NASA 'TECHXICAL TR.\NSL!

\TION

NASA

TT F-15,675

THE CONQUEST OF OUTER SPACE I N THE USSR

Dr. G. S. harinanov, Ed.

Translation of Wsvoyen!.ye Kosmicheskogo Prostranstva v SSSR," Nauka P Y ~ S E MOSCOX, 1 9 7 1 , 2 2 4 E;?. ,

NATION45 AERONAUTICS A D STACE ADMINISTMTIGN V July 1 3 7 4 K?\SHIhiCTON, D.C. 20546

STANDARD TITLE m*tE

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1.
,

R e p c r i No.

2. Covemm.nt A c c ~ s s i o n No.

3. R O C I ~ I O Catalog No. ~S

NASA

4. letlo and Subtitlo

TT F-15,678 THE CONQUEST Ob GUTER SPACE

5.

Report

Don

IN THE USSR
?
A d h o t s.

July 1974

9. Pe-fonnang Orgmtxotlon Nome and Addross

I
11 1. Contract or Gront NO.

Leo Kanner Associates Redwood City, California 94063

12.
Spwsortng Agency Norre end

I113.

NsW-2481 A

Type ol Ropart ond Poriod C o v o r d

Translation

Addross

ii

National Aeronautics and Space tration, Washington, D . C . 20546

15.
Supplementory Notes

Translation of "Osvoyeniye Kosmicheskogo Prostranstva v S S S e t 1 Nauka Press, Moscow, 1974, 224 pp. !

The c o l l e c t i c n c o n t a l n s TASS reports and a r t i c l e s by l e a d i n g s c i e n t i s t s p r i n t e d d u r i n g 1972, showing t h e achievements of tile S o v i e t Union i n t h e c o n q u e s t of o u t e r s p a c e . The c o l l e c t i o n r e f l e c t s t h c major phases of s p a c e r e s e a r c h . See t a b l e of' c o n t e n s s for s u b j e c t matter of t h e various a r t i c l e s .
16
Abrtroct

t
I
I

17. Key Wrrds (Selected by Author(i))

7 18.
Dirtribuf.on S*atoment

Unc 1ass if ied - Un 1 imited

22. ~ r i c o -

/-i^l,~s~l.

(of thtr repor0

11-

Unclassified

Unclassified

NASA-HQ

ANNOTATION
Editor-in-Chief G. S. Narimanov, Dr. of Physical and Mathematical Sciences The collection contains TASS reports and articles by leading scientists printed in the Central Press during 1972, showing the achievements of the Soviet Union in the conquest of outer s2ace. The w i n phases of space research are reflected in the collection: successful flights of Luna-20 and Venera-8 space stations, launches of Kosmos, Meteor, blolniya spacecraft and two new Prognoz scientific stations. There is material on international coopera-

tion artificial earth satellite launchings in the Interkosmos series and the French small independent satellite (SIS), and also work on the preparation of the joint flight of the Soyuz and Apollo manned spacecraft.

ii

PREFACE
G. S . Narimanov, Dr. of Physical and Mathematical Sciences

"Artificial earth satellites pave the way for interplanetary journeys"

--

this was the way in which TASS reported the launching Each

of the first artificial earth satellite on October 4 , :957.

new launch and each new step to the stars convince us of the truth

of these words.
Only two satellites were launched into near-earth orbit in 1957. In 1972, our country celebrated the 15th anniversary of the

day on which the first artificial earth satellite was launched. By 1973, the number of satellites in the Kosmos series alone was
5 4 2 , apart from this there are also Polet, Zond, Electron, Molniya,

bieteor and Prognoz

...
Let us simply state that much of

There is no need to give a chronicle here of all the events occurring over the past years.

which man could not even have dreamed has already taken place. In an amazingly short space of time satellites, spacecraft and automatic interFlanetary stations have provided unique scientific matertal and led to many outstanding discoveries. The amount of scientific and tqchnical problems to be solved by space technology increases yearly. Astronautics has entered intc man's everyday life, facilitates long-distance communications, and contributes to air navigation and navigation at sea. Satellite

iii

meteorology h a s now become a n i n d e p e n d e n t b r a n c h o f t h o s c i e n c e o f weather. Weather f o r e c a s t i n g c a n be made more r e l i a b l e by u s i n g

t e l e v i s i o n and i n f r a r e d images o f t h e e a r t h f o r d a i l y a n a l y s i s o f t h e planetary d i s t r i b u t i o n of cloud cover. Obviously, t h e n e x t f e w y z a r s w i l l be a p e r i o d f o r t h e i n t e n s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f "economic" and manned o r b i t a l r e s e a r c h stations. The s p h e r e of i n t e r e s t of a s t r o n a u t i c s w i l l n o t o n l y b e
O f c o u r s e , t h e moon w i l l n o t be f o r g o t t e n .

n e a r - e a r t h space.

It

w i l l be e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t t o s e t up on t h e moon a p e r m a n e n t l y

s c t i v e s c i e n t i f i c b a s e , a l t h o u g h much r e s e a r c h w i t h a u t o m a t i c s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s p l a c e d on t h e moon's surface must be c a r r i e d o u t b e f o r e t h i s takes p l a c e . 1972 was marked by a g r e a t achievement o f S o v i e t a s t r o n a u t i c s

- - new samples o f e a r t h s o i l from t h e mountain r e g i o n o f o u r

"neighbor" were brought back t o e a r t h by Luna-20.
As b e f o r e ,

astronautics i s i n t e r e s t e d i n p l a n e t s of t h e s o l a r

system.

On J u l y 2 2 : t h e a u t o m a t i c i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s t a t i o n Venera-8

r e a c h e d Venus and a d e s c e n t v e h i c l e msde a s o f t l a n d i n g on i t s s u r f a c e and t r a n s m i t t e d much v a l u a b l e s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n .

Mars-2 and Mars-3 a u t o m a t i c i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s t a t i o n s have c a r r i e d

o u t s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h programs. N a t u r a l l y , t h e f u r t h e r c o n q u e s t of o u t e r s p a c e e n t a i l s t h e s o l u t i o n of a number of d i f f i c u l t t e c h n i c a l , m e d i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l problems. The f u r t h e r advance o f man i n t o s p a c e w i l l depend mainly T h i s y e a r two Prognoz s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n s

on how t h e y a r e s o l v e d ,

iv

have been launched t o s t u d y s o l a r a c t i v i t y and i t s e f f e c t on t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y medium and t h e e a r t h ' s magnetosphere. A r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s I n t e r k o s m o s - 6 , Interkosmos-7 and Interkosmos-8 were launched i n t h e Interkosmos program w i t h socialist countries. During t h e p a s t y e a r , c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h

France was e x p r e s s e d i n t h e l a u n c h of a French s m a l l independent satellite

ip

t h e S o v i e t Union.

I n 1 9 7 2 a t r e a t y was concluded between t h e USSR and t h e USA on c o o p e r a t i o n i n r e s e a r c h and t h e u s e o f o u t e r s p a c e f o r f r i e n d l y purposes. I n t h e l i g h t of t h i s document, a number o f m e e t i n g s

took p l a c e f o r p r e p a r i n g a j o i n t f l i g h t of manned Soyuz and Apollo s p a c e c r a f t i n 1975.

As opposed t o t h e t h r e e p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d c o l l e c t i o n s ,

t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n i n c l u d e s a r t i c l e s p u b l i s h e d i n 1972 i n t F 2 Central P r e s s and a l s o s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s from p o p u l a r s c i e n c e j o u r n a l s 1 .

A c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of t h e m a t e r i a l throws l i g h t on q u e s t i o n s of

t h e f u r t h e r c o n q u e s t of s p a c e , and problems and p r o s p e c t s of s p a c e research facing s c i e n t i s t s . The wide r a n g e of q u e s t i o n s , d i v e r s i t y

o f s u b j e c t and s y s t e m a t i c c h o i c e of m a t e r i a l make t h e c o l l e c t i o n
u s e f u l n o t o n l y f o r s p e c i a l i s t s and s c i e n t i s t s , b u t f o r a l l t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n space r e s e a r c h .

1 The h e a d i n g s of newspaper m a t e r i a l a r e somewhat changed i n accordance w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f book p u b l i c a t i o n s . P a r t of t h e t e x t of a r t i c l e s and some drawings have been o m i t t e d due t o t h e l i m i t e d volume o f t h e book: a number o f photographs a r e t a k e n from t h e TASS p i c t o r i a l review.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ANNOTATION PREFACE

......................... ..........................
.............. ..................... ...............

ii iii

INTRODUCTION Conquest of Space: A New Phase Orbits o f Progress The Future of Orbital Stations The Starry Spring Space and Geology The Beginning of the Starry Way IAF Awards t o Soviet Space Researchers In the Name of A5tronautics Pioneers To Space Explorers The Tsiolkovskiy Gold Medal Discovery by Astronauts and Scientists

. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ..................... .............. ........... ............ .....................

................ ...........

1 11 16
20

25

38
42 43 44 45 46

I SENTINELS OF SCIENCE Satellites Serve Mankind The Kosmos Program in Action Meeting Plasma Storms Magnetic Measurement in Space 500! The Satellite I s the Hero of the Day Astronomy in Invisible Rays X-Ray Astronomy Is Ten Years Old Prospects for Extra-Atmospheric Astronomic Research A TASS Report on the Prognoz Flight ASolarPatrol Two Prognoz Automatic Stations in Joint Flight

.................. ................ ................... ............... ......... ................ .............. .... ............ ....................... .......
vi

50
56 62 67 70 73 76 94

111 112 118

Page A Prognoz Relay Race Launches of Satellites in the Kosmos Series During 1972

....................

..

120 122

II SATELLITES IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY Meteor Satellites Keep Watch The "Vertical" Searches for the Earth The Next Communication Session Space Meteorologists Earth from Space A TASS Report: The Moli-.iya-l and SIS in Space A TASS Report on the Moiniya-1 Launches of Satellites of the Meteor Series During 1972 Launches o f Satellites of the Molniya Series During 1972
I11 LUNAR RESEARCH A Glorious Victory in Space Four Months in Near-Moon Orbit The Face of the Moon Five Months in Flight The Moon in the Objective A Year in Near-Moon Orbit A TASS Report: The Luna-20 Automatic Station in Flight A TASS Report: The Luna-20 Station in Near-Moon Orbit A TASS Report: The Luna-20 Automatic Station Has Made a Soft Landing on the Moon A Landing in the Lunar Highlands The Path to the Lunar Highlands A TASS Report: A Spacecraft Returns Drilling in the Highland Region Automatic Control Units Storm the Moon Secrets of Lunar Soil Space Robots

................ ........... ............... .................... ................. .... ....... ............... .. ..

