjectives can be simple or derived: Simple Good, bad, hard, new, black, big, long, thick, thin, fine, strong, lazy, etc. Derived Irritant, fortunate, comical, wretched, silken, hopeful, sensible, divine, glorious, thirsty, light-blue, etc. According to semantics and grammatical peculiarities, adjectives can be divided into the following groups: 1. Descriptive, denoting quality, age, colour, shape. 2. Limiting, comprising restrictive adjectives, adjectives denoting order or succession, denominal adjectives denoting nationality and style, denominal adjectives denoting material. 3. Intensifying adjectives: a real hero, a complete victory, a perfect idiot, a close friend, an extreme kindness. Degrees of comparison There are three degrees of comparison in English: positive, comparative and superlative. English has three ways of forming degrees of comparison of adjectives: 1. Synthetic, ie by means of the suffix er(r), -est(st). 2. Analytic, ie by means of the words more and most 3. Irregular, formed by suppletions or sound interchange. Parallel constructions are formed by means of: a. The + comparativethe +comparative expressing proportionate relations: The more the merrier. b. comparative + comparative expressing gradual increase or decrease: He is getting better and better The storm became more and more violent.
Adverb
The adverb is a part of speech which completes or modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb. The relation of an adverb to a verb is like that of an adjective to a noun. The adverb limits or qualifies the meaning of the verb, it direct and specializes it. According to their structure, adverbs cab be simple (primary) or derived (secondary). Simple Here, there, now, Then, far, well. Derived Quickly, loudly, forward, Nowhere, sometimes, wise.
The syntactic function of the adverb in a sentence is that of an adverbial modifier. According to semantics and syntactic functions, adverbs can be divided into the following groups:
1. Adverbs of manner, also called descriptive: well, fast, easily, softly 2. Adverbs of place, distance and direction: here, there, abroad, far, left,
upstairs
3. Adverbs of time and duration: now, just, early, long, always, today, soon,
lately
4. Adverbs of frequency and repetition: often, seldom, once, sometimes,
daily, twice 5. Restrictive and additive adverbs: only, mainly, mostly, similarly, again, also, even 6. Adverbs of degree: fairly, hardly, much, completely, enough, partially, fully
Some problems with adjectives and adverbs