.

125 131 135 138 144 147 149 150 150

................ ............... .................... ................... ................. ................. .. ... .............. .............. .............. ............ .............. ........... ................... ........................

151 155 156 159 160 162 164 164 165 167 170 174 176 180 185 189

vii

Page
A

TASS Report: An Outstanding Space Experiment Is

Completed! Drilling in the Lunar Highlands A Mirror of Earth When the Drill Was Opened To Scientists. Designers. Engineers. Technicians. Workers and All the Teams and Organizations Who Helped to Create the Luna-20 Automatic Station Which Brought 'jack to Earth Lunar Soil Samples To the Central Cormittee of the Conmunist Party of the Soviet Union. the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. and the Council of Ministers of the bSSR The Importance of Flights to Far Worlds Discovering the Secrets of the Universe Future Lunar Automatic Control Units Lunar Highland Soil A Window into the Moon's Depth "Lunitel' Is Being Made on Earth Man's Space Hands

...................... .............. ..................... ...................

...........
.. ..........

192 195 202 208

212 213 215 220 225 230 236 238 244

.......... ............ .................... ............... .............. .....................

INTO DISTANT PLANETS

IV

. RESEARCH

A RESEARCH INTO VENUS A New Success of Soviet Astronautics A TASS Report: The Venera-8 on Route The Amazing World of Venus A TASS Report: Venera-8 on Venus! . The Earth and Venus . Dissimilar Sisters Towards Venus for the Sake of Earth A Secret Is Revealed The Birth of Mineralogy on Venus Venera-8 Was Born Here To Scientists, Designers. Engineers. Technicians. Workers and All Teams and Organizations Participating in the Construction. Launch. Flight Control and Landing of the Venera-8 Automatic Interplanetary Station viii

............. ......... ............ .................... .............. ...................

.....

............ ........... ..................

249 253 254 261 264 268 272 276 278

283

Page To the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. and the Council of Ministers of the USSR Venera-8: The Results of the Space Flight Riddles of the Planets

......... ...................

284 285 303

B . RESEARCH INTO KIRS

The Planet Tells Its Story Reconnaissance of the Magnetic Field From Orbits Around Mars Science of Life Conversions of a Signal The Earth Wheels of Martian Automatic Control Units The Mars-2 and Mars-3 in Flight Three Months in Orbit A Plasma Experiment in Mars Orbit Mars before and after a Storm A Radio TeZsscope in Orbit around Mars Mars. Far and Near A TASS Report: The Program Has Been Accomplished Soviet Automatic Control Units Investigate Mars The Face of the Red Planet

................. ............ .................. ...................... ..................

.... .............. ................... ............. ............... ........... ..................... ..... ...... ................. ............ ........

308 315 318 320 324 328 332 335 335 339 345 349 358 361 372

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION The llInterkosmosll Program in Action A TASS Report: The Interkosmos-6 in Flight A New Envoy of Friendship The Interkosmos-6 in Flight According to the "Inter osmos" Program The Interkosmos-6: The Flight Is Over. the Experiment Continues A TASS Report: Interkosmos-7 A Solar Watch in Orbit The Scientific Watch of the Satellite of Friendship

v.

......... .................... . ............. ................. ..

ix

..

................. ................
.. ..

378 387 388 391 392 397 401 402 406

.. ..

..

Page The Interkosmos-8 Investigates the Ionosphere Research in the "Interkosmostt Program An Envoy of Friendship The USSR and France: A Broadening of Space Cooperation "Polar Morning" Fruitful Cooperation The Soviet Union and France: Future Cooperation Lunar Soil for French Scientists A Agreement between the USSR and the USA on Cooperation n in the Research and Use of Outer Space for Friendly Purposes . Space . The Arena for Cooperation The Soyuz and Apollo Joint Flight Project A Meeting between Soviet and American Researchers . SOYUZ . Apollo A Joint Conference Tests on Models An Exchange of Lunar Soil A Search in Space Space Cartography A Agreement Is Signed n The Plans of Indian Scientists Lunar Soil Samples Are Handed Over Lunar Soil Is Being Examined For Scientific Work NewsItem An Agreement Is Ratified Credentials Are Deposited At an Intersputnik Session A Convention Signing Credentials Are Deposited The Future Paths of Astronautics REFERENCES

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.......

407 409 412 414 418 419 420 421 421 424 429 433 434 440 440 441 441 447 447 448 449 449 450 450 451 451 453 453 454 455 464

....................... ....... ..... ......... ..... ...................... ..................... ...................... ................. ..................... ..................... ................... ............... ............. ................ .................... ......................... .................. ................. ................. .................... ................. ..............

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X

INTRODUCTION

Conquest of Space: A New Phase TASS "Pravda" , April 13, ? 972 . A Grand Rally Dedicated to Astronautics Day On April 12, a grand rally was held in the Kremlin dedicated to Astronautics Day. Among those at the rally to mark the 11th

/5*

anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight were workers, sLientists, designers, engineers dealing with astronautic problems, producers of space equipment, representatives of party, Soviet and MOSCOW'S public organizations, and troops of the Moscow garrison. Heads of

diplomatic representatives accredited in the USSR, ana Soviet and foreign journalists were present.

A storm of applause greeted the arrival of Comrades

L. I. Brezhnev, G. I. Voronov, V. V. Grishin, A. P. Kirilenko, A. N. Kosygin, F. D. Kulakov, K. T. Mazurov, D. S. Polyanskiy,

M. A. Suslov, A. N. Shelepin,
Yu.

V. Andrapov, P. N. Demichev,

M. S. Solomentsev, D. F. Ustinov, K. F. Katushev. In the pesidium

were deputies of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers o f the

USSR, Ministers of the USSR and space pilots.

__

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~~

Numbtrs in the margin indicate pagination Ln the foreign text.

1

The whole hali applauded young Pioneers who presented bouquets

o f flowers to party and government leaders, scientists, space

pilots and to all those in the presidium.

A grand rally of representatives of Moscow city workers and

troops of the garrison,dedicated to Astronautics Day was opened by

V. F. Promyslov, the Chairman of the Executive Committee of the

Moscow Municipal Council 05 Deyuties of Workers. The hall resounded to the Hymn of the Soviet Union, M. V. Keldysh, the President of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, was introduced.

M. V. Keldysh's Speech
This year we celebrate Astronautics Day
OR

the eve of a

famous date, the 50th anniversary of the formation of the USSR. Fifty years have passed since Lenin conceived the idea of creating the first multi-national state of workers and peasants in the world. During this pariod, the Soviet Union has made progress an agricultural, industrially-

unprecedented in man's history:

backward country has been transformed into a powerful industrial power capable of changing man's most daring dreams into reality. This is clearly borne out by the great achievements of Soviet astronautics. In a speech given by the Secretary General of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet h i o n , Leocid Il'ich Brezhnev, a t a pre-election meeting of voters at the Baumpn electoral district
ill

/6

Moscow, it was stated that Soviet science has

achieved new o u t s t a n d i n g s u c c e s s e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n r e s e a r c h i n t o space end k e s v e n l y b o d i e s . The r e s e a r c h conducted i s i n t h e

i n t e r e s t of t h e S o v i e t p e o p l e and mankind as a whole. I t has become a t r a d i t i o n on A p r i l 1 2 of each y e a r on A s t r o n a u t i c s Day, t o review our c o u n t r y ' s achievements i n s p a c e . Last y e a r was marked by t h e g r e a t s u c c e s s e s i n a l l t y p e s of s p a c e research. The u s e
0:

a s t r o n a u t i c achievements i s b e i n g widened With t n i s i n mind, s p m e r a d i o

f o r n a t i o n a l economic r e q u i r e m e n t s .

and t e l e v i s i o n communications systems a r c b e i n g improved and t h i s l e a d s t o s y s t e m a t i c r e s e a r c h from s p a c c into meteorology and o t h e r s p h e r e s of knowledge l i n k e d w i t h t h e s t u d y and r a t i o n a l u s e of the n a t u r a l envirciment.
The g r e a t e s t achievement l a s t y e a r was t h e b u i l d i n g of t h e

S a l y u t o r b i t a l s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n which s t a y e d i n o r b i t f o r approximately s i x months, The h e r o i c crew, c m s i s t i n g of space p i l o t s

Georgiy Timofeyevich D o b r o v o l ' s k i y , V l a d i s l a v Nikolayevich Volkov and V i k t o r Ivanovich P a t s a y e v , worked f o r 24 days. The S o v i e t

people and th+d world a s a whole was g r i e v e d t o h e a r of t h e unexpected death of t h e a s t r o n a u t s , a f t e r s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r y i n g a u t t h e f l i g h t program,when r e t u r n i n g t o e a r t h i n t h e Soyuz-11 t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t , when one o f t h e components i n t h e p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t e d systerr. f a i l e d . Thrce h e r o i c S o v i e t a s t r o n a u t s d e d i c a t e d t h e i r

l i v e s t o space r e s e e r c h i n t h e name o f s c i e n c e , t h e f u t u r e and t h e good o f mankind. The work t h e y d i d made f o r a g r e a t s t e p forward

i n t h e development of a s t r o n a u t i c s .

The S a l y u t s t a t i o n was s e n t i n t o o r b i t on A p r i l 1 9 , 1971.

It

was t h e n z t u r a l r e s u l t of s u c c e s s i v e and s y s r e m a t i c i m p l m e n t a t i o n
of o u r c o u n t r y ' s s p a c e program.
been conducted f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s c r e a t i n g such s t a t i o n s . Tmpoitant s p a c e e x p e r i n e n t s have

--

t h e y a r e stages r e q u i r e d f o r

The Soyuz-10, w i t h 'its crew c o n s i s t i n g of

V.

! . h a t a l o v , A. IS

S. Y e l i s e y e v and 14. N. Rukavishnikov, c a r r i e d

o u t t h e f i r s t rendezvous and dbckinz w i t h t h e S a l y u t s t a t i o n . The S a l y u t o r b i t a l s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n i s , i n p r i n c i p l e , a new t y p e c a p a b l e o f s o l v i n g a w i i i e r m g e of i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s of s c i e n c e , technology and t h e n a t i o n a l economy. The o v e r a l l v o l m e

of t h e s t a t i o n i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0 Lc:bic m e t e r s ; it i s a b o u t 20
m e t e r s i n l e n g t h ; and t h e weight of t h e o r b i t a l complex i s more t h a n 2s t o n s . T h i s allowed c o m f o r t a b l e c o n d i t i o x f o r t h ? crew

n o t o n l y f o r prolonged work h t f o r r e s t and f o r P h y s i c a l e x e r -

cises.

The s t a t i o n ' s main compartment i s a space l a b o r a t o r y .

This

compartment contain:

equipment f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s t a t i o n , a J i f e

s u p p o r t system, r e s e r v e s of food ana w a t e r and s c i e n t i f i c i v s t r u ments. The f i r s t manned o r 3 i t a l s t a t i o n i s a n o u t s t a n d i n g a c h i e v e -

ment f o r o u r c o u n t r y and marks t h e beginning o f a new s t s g e i n t h e conquest of o u t e r space. F l i g h t s of S o v i e t s p a c e c r a f t t o t h e moon and p l a n e t s showed t h a t a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l u n i t s have u n l i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s . They

can c a r r y o u t a wide r a n g e of s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h , from o b t a i n i n g t h e f i r s t llsoundingl' i n f o r m a t i o n , to t h e systeiriatic and profound s t u d y of heavenly b o d i e s and of p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n s p a c e .

In accordance with directives sanctioned by the 24th Congress

of the Comunist Party of the Soviet Union, we see the generalline of Sovietastrcnautics a3 the rational combination of automatic and n a m e d methods for discovering the universe for the goodof a l l mankind. Over the past year, important new results have been obtained ia the study of the moon.
I will remind you of the prolonged work

/7

on the moon's surface by the Lunokhod-1 which allowed us to determine the general type of iock making up the surface of a typical lunar *'sea", and investiga.ce the nature of the extent of small craters and stones. In September of last year, a new artificial

moon satellite was launched - - the Luna-19 station. On February

2 5 , 1972 a new complex experiment was completed

- - a re-entry
tG

vehicle of the Luna-20 automatic station brought back

earth

rock samples from the mountainous region of the moon's surface. This solved the difficult scientific and technical problem of landing an automatic control unit on the moon's almost inaccessible continental region. The sample of lunar soil brought back to earth is now undergoing detailed research.

It can already be said that it varies

significantly from lunar samples studied earlier, both in outward appearance and in minerological composition.
The d e l i v e r y of scil from thc continental region is an impor-

tant step in the successive program of research into the moon's substance and opens up great possibilities for studying old sections o f the lunar surface where unique rocks rich In aluminum

appear on the surface.

This gives us a better idea of the earth's

ancient history, where primary rocks were changed during later evolution or disappeared.
I shall describe our success in studying planets of the solar

system closest to the earth.

In May 1971, Mars-2 and Mars-3 Soviet Putting an auto-

automatic stations were launched towards Mars.

matic station into a specific Mars orbit and landing it on its surface where the atmosphere is extremely rarified are very complex problems, the solution of which depends on perfecting the on-board complex,and the efficient working of ground command and measurenent equipment. Theye problems were solved successfully, and both

Mars-2 and Mars-3 became artificial Mars satellites. The first soft landing in history was made on the surface of this planet. Mars-2 and Mars-3 satellites orbited Mars for five months transmitting a great volume of information on the physical features of the planet and outer space surrounding it. Our country achieved outstanding results in investigating Venus. Recently, the Venera-b automatic station was launched
It will continue research which will allow us to

toward Venus.

have a better understanding of this planet's complex nature. Last year new important steps were made to develop the international coopeiation of the Soviet Union in studying and conquering outer space for peaceful means. Interkosmos-5 and - 6 satellites, geophysical and meteorological rockets of the cooperation program of socialist countries, the

Oreol satellite and a small automatic satellite, equipment on board the Mars-3 Soviet interplanetary station in the cooperation program with France,

--

these are only some examples of success-

fully developing joint work in space. The Soviet Union allows foreign scientists to take part in investigating samples of lunar soil brought back to earth by Soviet automatic stations. Analysis of these samples is being done by laboratories in Hungary, Czechoslovakia, France and the USA, apart from Soviet laboratories. An agreement for creating an international system and organization of space communications "Intersputnik", signed in Moscow in November 1971, will be of great practical importance for space use. An agreement reached between the Academy of Sciences of the
USSR and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the
USA

/8

in January 1971 will develop contacts between Soviet ana

American scientists in studying outer space, the moon and planets, the natural medium, space meteorology and also space biology and medicine.
Ways are being found for reaching an agreement in

carrying out work in creating joint methods for the rendezvous docking of Soviet and American manned spacecraft and stations.

An important step has been made in expanding cooperation in space

research between the Soviet Union and India. The launch of the first Soviet artificial earth satellite opened the epoch of space research and, in a short space of tine,

achieved great successes in science and practical activity.

Soviet

space researchers are very grateful to our Communist Party and the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union for its constant attention. They will work

even harder to achieve their aim for the benefit of our people and in the interest of the whole of mankind.
A

Speech by A. A. Leonov From an historical point of view, the time for carrying out

practical astronautics is short; nevertheless, space research has entered our lives and has become an important branch of human activity. The conquest of space is one of the most characteristic features of the scientific and technical revolution which is taking place. Only 108 minutes were required for Vostok manned by Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin on April 12, 1961 to orbit our b l u e planet. This not only showed a speed unheard of at this time, but was also man's first step into the boundless starry ocean. Allow me, cn behalf 'of space pilots, to congratulate all
On

those who built the complex spacecraft and gave them flight.

this Astronautics Day may I wish new success in fulfilling the wide

program of the conquest of space laid down by the 24th Congress of Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The great creative force o f domestic science, the economic power of this socialist country is reflected in our victory in

the peaceful conquest of space as in a mirror,and confirms the inexhaustible spiritual potential of the Soviet people. The Soviet outer space research program includes the use of manned and automatic facilities. The most important part in this program is creating manned long-term orbital stations for scientific and national economic use. The Soviet Salyut station was the first of such stations. Its crew consisting of Georgiy Timofeyevich Dobrovol'skiy, Vladislav Nikolayevich Volkov, and Viktor Ivanovich Patsayev, worked fruitfully for 24 days in space. All their knowledge, experience and

will were concentrated so that each hour of the flighL brought maximum benefits, and laid down a reliable basis for the future of Soviet astronautics. Orbital stations open up wide possibilities for mankind. the same time, we are aware of the difficulties of a prolonged stay in space and that the exploration and conquest of space At

--

this new unknown world - - is unthinkable without efforts, great knowledge, courage and will. People will never forget the names

of those astronaut heroes who gave their life to the great cause
of space conquest. Whatever trials and dangers await us, they cannot retain man's ardor to disccver the secret of the universe. Astronautics is entering a new phase of its development, which entails prolonged space flight, and long stays on board spacecraft. Space pilots are preparing for new space flights which require great theoretical knowledge, high moral and political and
9

/9

p s y c h o l o g i c a l q u a l i t i e s , p h y s i c a l f i t n e s s , complex r o c k e t and s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y and f l y i n g s k i l l .

W can u n d e r s t a n d t h i s and a r e e

doing e v e r y t h i n g p o s s i b l e t o answer t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f u l l y . T h i s y e a r , t h e S o v i e t p e o p l e c e l e b r a t e s a wonderful o c c a s i o n

--

t h e g l o r i o u s 5 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y of t h e S o v i e t Union.

W are e

proud of t h e f a c t t h a t V l a d i m i r I l ' i c h Lenin was i t s c r e a t o r and t h a t t h e f i r s t s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r y i n t h e world became t h e l a n d of astronautics. class. Our v i c t o r i e s owe r u c h t o t h e g l o r i o u s working

Our wonderful workers produce a c c u r a t e i n s t r u m e n t s , and When

assemble s a t e l l i t e s , i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s t a t i o n s and s p a c e c r a f t .

s e t t i n g o u t on a f l i g h t we, s p a c e p i l o t s , f e e l d e e p l y how much s o u l , human warmth and c r a f t s m a n s h i p o u r workers have p u t i n t o

i t s production.
class!

May I g i v e m h e a r t f e l t t h a n k s t o t h e working y

Space p i l o t s , a s indeed t h e whole n a t i o n , l i n k t h e i r s u c c e s s e s and a c h i e v e m e n t s , t h e i r p l a n s f o r t h e f u t u r e w i t h L e n i n l s g r e a t party. W e x p r e s s our s i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e t o t h z C e n t r a l Committee e

of t h e Communist P a r t y o f t h e S o v i e t Union and t h e S o v i e t Government f o r i t s h i g h a p p r a i s a l of o u r work and we a s s u r e them t h a t we a r e r e a d y t o c a r r y o u t m y t a s k of t h e Communist P a r t y and i t s L e n i n i s t C e n t r a l Committee. Those p r e s e n t a c c e p t w i t h g r e a t e n t h u s i a s m
-&

le l e t t e r of wel-

come t o t h e C e n t r a l Committee of t h e Communist P a r t y of t h e S o v i e t Union, t h e Presidium of t h e Supreme S o v i e t of t h z USSR and t h e Council o f M i n i s t e r s of t h e USSR.

10

Orbits of Pronress

B. N. Petrov
hero of Socialist Labor, academician and secretary of the Mechanics and Processes Department of the Administration of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. In "Trudtt, April 12, 1972.
A

The eleven years since the triumphal flight of Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin were filled by strenuous and productive labor of Soviet space researchers. Requirements of the national economy,

science and technical progress determine our space program, which is calculated for many years ahead.
A large range

of questions is normally solved during each

space flight.

But however diverse they are, there are three direc-

tions, three groups of problems which researchers must confront. Firstly, the fundamental research of the earth, the universe, and heavenly bodies in the solar system. The second

--

is the use of

all those resources which help to open up outer space for the national economy. Finally, the third task is the comprehensive

improvement of rocket and space technology, without which further progress in this field is impossible. The development of the country's space program is, by no means, simple. One must correctly determine the proportions, the ratio This

of scientific, national economic and technical work in space.

proportion can change significantly over the years, and a certain tendency can be noticed here. It is that the amount of research

and experiments of national economic value increases each year.