Some adjectives and adverbs are identical in form, but their meaning is either similar or totally different: (a): fast, little, long, early, late, only, daily, weekly, high, hard, etc. ADJECTIVES ADVERBS This train is fast. This train is going fast. He is a hard worker. He works hard. They arrived at a late hour. He always comes to school late.
(b): just, short, pretty, clean, sharp, right, dead, etc. ADJECTIVES ADVERBS Just (samarTliani) Just (axlaxan, zustad, mxolod) A just judge is always impartial. He has just arrived. Short (mokle) Short (moulodnelad) Days are short in winter. He stopped short. Clean (sufTa) Clean (sruliad) At last he has very clean shoes on. I clean forgot to ask. The best way of differentiating between adjectives and adverbs is by syntactic function and semantics. The adjective is an attribute or predicative in the sentence; the adverb is an adverbial modifier. The adjective basically modifies a noun, whereas the adverbs modifies a verb. ADJECTIVE ADVERB I am an early riser. Ill call early for you. (attribute) (adverbial modifier) Some English adverbs distinguish parallel forms with or without the suffix ly. Some of these forms coincide in meaning, others do not. To the first group belong adverbs like quick-quickly, slow-slowly, loud-loudly. The second group belong adverbs with completely different meanings and shades in meaning: deep-deeply, direct-directly, hard-hardly, high-highly, just-justly, latelately, most-mostly, near-nearly, pretty-prettily, right-rightly, short-shortly. Deep deeply The explorers went deep into the jungle. He is deeply interested in this subject. Direct directly
The train goes there direct. She answered me very directly and openly. Hard hardly He climbed high. He is highly educated.
The Numeral
The numeral is a part of speech denoting exact number or order. Accordingly there are cardinal (one, two, three, etc) and ordinal (first, second, third, fourth, etc.) numerals. The English numeral system is demical. Cardinal numbers from 1(one) to 10 (ten) are root words. Eleven and twelve, now simple numerals, are historically compound words meaning `one over ten` and `two over ten`. All the other numerals are either derivatives (fifteen, sixty) or compounds beginning with twenty-one (twenty-five, ten thousand). Numerals from 13(thirteen) to 19(nineteen) are formed by the suffix teen, e.g: sixteen is a combination of six and ten and etc. Numerals from 20(twenty) to 90(ninety) are formed by the suffix ty, which again is a modification of ten, e.g: sixty means six tens and etc. The numerals hundred, thousand, million, are always used in the singular following both singular and plural numbers: 100 one / a hundred 1,000 one / a thousand 6,000,000 / six million Their corresponding homonymous nouns hundreds, thousands, millions do not express precise number, they merely convey the idea of a large, indefinite number, and are used in the plural followed by the preposition of: Hundreds of people Millions of pounds Similarly, when expressing exact number dozen (=12) and score (=20) have no plural form: I bought two dozen eggs yesterday Fourscore years ago, my grandmother was born. Ordinal numbers are derived from the corresponding cardinal numerals by adding the suffix th (eth) beginning with four: four twenty fourth twentieth
The ordinal numbers first, second and third are exceptional in form. They do not employ the usual ordinal suffix. The ordinals first and second are not related etymologically to the cardinals one and two. The ordinal third is formed by adding the suffix d to the modified root third which appears also in the cardinals thirteen and thirty. Note the following spelling rules: a. Cardinal numerals ending in y change y into i before the suffix - eth: twenty twentieth b. Cardinal numerals five and twelve change v into f and drop e before the suffix th: five fifth c. eight adds only h, nine drops e before the suffix th eight eighth Ordinal numerals expressed by Roman figures are used for titles of kings and queens, for dates on monuments, and special pagination of the introductory pages of some books. Ordinal numerals are generally preceded by the definite article. With titles of kings and queens in Roman figures the is not written but it should be read. Henry VIII Elizabeth II Henry the Eighth Elizabeth the second
NOTE that, unlike Georgian, English prefers cardinal numerals after certain nouns, eg: volume 2 (meore tomi), chapter 5 (mexuTe Tavi), part 2 (nawili meore), page 10(meaTe gverdi), room 6 (oTaxi meeqvse). There are cases, however, when with one and the same noun an ordinal numeral is used initially and a cardinal numeral follows the noun: the the the the the First World War / World War One Second World War / World War Two First Division / Division One (used in football) Second Division / Division Two Third Division / Division Three
Preposition
The preposition is a structural part of speech, a help-word, which indicates the relation of an object (noun or noun equivalent) to other parts of the sentence. This relation may be locative, temporal, instrumental, etc. The preposition may link a noun with: a. a verb: During sleep, we sometimes dream of things which we have done when we awake (expressing relationship between sleep and dream)
b. an adjective: Weary with fatigue, they set off home (expressing relationship between weary and fatigue) c. another noun or pronoun: What is the history of this village? (expressing relationship between village and history) A preposition is usually placed before a noun or a non-equivalent which it governs, but it is typical of informal spoken English to place a preposition in the final position. This is most common in: a. Wh- questions: Who do you want the medicine for? (informal) For whom do you want the medicine? (formal) b. relative clauses: I have found the book that I was looking for. c. exclamations: What a plight your dictionary is in! d. infinitive phrases: It`s nothing to worry about, I suppose Being structure words, prepositions have no syntactic function in the sentence, but prepositional units may function as object, attribute, adverbial modifier. Position and movement Most prepositions of place can say where something is or where it is going. Position: There was a barrier across the road. Movement: A dog ran across the road in front of us. At usually expresses position, to expresses movement. Position: Everyone was at the caf. Movement: Everyone went to the caf. As a general rule, in and on express position, and into and onto express movement. Position: We were sitting in the caf. She stood on the balcony. Movement: We went into the caf. She walked onto the balcony. After lay, place, and put we usually use in or on rather than into and onto. E.g They laid the body on a blanket. I put a clean sheet on the bed. Compare the use of at, on, and in in these phrases. at in on
in Spain/Bristol at 52 Grove Road Grove Road at your house at the station at home/work/school the room/lesson a book/newspaper
on 42nd street(US) on the third floor on the platform
in
in on the page on the screen in in in in i
the photo/picture on the island the country at the seaside the middle n the distance on the back of an envelope the back of the car at the back/end/front of the queue queue/line/row in in a on the beach/coast on the right/left
Word building
English is a very flexible language and you can build on your vocabulary and learn how to make new words. One way of doing this is to add prefixes (such as dis, pre or co) before the word. Here's a list of common prefixes with their meanings and some examples. anti (= against) antibodies, anti-social auto (self) autonomous, autobiography, automobile bi (= two) bicycle co (= with) cooperate, coordinate contra (= against) contradict, contravene de (= remove) deregulate, deselect dis (= not) disappear il (= not) illegal im (= not) immaterial, immature inter (= between) international
mis(= badly/wrongly) misinform, misbehave, misunderstand multi (= many) multinational non (= opposite) non-profit out (= more than) outperform, outdone over (= too much) oversleep, overwork post (= after) postpone, postnatal pre (= before) predict re (= again) rewrite, relive sub (= under) submarine super (= higher/improved) supermarket trans (= across) transatlantic uni (= one) uniform under (= not enough) underpaid, underfed Word Endings You can also make new words from the words you already know by using different endings. For example, "The person who employs me has a fast car". You can make this sentence simpler, by replacing "the person who employs me" with "my employer". This gives you "My employer has a fast car." In English you can make nouns from verbs (to employ gives employer and employee). You can also make verbs from nouns or adjectives: government gives to govern, modern gives to modernise and so on. Learning what endings you can put on words means you can expand your vocabulary and say what you mean more easily. Here are some common word endings: Nouns -er /- or: a person who does something adviser / advisor, teacher, learner -ian optician, mathematician -ment: result of action improvement, advancement -ism: name of system or belief realism, optimism -ist: the person who believes in the system realist, optimist -ion confusion, apparition
-ness happiness -ship leadership -ence / ance permanence, appearance -acy lunacy -age marriage -ity annuity -y photography -cy fluency Verbs -ify falsify, modify -ise modernise Adjectives -ic idiotic, periodic -ful awful, wonderful -able / ible comfortable, terrible -proof / resistant waterproof, childproof, fireproof -free alcohol free beer, nuclear free zone -less: without hopeless, childless
Modals
There is the list of modal verbs: Can Had better May Could Have to Might Must Shall Ought to Will Should
Would
Modals are always followed by the base form of a verb. Modals have many meanings and can be used for a variety of purposes. Modal We can leave after 2:30. We could leave after 2:30. may might We had better leave after 2:30. ought to Meaning This is within our ability. This is a possibility. This is advisable.
should We have to leave in the morning. must We will leave in the morning. Shall We would leave every morning at 8:30. That woman must be the new president. Im lost. I must have taken a wrong turn. You cant be hungry you just ate! He couldnt have taken the book. I had it with me.
This is a necessity. This is our intention. This is a past habit. This is an assumption. This is an assumption concerning a past action. This seems like an impossibility. This seems like an impossibility.
Active and Passive Voice