11

Another important problem when developing the space program is the optimum solution of the question: Which work in space should be done automatically and which should be done by man equipped with automatic equipment and computers. Guided by the instructions of our party's Central Committee, Soviet scientists have developed a wide program of long-term work in space research and its use for national economic requirements.

/10

This is a method for solving the radical fundamental problems of astronautics, and the basic problems of science and technology. When conducting research into the conquest of space, Soviet scientists devote much attexltic?nto the use of various complex automatic controlled units. We shall give a few examples showing

the successes achieved by aeronautics,thanks to the use of automatic vehicles and stations. Outstanding research into the atmosphere of Venus belongs to the field of scientific experiments. This work received the highest award, the Lenin Prize. Instruments of numerous automatic

vehicles are studying the moon and Mars, outer space and the Sun, and the earth itself. The delivery of lunar soil to earth by auto-

matic vehicles, a landing on Venus and Mars, and the unparalleled feat of Lunokhod-1 are achievements in space technology which startled the world. Fruitful work has been done for ten years in the Kosmos program. Even today one can feel the real effect from using these For example, in 1963 work was started or1 producing

vehicles.

meteorological satellites. The development of ecjilipnient and 12

satellite-synopticmeteorologists' systems was done i Kosmos Nos. 14, 25, n 122, 144, 156, 184. In 1969 the Meteor, a reliable operational Since then,

variant of the weather satellite, was produced.

Meteors have carried out continuous observation above the planet. New satellites replace those which have outlived their time. Eleven such vehicles have been launched and are transmitting valuable weather information on the whole planet to the Hydrometeorological Center of the USSR. Soviet Meteor and American Essa weather satellites have detected the origin of such powerful hurricanes as Betsy, Esther, and typhoons Nancy, and Pamela. Inhabitants of coastal areas were

warned or their ipproach in good time,and this significantly reduced the amount of destruction and human casualties caused by them. Automatic reconnaissance vehicles are also very effective in far space when investigating other planets and probing the limitless space of the universe. American specialists also make great use of automatic vehicles

in near-ear:% space and when studying neighboring planets. American weather and communications satellites are now in orbit, and the USA has launched spacecraft to Venus and Mars. This year, the

first reconnaissance vehicle was launched From Cape Kennedy towards Jupiter

However, Soviet and American specialists have significantly different approaches to manned space research flights. After

13
,..*

Gagarin's Vostok was launched, and after Jchn Glenn's flight, both countrres were faced with the problem: How much further nust the

manned flights' program be developed,md what problems must man solve in space? Soviet scientists came to the conclusion that man must also work in near-earth orbits to give the greatest returns to science and the national economy. Therefore, Vostok, Voskhod and the

improved Soyuz spacecraft-laborztory were used. A number of independent scientific and applied problems were solved during their flights. Simultaneously, technical questions were studied for In our opinion, man can

producing long-term orbital stations.

work for the longest time and most fruitfully in space from such stations as these. The production of long-term orbital stations is the general trend in the Soviet program of manned flights. This technique must become the decisive means for developing near-earth space. This trend and strategy in manned space flights is being carried out in our country consistently and systematically. A result of this was the launch of the Salyut, the first longterm orbital station. On April 24 of last year, astronauts
i

V. A. Shatalov,

A.

S . Yeliseyev and

N. N, Rukavishnikov in Soyuz-10

carried out a series qf experiments in a joint flight with the Salyut station. A number of new docking devices were tested. On June 7, 1971, astronauts from the Soyuz-11 arrived on Salyut, The first manned long-term orbital satellite began to function. 14 Its heroic crew, G. T. Dobrovol'skiy, V. N. Volkov and

V. I . P a t s e y c v c a r r i e d o u t a f l i g h t which was u n p a r a l l e l e d i n
d u r a t i o n , and a l a r g e number of s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l e x p e r i ments was conducted. S o v i e t s p e c i a l i s t s a r e c o n t i n u i n g work i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n , Following t h e f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t a l l o n g - t e r m o r b i t a l l a b o r a t o r y i n n e a r - e a r t h o r b i t s , new ones a r e a p p e a r i n g . T h e i r crews w i l l be

a b l e t o s o l v e a wider r a n g e of s c i e n t i f i c acd n a t i o n a l economic problems. American s p e c i a l i s t s have chosen a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t The aim of t h e i r program i s a

d i r e c t i o n f o r manned l a u n c h e s . manned f l i g h t t o t h e moon.

Here, t h e y have been v e r y s u c c e s s f u l .

Research i n t o t h e moon, i n t h e S o v i e t s p a c e program, i s done with automatic s t a t i o n s . The r e s e a r c h conducted by t h e Lunokhod-1

and t h e r e t u r n t o e a r t h o f l u n a r s o i l , i n c l u d i n g t h a t from t h e almost i n a c c e s s i b l e c o n t i n e z t a l r e g i o n , once more convinced us t h a t s t u d y of t h e moon by a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e s i s e x t r e m e l y e f f e c tive.

I t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t h a t l a u n c h i n g o f an a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e

i s t e n t i m e s c h e a p e r t h a n a manned e x p e d i t i o n t o t h e moon.
What of space i n t h e f u t u r e ?

First of a l l , i t must be a place

Life

f o r t h e c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s and p e o p l e s . shows u s t h a t t h e r e t u r n s from d e v e l o p i n g t h e u n i v e r s e can be

i n c r e a s e d i f one u n i t e s t h e s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l p o t e n t i a l of several countries, T h e r e f o r e , we b e l i e v e i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o d e v e l o p i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n when c a r r y i n g o u t s p a c e p r o j e c t s . c a r r y o u t j o i n t work i n Interkosmos. Socialist countries

Six a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s

have been launched, as have s e v e r a l rockets f o r v e r t i c a l probing o f

15

t t e atmosphere and a d j a c e n t s p a c e ,
t i f i c r e s u l t s have been o b t a i n e d .

A number o f i m p o r t a n t s c i e n T h i s work c a n be s i g i i i f i c a n t l y

developed and broadened i n t h e f u t u r e .

A b u s i n e s s - l i k e c o o p e r a t i o n has been set up between S o v i e t

and French s p a c e r e s e a r c h e r s . Lunokhod-1 lite, and Mars-3

France's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

experiments

and

in

t h e Oreol

satel-

the

launching of a s m a l l French independent s a t e l l i t e

Eilt

"SIS" by a S o v i e t r o c k e t and.
space meteorology a r e

development of c o o p e r a t i o n i n

o n l y t h e f i r s t j o i n t s t e p s of t h e two

c o u n t r i e s i n s p a c e r e s e a r c h and t h e u s e of i t ,

This is a good

example of t h e f r u i t f u l c o o p e r a t i o n of s t a t e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s , b u t u n i t i n g i n o r d e r t o s o l v e i m p o r t a n t s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l problems.

In r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e complex u s e o f d i f f e r e n t equipment
a l r e a d y makes i t p o s s i b l e f o r s p a c e t o be one of t h e n o s t p r o mising a r e a s cf s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h and t h e e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n of n a t i o n a l economic problems. T h i s i s t h e main aim of t h e S o v i e t
i

s p a c e program - - t h e u s e of s p a c e f o r t h e b e n e f i t of mankind, i n t h e name of peace and progress.

The F u t u r e o f O r b i t a l S t a t i o n s

K . P. F e o k t i s t o v
P r o f e s s o r , h e r o of t h e S o v i e t Union, s p a c e p i l o t of t h e USSR, "Sovetskaya Rossiya", A p r i l 1 2 , 1 9 7 2 .

The S o v i e t S a l y u t s t a t i m worked f o r almost s i x months i n

near-earth orbit.
16

D e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of m a t e r i a l o b t a i n e d a s a

result of this research is still not complete, but one can say with certainty that this flight played an important part in the conquest of outer space and development of space technology. One of the main tasks of the Salyut was the comprehensive check of the station's serviceability, equipment, and systems for providing space flight in actual conditions. pletely accomplished.
So that these results become more clear,I will remind you of

This task was com-

the complex nature of a vzhicle such as the Salyut.

The station

contains approximately 2 , 0 0 0 instruments, units and components (ir; is true that many of these are identical, but there are more than several hundreds of different instruments). There are approxi-

mately 100 electromotors alone in different on-board systems, and

20 control panels, not counting control members and control panels

on individual experimental instruments.

The overall length of

electric wires is hundreds of kilometers. The whole complex equipment worked continuously. This means that when producing the Salyut it was possible to find relatively simple and reliable solutions for all station systems and units. All this was done, astheysay,at the first attempt: indeed, the Salyut is the prototype of the orbital laboratory. The second problem is no less important. The prospects for

the further development and the construction o f orbital stations, to a great ertent, depend on how long a man can remain in weightlessness. In fact, if it happens that man cannot remain long in

17

weightlessness, one must look for new solutions for the prolonged functioning of an orbital station. be done in two ways. The first is creating artificial gravity in orbital stations. At present, we can only see the solution of this problem by the rotation of the spacecraft. But i f the whole station rotates, it It is possible that this can

is practically impossible to carry out astrophysical research,

observe the surface of the earth and carry out work in weightlessness conditions. Consequectiy, the station's main work compartOne

ments must be stationary, and the living nodule must rotate. can quickly see the technical difficulties which occur when developing orbital stations with artificial gravity.

It is clear

that they will cost much more and be heavier than stations without artificial gravity. The second method is to produce "visited" orbital stations which work automatically. The crew of a "visited" station only

disembarks occasionally to check, adjust and inspect the equipment.

Of course, both methods require the construction of more

complex and expensive stations in comparison with those where the crew is in weightlessness.

Thi, is why it is important

to

estab-

lish how long man can work outside of earth's gravity.

In the Salyut a new step was made to increase the duration of

manned flights. As is known, space pilots G. T. Dobrovol'skiy, V. N. Volkov and V. I. Patsayev lived and worked on the station for 23 days. 18

/13

Information obtained during this prolonged flight showed that astronsuts contended with weightlePsness conditions completely satisfactorily. The Salyut carried out research in astrophysics, medicine and biology, and technology. A series of experiments was conducted for the national economy. Much of the research carried out gave new results. At the same time, an incidental result was obtained not envisaged by the program. Until then, astronauts had not been
Of

required to deal with such an amount of scientific equipment.

course, the complication is not in the fact that the overall weight
of the Salyut's equipment is reckoned in tons, but in tens of

kilograms.

It is simply that the amount of instruments with which

the crew must deal is tco great. At the same time, experience showed that astronauts had no sense of time when carrying out research. course, considerably complicated the work. nave aderstoad this by no means Weightlessness, of It is good that we

trivial feature of research

activity in space through the experience of the Salyut flight. Of course, it does not follow that in the future one must ignore the multi-purpose role of orbital stations. The tra of thorough research of our planet and the world surrounding us by using manned spacecraft is only begiming. Also insufficient is still known on whether we can go over to using highly-specialized oT4ital stations. The wider the front of research, the greater

19

are the chances for a successful solution of facts and regularities.

A station manned by qualified researchers makes it possible

to increase the amount of research.

I am convinced that a reliable means of increasing the equipment efficiency of an orbital station is the further automation of the most frequently repeated operations and station control processes or' its equipment and scientific instruments. Then, the crew will be able to devote more time to the main task scientific research and observations. The Starry Spring
A. Yeliseyev

--

Space pilot of the USSR. "Sotsialisticheskaya industriya", April 1 2 , 197?.

It is probable and very symbolic that it was in spl'.ng, when

nature reawakens, that man first flew into space.

Delighted by

Yuri Gagarin's feat, and our scientific and technical achievements, at that time we understood this event more with our heart than mind.
OUI

Only later did we realize that the spring of 1961 was the here, the era of man's

turning point in the history of the earth: flights into outer space had begun.

One year ago we celebrated the 10th anniversary of that era. In the tradition of celebrations we remembered past launches of Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz, flights of automatic probes to the moon and distant planets, and numerous experiments "in the region" of

20

the earth and Sun.

Taking account of the past, we unwittingly

are amazed by how much has been done during the past ten years, but mainly by the speed at which astronautics has progressed. In fact, only a year has passed and how many events have taken place in space! Scarcely had the country celebrated Astro-

nautics Day when a new powerful launch vehicle put the first longterm manned scientific spaceship Salyut into orbit. My friends and i became acquainted with this unique orbital laboratory during the preparation period for the flight on the Soyuz-10. We understood its equipment well; nevertheless, the sight of the station in space made a deep impression upon us. Even the outward appear-

ance of Salyut amazed us by its size, the amount of antennas, and the abundance of instruments and equipment of every kind. Georgiy

Dobrovol'skiy, Vladislav Volkov and Viktor Patsayevspent more than three weeks in space on board this station carrying out a program

of scientific research and experiments of unprecedented complexity

and variety. Automatic vehicles are continuing the research into the universe at full speed. Surpassing our wildest expectations,

Lunokhod-1 carried out investigation of the moon's surface for more than ten months. The Luna-19 automatic station collected much

interesting information on our planet's natural satellite when in near-moon orbit. Finally, Luna-20 which recently returned,brought

back to earth samples of soil from the almost inaccessible mountainous region of the moon. great success: Last year "long-range" astronautics had

two Soviet automatic stations reached Mars and 21

became n a t u r a l s a t e l l i t e s o f i t .

Here, a c a p s u l e which was

d e t a c h e d from t h e Mars-2 s t a t i o n , p l a c e d a pennant w i t h t h e emblem

of t h e S o v i e t Union on t h e p l a n e t , and a d e s c e n t v e h i c l e from

Mars-3 made a s o f t l a n d i n g f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e on t h e s u r f a c e of Mars

.
Even i n l a u n c h e s d u r i n g t h e p a s t y e a r , one can see t h a t t h e

development of s p a c e technology today goes i n two main d i r e c t i o n s . One of them i s t h e u s e o f manned s p a c e c r a f t and o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s , t h e i n c r e a s e of r e s e a r c h c a p a b i l i t i e s and use of unmanned a u t o m a t i c vehicles. advantages. Both t h e s e and o t h e r methods have t h e i r d o u b t l e s s The problem i s t o d e c i d e upon t h e c o r r e c t b a l a n c e i n

t h e two d i r e c t i o n s and u s e t h e i r a d v a n t a g e s t o maximum e f f e c t .

I t i s obvious t h a t manned s p a c e c r a f t have g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l i t y than unmanned ones.
t

But, i n o r d e r .io c a r r y o u t wide

r e s e a r c h i n o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s o r manned f l i g h t s t o t h e p l a n e t s o f

t h e s o l a r system, one must c r e a t e means which allow man t o remain

i n space f o r a prolonged t i m e and f l y g r e a t d i s t a n c e s .

p l e x problems must be s o l v e d t o a c h i e v e t h i s aim.

Many com-

Ways o f s o l v i n g

these problems were f r e q u e n t l y unknown p r e v i o u s l y .

I n a c t u a l f a c t , by sending v e h i c l e s t o d i s t a n t p l a n e t s we wish t o s t u d y t h e c o n d i t i o n s on t h e i r s u r f a c e and i n s u r r o u n d i n g s p a c e . But i n o r d e r t h a t t h e s e v e h i c l e s perform t h i s t a s k , t h e y must n o t o n l y b e . e q u i p p e d by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u m e n t s , b u t be g i v e n specific "survivability". For t h i s , one must have i n f o r m a t i o n of

t h o s e v e r y c o n d i t i o n s which a r e t o be s t u d i e d by t h e l a u n c h .

22

Therefore, one must solve problems, as it were, by successive approximations.

It has been my pleasure to have been in space three times.

In retrospect, I can say that progrsms of these flights, in essence, are a chain of final "approximations" for solving the problem, such as the creation of the Soyuz-Salyut. The first "approximations" were made in the Kosmos series of satellites, which were automatically docked in orbit. Just as today, the

components of future manned spacecraft, control and temperature control system, communications and much more are developed in many automatic vehicles. When automatic stations go into orbit, we know that they are bringing us nearer to the fulfillment of our cherished aim - - manned flights to distant planets. The achievements of Soviet astronautics are well-known. Behind them is theparty work, the government, the joint effort of the whole nation, and various branches of the national economy. When one thinks of the strategy behind our triumphs, one must unwittingly come to the conclusion that the success is the close cooperation of science and practice with which our whole space program was carried out. Designers of space systems are always

/15

trying to use the latest results of scientific research in their projects. In their turn, problems which frequently confront us

aregiven concrete expressicn in scientific investigation, and by the same token, make the solution of practical problems possible. Most of all, developers in space technology have directly

23

participated in all types of tests, launch preparation and have even been into space in order to test in practice the principles of proposals they made. Many technical solutions were suggested

by engineers, technicians and workers of space institutes, testers, cosmodrome workers and, of course, space pilots. This fruitful

exchange of opinion and close cooperation have considerably reduced the time for solving the most complex problems. Behind us are eleven years of manned flight, and hundreds of unmanned vehicle launches. first Vostok From those imFetuous 108 minutes of the

flight, astronautics have proceeded to create long-

term orbital staiions, automatic vehicles have landed on the moon, Venus and Mars, Molniya satellites have become an indispensable means of communication,and Meteor satellites carry out space reconnaissance of the weather. Space has become an arena for international cooperation. Interkosmos satellites have been launched and taken into orbit scientific equipment produced by the joint efforts of specialists of socialist countries. A whole series of joint experiments was conducted with French researchers. Unfortunately, the past few years have not only seen successes. There have been the premature deaths of such outstanding scientists as academicians S.
D.

Six

Korolev and M. K. Yangel', designers

G, N . Babakin and A . M. Isayev. Yuri Gagarin, Vladimir Komarov,

Ceorgiy Dobrovol'skiy, Vladislav Volkov, Viktor Patsayev died when carrying out space duties, as did Pave1 Belayev. But they left

24

behind them not only the grief of loss. their dreams, plans and duties.

They bequeathed to us

There will be new launches and

flights. Man will become an equal master not only on earth but in space. With each new step forward people will remember with grati-

tude the names of pioneers who opened up the spring of the space age to mankind. Their heroism, talent and devotion to the cause

inspires us to new conquests in the name o f our people, country and great Leninist party.

Space and Geology

A.

Sidorenko

Academician, Minister Df Geology of the USSR. "Nauka i zhizn'", No, 5, 1972. Probably, we have not fully realized that mankind has entered a new space age of h i s own development. All research work into neighboring planets and interplanetary space, now even more both directly and indirectly, will affect the deve,opment of various sciences and man's economic activity. That is why the 24th Con-

gress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, in its directives promised, during the new five-year period, to "carry out scientific
work i n space to develop long-range telephone and telegraph com-

/16

munication, television, meteorological forecasting and study of natural resources, geographic research and
t!,e

solution of other

national economic problems by using satellites, automatic and manned vehicles and t o continue fundamental scientific research

25

into the moon and planets o f the solar system".

In this way,

space research is being put to direct practical use. For a long time, geology has traced the development of astronomy, and has used coslnogonic hypotheses. This was needed to

understand the overall problems of thc earth's development.

K. E. Tsiolkovskiy, the founder of astronautics, when developing

the theoretical fundamentals o f space research, became greatly interested in geological sciences and evec published a number of articles and pamphlets on geolrgy. This not only shows the wide

learning of their author, but also the unity between geology and astronautics, without which it is impossible to discover the universe. In this article we shall w t deal with the valueof geology or developing astronautics.
It is quite understandable that

without the corresponding level of development of science and technology (in both cases geology plays an important role), it would be impossible for man to go into space and carry out there systematic, ever-increasing research. Let us simply remember
t?xt

geological methods are being used more widely when researching into other bodies of the universe: geophysical and aerogeological observations from space; the drilling of lunar soil and the geological study of lunar rock; geomorphological, geophysical and geochemical research i n t o t h e lunar surface by using automatic vchicles, including the most perfected of these, the Lunokhod-1; and directly by man, compiling "geological" maps of the moon, etc.

26

The r o l e of g e o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s i n d i s c o v e r i n g t h e u n i v e r s e
w i l l i n c r e a s e w i t h t h e developmcnt of s p a c e r e s e a r c h .

Without

g e o l o g i c a l knowledge it i s i m p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r p r e t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e u n i v e r s e which w i l l be o b t a i n e d by s p a c e r e s e a r c h .

A t t h e same

time, s t u d y o f o u t e r s p a c e and t h e p l m e t s w i l l h e l p u s t o u n d e r s t a n d b e t t e r g e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e deep i n s i d e t h e earth. Therefore, it is advisable t o discuss t h e possible l i n k s between a s t r o n a u t i c s work and t h e whole r a n g e o f r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t by g e o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e methods. From t h e moment when t h e f i r s t a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e was launched i n 1957, i t became c l e a r t h a t s p a c e f l i g h t would open up new p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s t u d y i n g t h e e a r t h whole, t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t as a planet as a

--

t h e primary s o u r c e of a l l o r i g i n a l

s u b s t a n c e s f o r man's e x i s t e n c e , and t h e b i o s p h e r e a b l e medium.