An active sentence focuses on the person or thing doing the action. A passive sentence focuses on the person or thing affected by the action: Active Washington Augustus Roebling finished the Broolkyn Bridge in 1883. Passive The Brooklyn Bridge was finished in 1883. The passive voice is formed by the verb be in the appropriate tense followed by the past participle of the verb. Active Passive Present simple +past participle grown in tropical areas. Present continuous ing +past participle They grow bananas in Tropical areas. They are redecorating the caf. being redecorated. Present perfect Has anyone peeled the has/have+been+past participle Simple carrots? carrots been peeled? Past simple They served the meal in was/were+ing+past participle an elegant dining room served in an dining room. Past continuous +ing+past participle coffee while the bill We asked for a coffee while they were preparing am/is/are Bananas are am/is/are + The caf is
Have the
The meal was elegant was/were We asked for
the bill. prepared. Past perfect simple has+been+past participle had been eaten by the Someone had eaten all the
Was being
Food by the time I got there. All the food time I got there. Will future past participle be delivered in forty minutes. Be going to to+be+past participle future going to be sued by Overweight customers are going to sue Burgerland is/are going Burgerland is overweight customers. Future perfect They will have harvested will+have+been+past participle simple all the grapes by the end of will have been September. the end of September. Modal You should brush the chicken modal+be+past participle breast with oil and then fry it. breast should be with oil and then fried. Modal+perfect They should have delivered modal+have+been+past participle infinitive the groceries by now. should have been by now. --ing (gerund) participle. being told what to do in the kitchen. The Medial ( Neuter) Voice
Sometimes the subject of a sentence is neither the doer nor the surferer (undergoer) of the action. The meaning of the sentence is closer to the passive, but the subject is combined with an active verb. Constructions of this kind belong to the medial or neuter voice. Very often medial voice constructions are followed by manner adverbials.
We will deliver your pizza in forty minutes.
will + be + Your pizza will
All the grapes harvested by
The chicken brushed
The groceries delivered
I dont like people telling me what to do in the kitchen.
being+past I dont like
Simple Present
FORM [VERB] + s/es in third person Examples:

You speak English. Do you speak English? You do not speak English.
Complete List of Simple Present Forms USE 1 Repeated Actions
Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do.
Examples:

I play tennis. She does not play tennis. Does he play tennis? The train leaves every morning at 8 AM.
USE 2 Facts or Generalizations
The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make generalizations about people or things. Examples:

California is not in the United Kingdom. Windows are made of glass. Windows are not made of wood. New York is a small city. IT
IS NOT IMPORTANT THAT THIS FACT IS UNTRUE.
USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future
Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled events in the near future. This is most commonly done when talking about public transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events as well. Examples:

The train leaves tonight at 6 PM. The bus does not arrive at 11 AM, it arrives at 11 PM. When do we board the plane?
USE 4 Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)
Speakers sometimes use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is happening or is not happening now. This can only be done with Non-Continuous Verbs and certain Mixed Verbs. Examples:

I am here now. She is not here now. He needs help right now. He does not need help now. He has his passport in his hand. Do you have your passport with you?
ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples:

You only speak English. Do you only speak English?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples:

Once a week, Tom cleans the car. ACTIVE Once a week, the car is cleaned by Tom. PASSIVE
Present Continuous
FORM [am/is/are + present participle] Examples:

You are watching TV. Are you watching TV?
You are not watching TV. Complete List of Present Continuous Forms USE 1 Now
Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs to express the idea that something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to show that something is not happening now. Examples:

They are reading their books. They are not watching television. What are you doing? Why aren't you doing your homework?
USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now
In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second. Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in a restaurant.)

I am studying to become a doctor. I am not studying to become a dentist. I am reading the book Tom Sawyer.
USE 3 Near Future
Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will or will not happen in the near future. Examples:

I am meeting some friends after work. I am not going to the party tonight. Is he visiting his parents next weekend? Isn't he coming with us tonight?
USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"
The Present Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing." Examples:

She is always coming to class late. He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up. I don't like them because they are always complaining.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Present. Examples:

She is loving this chocolate ice cream. Not Correct She loves this chocolate ice cream. Correct

You are still watching TV. Are you still watching TV?

Right now, Tom is writing the letter. ACTIVE Right now, the letter is being written by Tom. PASSIVE
Past Simple
FORM [VERB+ed] or irregular verbs Examples:

You called Debbie. Did you call Debbie?
You did not call Debbie. Complete List of Simple Past Forms USE 1 Completed Action in the Past
Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind. Examples:

I saw a movie yesterday. I didn't see a play yesterday. Last year, I traveled to Japan.
USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions
We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on. Examples: I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.

He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00.
Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?
USE 3 Duration in Past
The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc. Examples:

I lived in Brazil for two years. Shauna studied Japanese for five years. They sat at the beach all day. They did not stay at the party the entire time. We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
A: How long did you wait for them? B: We waited for one hour. USE 4 Habits in the Past
The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc. Examples:

I studied French when I was a child. He played the violin. He didn't play the piano.
USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations
The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression "used to." Examples:

She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing. He didn't like tomatoes before.
Did you live in Texas when you were a kid? People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.
IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when I dropped my pen..." or "when class began..." These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses. Examples:

When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question. She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.
When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important whether "when I paid her one dollar" is at the beginning of the sentence or at the end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answered my question, and then, I paid her one dollar. Example:
I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.

You just called Debbie. Did you just call Debbie?