--

man's h a b i t -

I n f a c t , even now we have i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d from used widely f o r s o l v i n g

a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s which i s

many s c i e n t i f i c and p r a c t i c a l problems i n m e t e o r o l o g y , geography, oceanography, topography, g l a c i o l o g y , t h a t i s , i n s c i e n c e s c l o s e l y l i n k e d w i t h geology. I n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d by s p a c e r e s e a r c h

n e t h o d s a r e a c q u i r i n g mote importance f o r geology i t s e l f . G e o l o g i s t s have been t r a i n e d t o u s e new i n f o r m a t i o n on o u r p l a n e t o b t a i n e d by s p a c e r e s e a r c h by many y e a r s e x p e r i e n c e o f aerog e o l o g i c a l work. The g r e a t v a l u e P a e r i a l photographs i n geo-

l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i s w e l l known.

27

Aerogeological methods have quickly been recognized since they opened up new ways of developing geology. Aerial photographs gave the geologist a wide field for research, that is, the ability to see simultaneously a relatively large area and trace the shape, dimensions and directions in which individual geological bodies (groups of rock strata, blocks of magnetic rock, etc,) run and structural forms (folded structures, defects in the earth's crust), and also their relation to each other. limiting nature of aerial methods. A-, aerial photograph can cover an area of not more than
4 0 0 - 7 0 0 km.

This also showed thz

The biggest structural geological features go beyond

these limits. Astronautics, in principal, opens new possibilities for studying the planet. Photographs taken from space show the greatest geographical and geological features of the earth. The scale of these photo-

graphs is practically unlimited,and an area of 30-50,000 square kilometers and above can be covered simultaneously by one photograph by using a single tec,hnique. Apart from this large cover, photographs from space have new information which c a n m i be obtained on the ground or by ground research. We are talking of the integration effect of individual

detail in the area's composition, and the separate sections of large structural elements, thanks to which the latter appear in the complete picture. It appears that the higher the observation

point, the better it is to observe the earth's depth structure.

28

The s t r u c t u r e of t h e d e e p e s t h o r i z o n s of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t t r a n s i l l u m i n a t e s , a s it were, t h e c o v e r o f t h e porous s e d i m e n t s . i n t e g r a t i o n e f f e c t i s s t i l l an e m p i r i c a l f a c t , This

The s c i e n t i f i c

b a s e s of t h i s phenomenon have s t i l l n o t been e x p l a i n e d . I n t h i s way, r e s e a r c h from s p a c e c r a f t n o t o n l y i n c r e a s e s t h e p o t e n t i a l of aerogeology, b u t a l s o opens up new d i r e c t i o n s f o r studying t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t .
A t t h e p r e s e n t time, t h i s department

o f knowledge i s beginning t o t a k e shape i n a new s c i e n t i f i c d i r e c tion

--

s p a c e geology.

There i s a l a r g e number of problems con-

f r o n t i n g i t aimed a t s o l v i n g many c a r d i n a l q u e s t i o n s i n g e o l o g i c a l science.

First experiments

--

t e l e v i s i o n p i c t u r e s from m e t e o r o l o g i c a l

a r t i f i c i a l e z r t h s a t e l l i t e s and i n d i v i d u a l p h o t o g r a p h s t a k e n by s p a c e p i l o t s from Soyuz-3, Soyuz-6, Soyuz-7 and Soyuz-8,have prov i d e d g e o l o g i s t s w i t h much i n t e r e s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and have shown t h e g r e a t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s t u d y i n g t h e g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e of
the earth's crust.

T e l e v i s i o n photographs and photographs o b t a i n e d from s p a c e c r a f t make it p o s s i b l e t o r e c o g n i z e and e x p l a i n s t r u c t u r a l elements which were n o t determined e a r l i e r , e v e n d u r i n g v e r y a c c u r a t e and qualified geological research. The f i r s t m a t e r i a l f o r s t u d y i n g

t h e e a r t h o b t a i n e d from space shows t h a t many s t a b l e s c i e n t i f i c

c o n c e p t s now need t o be reviewed. Firstly, t h i s comerns the

c o m p o s i t i o n , age and p o s i t i o n of l a r g e f o l d e d systems o f o l d p l a t forms and s h i e l d s , r e g i o n a l ( r e l a t i n g t o some i n d i v i d u a l a r e a ) and deep f a u l t s , ocean deeps and v o l c a n i c a r e a s .

29

A s , f o r example, by u s i n g cosmogeological and a e r o g e o l o g i c a l

m a t e r i a l , some r e s e a r c h e r s s t a t e e m p h a t i c a l l y t h a t t h e m o b i l e zone of crumpling and f a u l t s i n t h e Ural's f o l d e d system c o n t i n u e s much f u r t h e r south. A p p a r e n t l y , t h i s m o b i l e zone i n t e r s e c t s t h e d e s e r t s

of C e n t r a l Asia, mcuntainous a r e a s t o t h e s o u t h , a n d c o n t i n u e s t o towards t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . Nunierous ground o v s e r v a t i o n s i n t h e a r e a of t h e U s t y u r t Plateau could n o t d i s c e r n f r a c t u r e s i n t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t , because t h i s r e g i o n i s covered by a d e n s e l a y e r of s e d i m e n t s : c l a y s and marls. limestones,

On t e l e v i s i o n p h o t o g r a p h s and p h o t o g r a p h s , t a k e n

from a n a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e , o n e c a n c l e a r l y see u n d e r t h i s c o v e r a series o f o l d g e o f r a c t u r e s i n t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t , formed b e f o r e t h e s e d e p o s i t s had been l a i d down. One c a n show many simi-

l a r examples when p h o t o g r a p h s t a k e n from s p a c e h e l p u s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e geology o f d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s of t h e e a r t h . Space geology h a s o n l y j u s t s t a r t e d t o d e v e l c p . However, one

/18

can a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e much r e s e a r c h i n geology which c a n be cond u c t e d based on p h o t o g r a p h s t a k e n from s p a c e .

F i r s t of a l l , t h i s i s t h e f u r t h e r development o f g e o l o g i c a l

map making, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e coveragc p l a n . done h e r e

Much work has t o b e

- - compiling new and c o r r e c t i n g g e o l o g i c a l maps of i n d i -

v i d u a l z r e a s and of g e o l o g i c a l maps o f c o n t i n e n t s and oceans as a whole. There a r e g r e a t p o t e n t i a l s f o r t h o s e who compiie s p e c i a l t e c t o n i c , m e t a l l o g e n e t i c , volcanism maps and Research by space folded systems,

g e o l o g i c a l maps:

e s p e c i a l l y d i s j u n c t i v e ( f r a c t u r e ) t e c t o n i c maps. methods i n t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of o l d p l a t f o r m s and

30

continents and oceans, the relief features of a bed and also study of the nature of present-day and old tectonic mwement should be given special attention. This information is required for understandtng the mechanism and formation processes of the earth's crust on a global scale and for elucidating uniformities in

the formation of individual geological structures, mainly of continental and oceanic origin. Cosmogeologial metbods will allow one to investigate areas which are almost inaccessible when studying by other methods, - - high lands, areas permanently covered by ice and the sea bed. Information obtained from space, combined with that obtained by ground geological methods, will give new interesting material for studying the distribution of ore areas, regions where there is o i l and gas and carbon-bearing basins of the earth,and show new areas which could be promising when searching for mineral deposits. Space geology will undoubtedly play a leadir,g part in developing laws for the formation and distribution of mineral deposits. This is only one of the important scientific and practical problems of modern geology. Even today, space research can help considerably to solve purely practical geological problems.

For example, giving informa-

tion on the size of deposits of water beneath the ground in deserts, the long-term study of which, even with aviation, entails greai: difficulties and great expenditures o f time and resources, and tci
Sive engineering and geological evaluation of an area with respect

to its economic use,or studying seizmoactive dreas, etc.

31

Space r e s e a r c h w i l l a l s o p l a y a l a r g e r o l e i n d e v e l o p i n g s c i e n c e s of t h e e a r t h as a whole, and w i l l i n t e g r a t e o u r i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e p t s of n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e on. e a r t h . Probably,

no o t h e i t y p e of r e s e a r c h would make i t p o s s i b l e t o embrace t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e between g e o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l and g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o c e s s e s on e a r t h and between exogenous and endogenous p r o c e s s e s (on t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e and i n i t s d e p t h s ) . Study o f t h e r e l i e f and l o o s e c o v e r from s p a c e p r o v i d e s v a l u a b l e m a t e r i a l for u n d e r s t a n d i n g e r o s i o n , m d t h e f o r m a t i o n of a

whole v a r i e t y o f c o n t i n e n t a l c i e p o s i t s .

For example, w e can

examine t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a e o l i a n , a l l u v i a l , an& g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s and t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e r e l i e f and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , w i t h t e c tonics, climate, etc. Space and a e r o g e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h opens up new p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r Understanding t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e two b a s i c g e o l o g i c a l structures

- - c o n t i n e n t s and oceans.

This w i l l a l s o help t o erosion products

e x p l a i n t h e laws of marine s e d i m e n t a t i o n and how

3re t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e l a n d t o t h e s e a , show t h e laws g o v e r n i n g

t h e f o r m a t i o n of s e a s h o r e s , s h e l f development and advances and

r e g r e s s i o n s of t h e s e a . by c o v e r i n g t h e e a r t h

A l l t h e s e phenomena can o n l y be c o n c e i v e d and d r y l a n d .

- - oceans

I would l i k e t o warn you immediately a b o u t o v e r s i m p l i f y i n g t h e

s o l u t i o n of t h i s problem. Study of t h e e a r t h from s p a c c by no means

r e p l a c e s c l a s s i c a l methods of g e o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s , b u t o n l y e x t e n d s t h e i r use anc! g i v e s them a new s c i e n t i f i c l e v e l .

I t would

be a m i s t a k e t o c u r t a i l ground r e s e a r c h by assuming i t t c be
32

r e p l a c e d by s p a c e o b s e r v a t i o n s .

Operational experience i n aero-

geology shows t h a t it c a n be s u c c e s s f u l l y developed and o n l y g i v e t h e b e s t r e s u l t s when combined w i t h ground geDlogica1 o b s e r v a t i o n s . Consequently, :pace r e s e a r c h i n t o geology must be combined and c l o s e l y c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h a e r o g e o l o g i c a l and ground work.

The most i n t e r e s t i n g o b j e c t i v e s shown by s p a c e p h o t o g r a p h s

must be checked by ground i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , v e r y f i n e g c o l o g i c a l

s u r f a c e r o o t s , a n d d e t a i l e d mapping, ground g e o p h y s i c a l r e s e a r c h a n d , i n a number o f c a s e s , b o r i n g t o a d e p t h . Only d e t a i l e c i r e s e a r c h

c a n g i v e r e l i a b l e , s c i e n t i f i c a l l y - b a s e d t r e a t m e n t o infor,.lation obtainec? from s p a c e . One o f t e n h e a r s new m i n e r a l d e p o s i t s w i l l b e d i s c o v e r e d by space research.. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , r e p o r t s have appeared i n t h e p r e s s

s a y i n g t h a t photography from s p a c e w i l l " r e v e a l mineral.^", f o r "oil and g a s c o i n c i d e w i t h b u l g t s of t h e e a r t h , and w a t e r - - w i t h conc a v e s t r u c t u r e s of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t " , which from s p a c e w i l l "determine t h - c o n t e n t of u s e f u l elements i n m i n e r a l d e p o s i t s " ,

etc.

Such c o n c e p t - a r e simply g e o l o g i c a l l y unfounded. Research from s p a c e h e l p s t o d i s c o v e r g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s ,

where t h e r e may he m i n e r a l s , and h e l p s t o understTnd t h e laws of t h e g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t and t h e d i y t r i b u t i o n

of m i n e r a l s i n them.

Indeed, t h e y a r e 02 undoubted v a l u e and o f

invaluable help t o geoyogists searching f o r mincials. Thzre i s s t i l l one a s p e c t showing t h e importance of l i n k i n g space r e s e a r c h w i t h g e o l o g i c a l problems.

33

For a long time g e o l o g i s t s have been i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e a s t r a l , t h a t i s , t h e p r e - g e o l o g i c a l p e r i o d o f t h e e a r t h development. They a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i n t e r n a l , deep f o r m a t i o n of t h e e a r t h ,

As y e t t h e r e i s l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , b u t what

there i s i s f r a g m e n t a r y and o f t e n h y p o t h e t i c a l .

For t h i s r e a s o n ,

g e o l n g i s t s are p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n s p a c e s t u d y and r e s e a r c h

into other planets.

Global p r o c e s s e s o f t h e e a r t h developmelit,

such as t h e o c c u r r e n c e of e n v e l o p e s oa t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t , t e c t o n i c movement and e v o l u t i o n of s u b s t a n c e s 05 t h e e a r t h , c a n o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d when t h e r e i s c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n between g e o l o g i c a l and a s t r o n o m i c a l s c i e n c e s , when t h e y b o t h b e n e f i t from i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d by a s t r o n a u t i c s .

I t seems t o m e t h a t m , a s g e o l o p i s t s , i n o u r g e o l o g i c a l con-

c e p t s , d o n o t l o o k upon t h e e a r t h a s a p a r t o f t h e u n i v e r s e . C o n c l u s i o n s of cosmochemistry

- - a s c i e n c e which i s aimed a t

stcdying t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of o t h e r h t a v e n l y h o d i e s
i n s u f f i c i e n t l y ue! s: earth.

- - are s t i l l

t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e g e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s on

The c o n c e p t o f exogenous p r o c e s s e s ( t h o s e which t a k e p l a c e

I n t h e s u r f a c e s e c t i o n s of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t ) a r e l i n k e d w i t h
s o l a r r a d i a t i o n and p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r i n g i n t h e s o l a r system.

NOW,

we must d e t e r m i n e t h e l i n k between endogenous phenomena ( c a u s i n g

v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s , e a r t h q u a k e s , orogeny) w i t h p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g

place i n t h e u n i v e r s e as a whole.

We,as g e o l o g i s t s , r e a l i z e even

l e s s t h e l i n k between a s u b s t a n c e on e a r t h and one i n t h e u n i v e r s e , and t h e r o l e o f a powdered meteoric matter

i n forming t h e

e a r t h ' s c r u s t and even m i n e r a l d e p o s i t s . When s p e a k i n g of t h e

34

o r i g i n of s u b s t a n c e on e a r t h , w e o n l y t h i n k o f o u r p l a n e t and do n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h e u n i v e r s e as a whole. I n t h e same way as when t h e P t o l e m a i c c o n c e p t of t h e e a r t h was comp l e t e l y changed t o t h e harmonious s t u d y by Copernicus on t h e u n i v e r s e , now, w e must u n d e r s t a n d t h a t g e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s must n o t be l i m i t e d o n l y t o o u r p l a n e t , a n d p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e on
/20 -

earth must be axaillined as a p a r t of u n i v e r s a l p r o c e s s e s .

There r e c e n t l y a p p e a r e d a work on t h e e f f e c t o f meteoric

z,rrt:er

os

the i n e t a l i o g e n y of t h e e a r t h .

I t was suggested t h a t

g l o b a l d e p o s i t s of i r o n , ~ a n g a a c s e , copper and o t h e r metals a t v a r i o u s times o f t h e e a r t h ' s g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y were p o s s i b l y l i n k e d w i t h a mass o f s u b s t a n c e o f cosmic o r i g i n a t a time when t h e e a r t h c r o s s e d a m e t e o r i t e shower. Several scientists a r e of

t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e e a r t h , t o g e t h e r K t ; t h e Sun and o t h e r p l a n e t s , i:

revolving around t h e c e n t e r of t h e g a l a x y , r e p e a t e d l y c r o s s e d i r o n n e b u l a e o f t h e Milky Way and p a s s e d t h r o u g h them, a p p a r e n t l y , s e v e r a l m i l l i o n y e a r s ago. Large masses of powdered m e t e o r i c

ircr? cculd have settied on e a r t h i n t h e h e - L a m b r l a n p e r i o d . O t h e r , l a t e r p e r i o d s o f t h e e a r t h ' s g e o l o g i c a l development, may have been s u i t a b l e f o r t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n of manganese. Some s c i e n t i s t s

e x p l a i n t h i s by t h e l a r g e a c c u m u l a t i o n s o f manganese c o n c r e t i o n s on t h e beds of oceans ( d e p o s i t s from t h e Oligocene p e r i o d ) . There i s

s t i l l much which i s u n c l e a r i n t h e s u g g e s t i o n s , b u t t h e y a r e v e r y

i n t e r e s t i n g and c a u s e much s p e c u l a t i o n . By i n v e s t i g a t i n g r o c k samples c o l l e c t e d from t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , s c i e n t i s t s discovered m e t e o r i t e c r a t e r s w i t h a diameter of

35

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 . 5 mm.

They were formed a s a r e s u l t o f impact of

m i c r o m e t e o r i t e s t r a v e l i n g w i t h a speed of more t h a n 10 km/sec. The f a c t t h a t t h e s e a r e m i c r o m e t e o r i t e s and n o t "metal s p l a s h e s " from l a r g e r m e t e o r i t e s i s proved by t h e narrow boundary between t h e damaged and undamaged p o r t i o n s of t h e s u r f a c e of specimens examined. I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t m a t e r i a l from s p a c e a l s o f e l l on
The f a c t th:lt metecric

t h e e a r t h i n p a s t g e o i o g i c a i epochs. matter

can burn o u t i n e a r t h ' s atmosphere s t i l l does n o t mean

t h a t it c a n n o t r e a c h t h e s u r f a c e o f o u r p l a n e t and h e l p t o form t h e e a r t h ' > ci-iist i n inBiuidr!s!

nre

concentrations.

S p e c i a l work

i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n w i l l undoubtedly be of much i n t e r s s t f o r i n v e s tigating the earth's crust. Cosmogeochemistry f u l l y developed.

--

i s a s c i e n c e which i s now b e i n g s u c c e s s -

I t inust be aimed n o t o n l y a t s t u d y i n g t h e chemi-

c a l compositon of o t h e r p l a n e t s and b o d i e s of t h e u n i v e r s e , b u t i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h e laws f o r f o r m a t i o n of r o c k s and m i n e r a l d e p o s i t s on e a r t h . Here, one must s t a r t w i t h t h e c o n c e p t t h a t s u b s t a n c e

ii

on e a r t h and i n t h e u n i v e r s e i s i n space.

p a r t =f

single whole - - m a t t e r

W now f e e l t h a t t h e v a s t amount of m a t e r i a l accumue

l a t e d can be used f o r c r e a t i n g a h y p o t h e s i s on t h e o r i g i n of t h e e a r t h a t t h e p r e s e n t l e v e l of knowledge by t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t r e s e a r c h i n space. W s t i l l have l i t t l e e x p e r i e n c e i n u s i n g e Undoubtedly, a s s p a c e

space r e s e a r c h f o r g e o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s .

t e c h n o l o g y , equipment and r e s e a r c h methods a r e improved and l a t e r when s p a c e systems have been c r e a t e d s p e c i a l l y f o r g e o l o g i c a l p p o s e s , s p a c e geology w i l l make c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e s s . ~ -

36

Manned long-term orbital stations will be very effective for geological study of the earth. They vi11 provide continuous cosmo-

geological information, We already know that when one section of the earth is repeatedly photographed (at different illuminance, humidity and with a different vegetation cover) there immediately appear new geological earth formation features.
statiana will he
8

Long-term orbital

m e m s fcr t h e sizultscecus m c n i t c r i n g cf very

large regions of the planet,and this will be especially important to understand the physical and geographical processes when studying the effect of man on the forces of nature. The number of geological and geophysical problems which can be solved will gradually increase if geophysical, infrared radio location and radio thermal equipment is used.in orbital space stations. Undoubtedly, in the future other means and methods of obtainicg information from space will be used for geology, as for example, multi-spectral scanning systems operating in invisible ranges of the electromagnetic wave spectrum (radar, thermal and others). Magnetic survey of the earth from cuter space will enable one to judge the overall nature o f the planet's magnetic field, show the great anomalies and study the variations of the magnetic field. Regional and global thermal anomalies can be established by using infrared photography. This material can provide information

for studying the earth's thermal fluxes. Radio location and radio thermal surveying will allow study to be made of the earth's surface,irrespective of weather conditions,and obtain additional geological information which is not given by photographs.
37

G e o l o g i s t s s t i l l r e l y on t e l e v i s i o n and i n d i v i d u a l photographs

from s p a c e o b t a i n e d i n p a s s i n g w i t h o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n .