Tom repaired the car. ACTIVE The car was repaired by Tom. PASSIVE
Past Continuous
FORM [was/were + present participle] Examples:
You were studying when she called. Were you studying when she called? You were not studying when she called.
Complete List of Past Continuous Forms USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past
Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time. Examples:

I was watching TV when she called. When the phone rang, she was writing a letter. While we were having the picnic, it started to rain. What were you doing when the earthquake started? I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm.
USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption
In USE 1, described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by a shorter action in the Simple Past. However, you can also use a specific time as an interruption. Examples:

Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner. At midnight, we were still driving through the desert. Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.
IMPORTANT In the Simple Past, a specific time is used to show when an action began or finished. In the Past Continuous, a specific time only interrupts the action. Examples:
I I
STARTED EATING AT
Last night at 6 PM, I ate dinner. 6 PM. Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner. 6 PM, I WAS IN THE PROCESS OF EATING
DINNER.
STARTED EARLIER; AND AT
USE 3 Parallel Actions
When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the same time. The actions are parallel. Examples:

I was studying while he was making dinner. While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television. Were you listening while he was talking?
I wasn't paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I made several mistakes. What were you doing while you were waiting? Thomas wasn't working, and I wasn't working either. They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good
time. USE 4 Atmosphere In English, we often use a series of parallel actions to describe the atmosphere at a particular time in the past. Example: When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing, some were talking on the phones, the bosswas yelling directions, and customers were waiting to be helped. One customer was yelling at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were complaining to each other about the bad service.
USE 5 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"
The Past Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happened in the past. The concept is very similar to the expression "used to" but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing." Examples:

She was always coming to class late. He was constantly talking. He annoyed everyone. I didn't like them because they were always complaining.
While vs. When
Clauses are groups of words which have meaning, but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when she called" or "when it bit me." Other clauses begin with "while" such as "while she was sleeping" and "while he was surfing." When you talk about things in the past, "when" is most often followed by the verb tense Simple Past, whereas "while" is usually followed by Past Continuous. "While" expresses the idea of "during that time." Study the examples below. They have similar meanings, but they emphasize different parts of the sentence. Examples:

I was studying when she called. While I was studying, she called.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Past. Examples:

Jane was being at my house when you arrived. Not Correct Jane was at my house when you arrived. Correct

You were just studying when she called. Were you just studying when she called?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples: The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store. ACTIVE

The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store. PASSIVE
Simple Future
Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a specific time in the future.
FORM Will [will + verb] Examples:

You will help him later. Will you help him later? You will not help him later.
FORM Be Going To [am/is/are + going to + verb] Examples:

You are going to meet Jane tonight. Are you going to meet Jane tonight? You are not going to meet Jane tonight.
Complete List of Simple Future Forms USE 1 "Will" to Express a Voluntary Action "Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. A voluntary action is one the speaker offers to do for someone else. Often, we use "will" to respond to someone else's complaint or request for help. We also use "will" when we request that someone help us or volunteer to do something for us. Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to voluntarily do something. Examples:

I will send you the information when I get it. I will translate the email, so Mr. Smith can read it. Will you help me move this heavy table?
USE 2 "Will" to Express a Promise "Will" is usually used in promises. Examples:

I will call you when I arrive.
If I am elected President of the United States, I will make sure everyone has access to inexpensive health insurance. USE 3 "Be going to" to Express a Plan
"Be going to" expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not. Examples:

He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii. She is not going to spend her vacation in Hawaii.
A: When are we going to meet each other tonight? B: We are going to meet at 6 PM. I'm going to be an actor when I grow up. Michelle is going to begin medical school next year.
USE 4 "Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a Prediction Both "will" and "be going to" can express the idea of a general prediction about the future. Predictions are guesses about what might happen in the future. In "prediction" sentences, the subject usually has little control over the future and therefore USES 1-3 do not apply. In the following examples, there is no difference in meaning. Examples:

The year 2222 will be a very interesting year. The year 2222 is going to be a very interesting year. John Smith will be the next President.
IMPORTANT In the Simple Future, it is not always clear which USE the speaker has in mind. Often, there is more than one way to interpret a sentence's meaning. No Future in Time Clauses Like all future forms, the Simple Future cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Simple Future, Simple Present is used. Examples:

When you will arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Not Correct When you arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Correct

You will never help him. Will you ever help him?

John will finish the work by 5:00 PM. ACTIVE The work will be finished by 5:00 PM. PASSIVE
Future Continuous
Future Continuous has two different forms: "will be doing " and "be going to be doing." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Continuous forms are usually interchangeable. FORM Future Continuous with "Will" [will be + present participle] Examples:

You will be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight. Will you be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?
FORM Future Continuous with "Be Going To " [am/is/are + going to be + present participle] Examples:

You are going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight. Are you going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?
You are not going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight. REMEMBER: It is possible to use either "will" or "be going to" to create the Future Continuous with little difference in meaning. Complete List of Future Continuous Forms USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Future
Use the Future Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the future will be interrupted by a shorter action in the future. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time. Examples:
I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.
I will be waiting for you when your bus arrives.
I am going to be staying at the Madison Hotel, if anything happens and you need to contact me. He will be studying at the library tonight, so he will not see Jennifer when she arrives. Notice in the examples above that the interruptions are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because the interruptions are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses. USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption in the Future
In USE 1, described above, the Future Continuous is interrupted by a short action in the future. In addition to using short actions as interruptions, you can also use a specific time as an interruption. Examples:
Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.

WILL BE IN THE PROCESS OF EATING DINNER.
At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert.

WILL BE IN THE PROCESS OF DRIVING THROUGH THE DESERT.
WE
REMEMBER In the Simple Future, a specific time is used to show the time an action will begin or end. In the Future Continuous, a specific time interrupts the action. Examples:
I I
AM GOING TO START EATING AT
Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to eat dinner. 6 PM. Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner. I WILL BE IN THE PROCESS OF EATING DINNER
AT
AM GOING TO START EARLIER AND
6 PM.
USE 3 Parallel Actions in the Future
When you use the Future Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions will be happening at the same time. The actions are parallel. Examples:

I am going to be studying and he is going to be making dinner.
Tonight, they will be eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.
While Ellen is reading, Tim will be watching television. NOTICE "IS READING" BECAUSE OF THE TIME CLAUSE CONTAINING "WHILE." (SEE EXPLANATION BELOW)
USE 4 Atmosphere in the Future In English, we often use a series of Parallel Actions to describe atmosphere at a specific point in the future. Example: When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating. Some will be dancing. Others are going to be talking. A few people will be eating pizza, and several people are going to be drinking beer. They always do the same thing.
REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses Like all future tenses, the Future Continuous cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Continuous, Present Continuous is used. Examples: While I am going to be finishing my homework, she is going to make dinner. Not Correct

While I am finishing my homework, she is going to make dinner. Correct AND REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Future Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Future. Examples:

Jane will be being at my house when you arrive. Not Correct Jane will be at my house when you arrive. Correct

You will still be waiting for her when her plane arrives. Will you still be waiting for her when her plane arrives?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples: At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes. ACTIVE At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John. PASSIVE
NOTE: Passive forms of the Future Continuous are not common.
Present Perfect
FORM
[has/have + past participle] Examples:

You have seen that movie many times. Have you seen that movie many times? You have not seen that movie many times.
Complete List of Present Perfect Forms USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now
We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc. Examples:

I have seen that movie twenty times. I think I have met him once before. Have you read the book yet?
How Do You Actually Use the Present Perfect? The concept of "unspecified time" can be very confusing to English learners. It is best to associate Present Perfect with the following topics: TOPIC 1 Experience You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, "I have the experience of..." You can also use this tense to say that you have
never had a certain experience. The Present Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific event. Examples:
I have been to France.

SENTENCE MEANS THAT YOU HAVE HAD THE EXPERIENCE OF BEING IN
THIS

FRANCE. MAYBE
YOU HAVE
BEEN THERE ONCE, OR SEVERAL TIMES.
I have been to France three times.

CAN ADD THE NUMBER OF TIMES AT THE END OF THE SENTENCE.
YOU THIS
I have never been to France.

SENTENCE MEANS THAT YOU HAVE NOT HAD THE EXPERIENCE OF GOING TO
FRANCE.
I think I have seen that movie before. He has never traveled by train. Joan has studied two foreign languages.
A: Have you ever met him? B: No, I have not met him. TOPIC 2 Change Over Time We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a period of time. Examples:

You have grown since the last time I saw you. The government has become more interested in arts education.
Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the university since the Asian studies program was established. My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.
TOPIC 3 Accomplishments We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and humanity. You cannot mention a specific time. Examples:

Man has walked on the Moon. Our son has learned how to read. Doctors have cured many deadly diseases. Scientists have split the atom.
TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not happened. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action to happen. Examples:
James has not finished his homework yet. Susan hasn't mastered Japanese, but she can communicate. Bill has still not arrived. The rain hasn't stopped.
TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have occurred in the past at different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is not complete and more actions are possible. Examples:

The army has attacked that city five times. I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester. We have had many major problems while working on this project.
She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick. Time Expressions with Present Perfect When we use the Present Perfect it means that something has happened at some point in our lives before now. Remember, the exact time the action happened is not important.
Sometimes, we want to limit the time we are looking in for an experience. We can do this with expressions such as: in the last week, in the last year, this week, this month, so far, up to now, etc.
Examples:

Have you been to Mexico in the last year? I have seen that movie six times in the last month. They have had three tests in the last week.
She graduated from university less than three years ago. She has worked for three different companies so far. My car has broken down three times this week.
NOTICE "Last year" and "in the last year" are very different in meaning. "Last year" means the year before now, and it is considered a specific time which requires Simple Past. "In the last year" means from 365 days ago until now. It is not considered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect. Examples:
I I
WENT TO
I went to Mexico last year. MEXICO IN THE CALENDAR YEAR BEFORE
THIS ONE. DAYS AGO AND NOW.
HAVE
I have been to Mexico in the last year. BEEN TO MEXICO AT LEAST ONCE AT SOME POINT BETWEEN 365
USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)
With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect. Examples:

I have had a cold for two weeks. She has been in England for six months. Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.
Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT NonContinuous Verbs. ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples:

You have only seen that movie one time. Have you only seen that movie one time?
Many tourists have visited that castle. ACTIVE
That castle has been visited by many tourists. PASSIVE
Present Perfect Continuous FORM

[has/have + been + present participle] Examples:

You have been waiting here for two hours. Have you been waiting here for two hours? You have not been waiting here for two hours.
USE 1 Duration from the Past Until Now
We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous. Examples:

They have been talking for the last hour. She has been working at that company for three years. What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?
USE 2 Recently, Lately
You can also use the Present Perfect Continuous WITHOUT a duration such as "for two weeks." Without the duration, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately." We often use the words "lately" or "recently" to emphasize this meaning. Examples:

Recently, I have been feeling really tired. She has been watching too much television lately. Have you been exercising lately?
IMPORTANT
Remember that the Present Perfect Continuous has the meaning of "lately" or "recently." If you use the Present Perfect Continuous in a question such as "Have you been feeling alright?", it can suggest that the person looks sick or unhealthy. A question such as "Have you been smoking?" can suggest that you smell the smoke on the person. Using this tense in a question suggests you can see, smell, hear or feel the results of the action. It is possible to insult someone by using this tense incorrectly. REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Present Perfect. Examples:

Sam has been having his car for two years. Not Correct Sam has had his car for two years. Correct

You have only been waiting here for one hour. Have you only been waiting here for one hour?

Recently, John has been doing the work. ACTIVE Recently, the work has been being done by John. PASSIVE
NOTE: Present Perfect Continuous is less commonly used in its passive form.
Past Perfect
FORM [had + past participle] Examples:

You had studied English before you moved to New York. Had you studied English before you moved to New York? You had not studied English before you moved to New York.
USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past
The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.
Examples:

I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai. I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.
Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times. Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?
USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs)
With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past. Examples:

We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.
By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years. They felt bad about selling the house because they had owned it for more than forty years. Although the above use of Past Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs. IMPORTANT Specific Times with the Past Perfect
Unlike with the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past Perfect. Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary. Example:
She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.
MOREOVER If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past can be used instead of the Past Perfect when "before" or "after" is used in the sentence. The words "before" and "after" actually tell you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional. For this reason, both sentences below are correct. Examples: She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996. HOWEVER
If the Past Perfect is not referring to an action at a specific time, Past Perfect is not optional. Compare the examples below. Here Past Perfect is referring to a lack of experience rather than an action at a specific time. For this reason, Simple Past cannot be used. Examples:

She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct

You had previously studied English before you moved to New York. Had you previously studied English before you moved to New York?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples: George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license. ACTIVE

Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license. PASSIVE
Past Perfect Continuous

FORM [had been + present participle] Examples: You had been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.

Had you been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived? You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived. Complete List of Past Perfect Continuous Forms USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Past
We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past. "For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the past. Examples:

They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.
She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business. How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?
USE 2 Cause of Something in the Past
Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action in the past is a good way to show cause and effect. Examples:

Jason was tired because he had been jogging. Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.
Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class. Past Continuous vs. Past Perfect Continuous
If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous rather than the Past Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Past Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the past. Study the examples below to understand the difference. Examples:

He was tired because he was exercising so hard.

SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WAS TIRED BECAUSE HE WAS EXERCISING AT THAT EXACT MOMENT.
THIS
He was tired because he had been exercising so hard. THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WAS TIRED BECAUSE HE HAD BEEN EXERCISING OVER A PERIOD OF TIME. IT IS POSSIBLE THAT HE WAS STILL EXERCISING AT THAT MOMENT OR THAT HE HAD JUST FINISHED. REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Past Perfect. Examples: The motorcycle had been belonging to George for years before Tina bought it. Not Correct

The motorcycle had belonged to George for years before Tina bought it. Correct ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples:

You had only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived. Had you only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples: Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris. ACTIVE

The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris. PASSIVE NOTE: Passive forms of the Past Perfect Continuous are not common.
Future Perfect
Future Perfect has two different forms: "will have done" and "be going to have done." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect forms are usually interchangeable. FORM Future Perfect with "Will" [will have + past participle] Examples: You will have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

Will you have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.? You will not have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S. FORM Future Perfect with "Be Going To" [am/is/are + going to have + past participle] Examples: You are going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

Are you going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.? You are not going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S. NOTE: It is possible to use either "will" or "be going to" to create the Future Perfect with little or no difference in meaning. Complete List of Future Perfect Forms USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Future
The Future Perfect expresses the idea that something will occur before another action in the future. It can also show that something will happen before a specific time in the future. Examples:

By next November, I will have received my promotion.
By the time he gets home, she is going to have cleaned the entire house. I am not going to have finished this test by 3 o'clock.
Notice in the examples above that the reference points are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because the interruptions are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses. USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Future (Non-Continuous Verbs)
With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Future Perfect to show that something will continue up until another action in the future. Examples:

I will have been in London for six months by the time I leave. By Monday, Susan is going to have had my book for a week.
Although the above use of Future Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT NonContinuous Verbs. REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses Like all future forms, the Future Perfect cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect, Present Perfect is used. Examples: I am going to see a movie when I will have finished my homework. Not Correct

I am going to see a movie when I have finished my homework. Correct ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples:

You will only have learned a few words. Will you only have learned a few words? You are only going to have learned a few words. Are you only going to have learned a few words?
They will have completed the project before the deadline. ACTIVE The project will have been completed before the deadline. PASSIVE
Future Perfect Continuous

Future Perfect Continuous has two different forms: "will have been doing " and "be going to have been doing." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect Continuous forms are usually interchangeable. FORM Future Perfect Continuous with "Will" [will have been + present participle] Examples: You will have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.

Will you have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives? You will not have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives. FORM Future Perfect Continuous with "Be Going To" [am/is/are + going to have been + present participle] Examples: You are going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.

Are you going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives? You are not going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives. NOTE: It is possible to use either "will" or "be going to" to create the Future Perfect Continuous with little or no difference in meaning. Complete List of Future Perfect Continuous Forms USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Future
We use the Future Perfect Continuous to show that something will continue up until a particular event or time in the future. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Friday" are all durations which can be used with the Future Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous; however, with Future Perfect Continuous, the duration stops at or before a reference point in the future.
Examples: They will have been talking for over an hour by the time Thomas arrives.

She is going to have been working at that company for three years when it finally closes. A: When you finish your English course, will you have been living in New Zealand for over a year? B: No, I will not have been living here that long. Notice in the examples above that the reference points (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because these future events are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses. USE 2 Cause of Something in the Future
Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another action in the future is a good way to show cause and effect. Examples: Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an hour.

Claudia's English will be perfect when she returns to Germany because she is going to have been studyingEnglish in the United States for over two years. Future Continuous vs. Future Perfect Continuous If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakers choose to use the Future Continuous rather than the Future Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Future Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Future Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the future. Study the examples below to understand the difference. Examples:
He will be tired because he will be exercising so hard.

SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WILL BE TIRED BECAUSE HE WILL BE EXERCISING AT THAT EXACT
THIS
MOMENT IN THE FUTURE.
He will be tired because he will have been exercising so hard.

SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WILL BE TIRED BECAUSE HE WILL HAVE BEEN EXERCISING FOR A
THIS
PERIOD OF TIME. IT IS POSSIBLE THAT HE WILL STILL BE EXERCISING AT THAT MOMENT JUST HAVE FINISHED.
OR
THAT HE WILL
REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses Like all future forms, the Future Perfect Continuous cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as
soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect Continuous, Present Perfect Continuous is used. Examples: You won't get a promotion until you will have been working here as long as Tim. Not Correct

You won't get a promotion until you have been working here as long as Tim. Correct AND REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Future Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Future Perfect . Examples: Ned will have been having his driver's license for over two years. Not Correct

Ned will have had his driver's license for over two years. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples: You will only have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives.

Will you only have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives? You are only going to have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives. Are you only going to have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives? ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples: The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished. ACTIVE

The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.PASSIVE NOTE: Passive forms of the Future Perfect Continuous are not common.
Types of a sentence
A sentence is the smallest syntactic unit used in communication. It is characterized by predication and is built up according to a certain intonation and structural pattern. According to the communicative functions sentences may be divided into the following syntactic classes on the basis of their communicative functions: 1. Declarative sentences statements. 2. Interrogative sentences questions. 3. Imperative sentences commands or wishes. 4. Exclamatory sentences exclamations. The declarative sentence expresses a statement. The main function of a statement is to convey information. In declarative sentences the subject is always present and it precedes the predicate. The declarative sentence can express an affirmative or negative statement: Everyone wants peace. Animals dont like hot weather. The interrogative sentence represents a question. The main function of a question is to obtain information. The following four types of questions can be signed out: A. General or yes no questions (General questions refer to the whole sentence and begin with an auxiliary or modal verb as well as notional be or have. They require affirmative or negative answers beginning with yes or no). E.g. have you got a headache? B. Disjunctive (tag) questions, which are shortened general questions added to a statement. If the statement is affirmative, the tag question is negative and vice versa. They consist of an auxiliary or modal verb and the pronoun with or without a negative particle. E.g. Servants always expect high wages, dont they? C. A special question refers to a definite part of a sentence and thus requires some concrete information. E.g. who wrote Hamlet? D. The alternative question implies choice. It is a question about some concrete information because it expects as an answer one of two or more alternatives mentioned in the question. E.g. should I take this medicine three or four times a day? The imperative sentences represent commands, instructions, advice, encouragement, warning, prohibition, etc. Imperative sentences are most commonly used in the second person and are characterized by the absence of the subject. The predicate verb in the imperative sentence is most commonly expressed by the base form, i.e. the simple infinitive without the particle to: Tell him to take another photograph. Give my love to your family. The exclamatory sentence expresses the speakers feeling, emotion, and attitude. It often shows enthusiasm. Three types of exclamatory sentences can be distinguished in English: a.) Exclamatory statements. b.) Exclamatory questions. c.) Exclamatory imperatives. E.g. here she comes! There they go! What a mess were! According to their structure sentences may be: simple, compound, complex and compound-complex. 1. A simple sentence containing only one predication. E.g. a mans home is his castle. 2. A compound sentence which contains two or more predications of equal value connected by coordinating conjunctions or without them, i.e. asyndetically: the moon rides high and the night is cold.
3. A complex sentence which consists of two or more predications, one

being the man predication, and the other or others being dependent ones: we are willing to help them because they are deserving. 4. A compound-complex sentence which consists of two or more principal predications and one or more dependent predications: I dont know how you regard this action, but I do know what I think of it.
Parts of a sentence
A simple sentence may consist of the subject, the predicate, the object, the adverbial modifier and the attribute. The subject and the predicate are called the main parts of the sentence. The object, the attribute and the adverbial modifier are considered the secondary parts of the sentence. The subject- is the part of a sentence which denotes the doer or the receiver of the action, or a person or thing which is described or identified: that ballerina dances divinely. Diamonds are precious stones. Life is wonderful. The predicate- is the part of a sentence which ascribes to the subject some action, state or quality. According to the structure and meaning, the predicate can be divided several groups: A. The simple predicate- is always verbal as it consists of finite verb represented in any tense-form, active or passive. E.g. The wine has a bitter taste. B. The compound nominal predicate- consists of a link-verb and a predicative. E.g. Stockings are long socks. C. The compound verbal predicate- is of two types: the compound verbal modal predicate and the compound verbal catenative predicate. E.g. my dog can do a lot tricks. He has finally stopped smoking. The object- is the part of a sentence which completes the idea of an action expressed by the predicate. The object is affected by the action; it undergoes, suffers or receives this action, or is a source of it. Accordingly the following three types of object can be signed out: A. Direct object- a person or thing which suffers or directly affected by the action. E.g. my hands make light work. B. Indirect object- a person to whom the action is addressed. E.g. I got some toys for our baby. The attribute- is the part of a sentence which qualifies the subject, object, predicative or adverbial modifier expressed by a noun or a noun equivalent. The attribute may strand before or after the word it modifies. Accordingly the attribute may be a pre-modifier or a post-modifier. E.g. the new secretary doesnt like me. Its the only solution possible. The adverbial modifier- is the part of a sentence which qualifies the predicateverb by pointing to the manner, place, time etc. of an action. The adverbial modifier may be expressed by an adverb, a noun, an infinitive, a gerund, a participle, or a phrase. Adverbial modifiers may be of: A. Manner or attendant circumstance: he went cap in hand. B. Place: we dont live here. C. Time: we slept for a long time. D. Frequency: come here twice a week. E. Degree: I cant really believe him.
F. Cause: she was late because of the traffic. G. Purpose: he came to see me. H. Concession: he married her in spite of her looks.
Conditional sentences
Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are used to express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are three types of Conditional Sentences. Conditional Sentence Type 1 It is possible and also very likely that the condition will be fulfilled. Form: if + Simple Present, will-Future Example: If I find her address, Ill send her an invitation. The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma. Example: I will send her an invitation if I find her address. Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative. See Simple Present und will-Future on how to form negative sentences. Example: If I dont see him this afternoon, I will phone him in the evening. Use Conditional Sentences Type I refer to the future. An action in the future will only happen if a certain condition is fulfilled by that time. We don't know for sure whether the condition actually will be fulfilled or not, but the conditions seems rather realistic so we think it is likely to happen. Example: If I find her address, Ill send her an invitation. I want to send an invitation to a friend. I just have to find her address. I am quite sure, however, that I will find it. Example: If John has the money, he will buy a Ferrari. I know John very well and I know that he earns a lot of money and that he loves Ferraris. So I think it is very likely that sooner or later he will have the money to buy a Ferrari.
Conditional Sentence Type 2 It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition will be fulfilled.
Form: if + Simple Past, Conditional I (= would + Infinitive) Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation. The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma. Example: I would send her an invitation if I found her address. Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative. See Simple Past und Conditional I on how to form negative sentences. Example: If I had a lot of money, I wouldnt stay here. Were instead of Was In IF Clauses Type II, we usually use were even if the pronoun is I, he, she or it . Example: If I were you, I would not do this. Use Conditional Sentences Type II refer to situations in the present. An action could happen if the present situation were different. I don't really expect the situation to change, however. I just imagine what would happen if Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation. I would like to send an invitation to a friend. I have looked everywhere for her address, but I cannot find it. So now I think it is rather unlikely that I will eventually find her address. Example: If John had the money, he would buy a Ferrari. I know John very well and I know that he doesn't have much money, but he loves Ferraris. He would like to own a Ferrari (in his dreams). But I think it is very unlikely that he will have the money to buy one in the near future. Conditional Sentence Type 3 It is impossible that the condition will be fulfilled because it refers to the past. Form: if + Past Perfect, Conditional II (= would + have + Past Participle) Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation. The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma. Example: I would have sent her an invitation if I had found her address.
Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative. See Past Perfect and Conditional II on how to form negative sentences. Example: If I hadnt studied, I wouldnt have passed my exams. Use Conditional Sentences Type III refer to situations in the past. An action could have happened in the past if a certain condition had been fulfilled. Things were different then, however. We just imagine, what would have happened if the situation had been fulfilled. Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation. Sometime in the past, I wanted to send an invitation to a friend. I didn't find her address, however. So in the end I didn't send her an invitation. Example: If John had had the money, he would have bought a Ferrari. I knew John very well and I know that he never had much money, but he loved Ferraris. He would have loved to own a Ferrari, but he never had the money to buy one. Exceptions Sometimes Conditional Sentences Type I, II and III can also be used with other tenses. Conditional Sentences Type I (likely)
Condition refers to:

future action Simple Present
IF Clause
If the book is interesting, Future I Imperative Modal Auxiliary
Main Clause
I will buy it. buy it. you can buy it. I will wake him up. wake him up. you can wake him up. we will visit him. visit him. we can visit him.
action going on now
Present Progressive
If he is snoring,
Future I Imperative Modal Auxiliary
finished action
Present Perfect
If he has moved into his new flat,
Future I Imperative Modal Auxiliary

improbable action
IF Clause
should + Infinitive If she should win this race, Future I Imperative Modal Auxiliary
Main Clause
I will congratulate her. congratulate her. we can congratulate her.
present facts
Simple Present
If he gets what he wants,
Simple Present he is very nice.
Conditional Sentences Type II (unlikely)

present / future event consequence in the past
IF Clause
Simple Past If I had a lot of money, Conditional I Simple Past If I knew him,
Main Clause
I would travel around the world.
Conditional II I would have said hello.
Conditional Sentences Type III (impossible)

present past
IF Clause
Past Perfect If I had known it, Past Perfect If he had learned for the test, Conditional I
Main Clause
I would not be here now.
Conditional II he would not have failed it.

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Sometimes the last element is pluralized: boyfriend stepson boyfriends stepsons

b. geographical areas and heavenly bodies: Georgia`s future, the

The Indefinite Article

The Definite Article

The articles: some special uses

Absence of the article

Certain points of article contrast

4. Adverbs of frequency and repetition: often, seldom, once, sometimes,

Some problems with adjectives and adverbs

on 42nd street(US) on the third floor on the platform

in on the page on the screen in in in in i

Active and Passive Voice

The meal was elegant was/were We asked for

We will deliver your pizza in forty minutes.

will + be + Your pizza will

All the grapes harvested by

The chicken brushed

The groceries delivered

I dont like people telling me what to do in the kitchen.

being+past I dont like

Complete List of Simple Present Forms USE 1 Repeated Actions

USE 2 Facts or Generalizations

USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future

USE 4 Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

You only speak English. Do you only speak English?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples:

You are watching TV. Are you watching TV?

USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now

USE 3 Near Future

USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples:

You called Debbie. Did you call Debbie?

USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions

USE 3 Duration in Past

USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations

I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.

You just called Debbie. Did you just call Debbie?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples:

USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption

STARTED EARLIER; AND AT

USE 3 Parallel Actions

USE 5 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

While vs. When

FORM Will [will + verb] Examples:

FORM Be Going To [am/is/are + going to + verb] Examples:

USE 2 "Will" to Express a Promise "Will" is usually used in promises. Examples:

I will call you when I arrive.

ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples:

I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.

I will be waiting for you when your bus arrives.

Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.

At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert.

AM GOING TO START EATING AT

AM GOING TO START EARLIER AND

USE 3 Parallel Actions in the Future

I am going to be studying and he is going to be making dinner.

NOTE: Passive forms of the Future Continuous are not common.

I have been to France.

BEEN THERE ONCE, OR SEVERAL TIMES.

I have been to France three times.

I have never been to France.

I went to Mexico last year. MEXICO IN THE CALENDAR YEAR BEFORE