Special

s p a c e Photographs which w i l l h e l p t o s o l v e many g e o l o g i c a l problems must be u s e d . P r o b a b l y , i t would be a d v i s a b l e t o produce a s p e c i a l a r t i f i -

c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e f o r g e o l o g y , equipped f o r s t u d y i n g n a t u r a l
r e s o u r c e s and c a r r y i n g o u t g l o b a l s u r v e y s from s p a c e . Optimum photography l e v e l s must b e developed and m a t e r i a l o b t a i n e d must be p r o c e s s e d , a method and t e c h n o l o g y f o r s p a c e photography o f t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e and c o n v e r s i o n of s p a c e p h o t o g r a p h s i n t o p h o t o g r a p h i c maps must be done, and one must s t u d y t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r u s i n g g e o p h y s i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n methods from s p a c e and d e f i n e t h e number o f problems which must be s o l v e d by u s i n g them. F i n a l l y , a method fdr p r o c e s s i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n must b e

developed s o t h a t i t may b e u s e d f o r t h e geological study of the earth. earth. Each new phase i n t h e c o n q u e s t o f s p a c e and e a c h new l a u n c h of S o v i e t s p a c e c r a f t i s a n i m p o r t a n t s t e p i n d e v e l o p i n g s c i e n c e o f t h e e a r t h and i n c r e a s i n g t h e m i n e r a l and raw m a t e r i a l p o t e n t i a l o f t h e USSR.

The Beginning o f t h e S t a r r y Way

A. Mrykin, Yu. Biryukov
(TASS)

"Moskovskiy komsomolets", September 3 0 , 1 9 7 2 . I n g r e e t i n g t h e 5 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y a f t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e USSR,

we a r e j u s t l y proud o f t h e f a c t t h a t o u r c o u n t r y i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
38

the fact that a simple spherical shaped satellite would give data
of braking caused by the upper layers of the atmosphere in the

clearest form.

There were other considerations also.

Scientists

122
,

believed that the first satellite should have a shape close to that
ol' naturaf h e a v e n l y bodies, since it would always remain the symbol

of the beginning of mankkd's space era.

October 4 , 1957, when the first artificial earth satellite in the world was launched into space, went down in history. Science

had obtained a new means of exploring extraterrestrial space. The creation of the first manned spacecraft was another important achievement in Soviet astronautics. Yu. A . Gagarin's flight showed that man was no longer attached to his cradle and could live and work in space. 39

--

the earth,

The first phase in the development of Soviet space vehicles was achieved by the flight of Vostok. One feature of it was the individually for

production of unique vehicles, launched

solving important scientific and technical problems, each one of which was the next stage in the USSR's space program. Another

feature was that the launch boo.;ters and the space vehicles were at that time developed by one team led by S. P. Korolev. The second phase of Soviet astronautics began with the launch of the Kosmos-1 satellite according to a program laid down on March 16, 1962. This allowed for the significant increase in the

number of launches of space research vehicles (in 1962 -.lone, 15 were launched, that is, as many as in the previous Five-Year plan). Significant achievements by the Soviet Union during this phase were the first gro;rp flight c?f spacecraft, the flight of a female astronaut, the egress of a mzn into open space, a s o f t landing by an automatic station on the moon, the launch of an artificial lunar satellite, reaching Venus and the launch of heavy Proton and maneuvering Polyet satellites. During this phase, Soviet space technology began to serve the national economy directly, when the Molniya-1 communication; satellite and the Meteor meteorological satellites gave palpable economic benefits. The third phase in the development of Soviet astronautics began in 1969. Its main feature was automatic flights - - the

transition to vehicles, active information robots, obtaining scientific information in interplanetary space and on the surface of the moon, Mars and Venus.
40

The first of this generation of space

vehicles were the Luna-16 and Lunokhod-1. They are not overshadowed by the complexitv of experiments carried out by VerAus-8 which discovered the secret of surface rocks of the planet and Mars-2 and Mars-3 which became artificial satellites of Mars and landed on the planet in extremely difficult conditions during a dust storm. The development of Soviet spacecra-*tis the result of the activity of numerous groups of Soviet scientists, engineers, technicians and workers collected into research and experimental and design teams.
S.

An important role among these was played by

P. Korolev, an academician, who is rxkoned to be the founder

of practical astronautics. One must also mention the contribution of G. N . Babakin, a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, who directed the development of unique spacecraft for researching into the moon and planets of the solar system. Academician M. K. Yangel' also played a great part in the development of rocket and space technology. The design office directed for many years by
A.

M. I s a y c v , a doctor of technical sciences, developed the propulRocket and space technology is one of the most complex branches /23

sion systems of the majority of Soviet spacecraft.

of our country's national economy.

It requires enormous amounts of

men and materials for development, Thanks to the support of the party, government and people, the USSR has become a great space

power, and in 15 years has launched more than 6 4 0 spacecraft.

41

Soviet designers and scientists, by perfecting space technology, are making new strides in the conquest of space and attempting to use space research for the benefit of mankind,

IAF Awards to Soviet Sr>ace Researchers TASS "Pravda", June 21, 1972. The Council of the International Aeronautical Federation (IAF) took place in Paris. The Federation's Council decided to award the IAF honorary diploma to scientists, engineers and workers at the Soviet Astronaut Training Center for their contribution to the program for study and research of outer space. The IAF's Yu. A . Gagarin gold medal was awarded to

V.

A.

Shatalov and A. S . Yeliseyev, who have twice rer,eived the

title of Hero Df the : riet Union, - - for their work in the complex and wide program of space ,->searchby manned spacecraft, which had great practical importance for setting up orbital stations and conducting a series of valuable scientific and technical experimenis. During the conference, the Council of the IAF unanimously decided to award the international diploma to the well-known Soviet scientist and academictan, V. P. Glushko,for his contribution to the development of rocket technology and research into the physical arld technical problems of power engineering,

42

Decisions taken by the IAF show the international recognition

of the USSR's services to space study and research,

? n the Name of Astronautics Pioneers

V. Belikov
"Izvestiya", August 30, 1972. The Federation of Aviation Sports of the USSR have instituted a diploma im. space pilot Yu. A. Gagarin and a medal im. academician

S. P. Korolev.
These two famous names are written on the first page of the chronicle of the space age.
Yu. A. Gagarin, the first man in

space, and the outstafiding scientist, the designer of rocket and :pace systems, S. P. Kcrolev played a great role in the research and corquest of the universe. "By recognizing thelr services in the development of astronautics, the Federation of Aviation Sports of the USr? decided t o institute two new awards,"

--

said I. Borisenko, the secretary of

the Commission for Sporting and Technical Problems in Astronautics. The Yu. A. Gagarin diploma will be awarded to scientists, designers, engineers and also teams and individuals who contribute to the development of rocket, space and aviation technology, aviation sports, and who work for the dissemination of aviation arid space knowledge,or show high sporting achievements. The S, P. Korolev medal will be awarded to scientists, designers, engineers and s?ace pilots
gf

the USSR who, through

their activity, help t h e

/ 24
43

development of rocket and space technology and the prattical u s e

o f the theoretical fundamentals of astrorlautics, and also thcse

who advocate and disseminate scientific and technical achievements in space research, According to this decision by the Federation of Aviation Sports of the USSR,the diploma and medal can be awardei to individuals of foreign countries for their success in +he development

of aviation and space technology, and those who hold world aviation
(ind space records, The award of diplomas and medals will take place annually and will cooincide with the International Aviation and Astronautics Day on April 12, the All-Union Celebration Air Fleet Day of the USSR. However, the award ceremony will take place at the beginning of Oct3ber, the 15th anniversary of the launch of the first Soviet artificial earth satellite. A picture o f this and also relief silhouettes of the Vostok rocket and The Soyuz spacecraft are on the reverse side o f the S . P. Korolev medal.

--

To Space Explorers
TASS
"Izvestiya", October 4 , 1972. With respect to a decision by the office of the Federation of Aviation Sports of the USSR, a large number o f scientists, designers, astronauts, public figures and journalists received the
S.

P, Korolev medal on the eve of the 15th anniversary of the

44

launch of the first artificial earth satellite by Union.

the Soviet

These awards were given for the cmtribution to the development of aviation and astronautics, and the dissemination of the achicvements of the Soviet Union in research and exploration of outer space and aviation technology. The Yu. A. Gagarin diplomas were awarded to groups of scientists, designers, engineers and workers of the USSR, who participated in the designing, constructing and launching ofmanned and unmanned ;pacecraft, including the first artificial earth satellite.

The Tsiolkovskiy Gold Medal

TASS

"Pravda", October 2 0 , 1 9 7 2 . Yesterday the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the

USSR awarded the K. E. Tsiolkovskiy gold medal for 1972 to acade-

mician M. V. Keldysh for his outstanding contribution to the scientific analysis of problems for studying and conquering outer space. This award was instituted in 1954 and is conferred by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR for outstanding work in interplanetary services.

45

Liscoverv bv Astronauts and Scientists "Aviatsiya i kosmonavtika", No. 4 , 1972. The Committee for Inventions and Discoveries attached to the Council of Ministers or' the USSR has entered in the state register the discovery "The phenomenon of the vertical-beam structure of daytime radiation of the earth's upper atmosphere". The discovery

/25

uas made on the basis of analysis of results of visual observations from Soyuz-3, Soyuz-5, Soyuz-9 manned spacecraft. The authors of the discovery are space pilots of the USSR, twice atiard winners of the Hero of the Soviet Union, G. Beregovoy and A. Nikolayev, Heroes of the Soviet Union, V . Sevast'yanov and Ye. Khrunov, and the Leningrad scientist, K. Kondrat'yev, a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, A. Lazarev and M. Miroshnikov, doctors o f technical sciences, A . Buznikov, a candidate of technical sciences, and 0. Smoktiy, a cand-date of physical and mathematical sciences. During Soyuz flights the astronauts observed a global optical picture of the earth's atmosFhere and its cloud cover and surface. \then the spacecraft is in the earth's shadow a uniformly luminescent layer in the form of an ash-gray corona with a pink tint and of The slightly

constant thickness is seen above the night horizon.

diffuse upper boundary of this layer stands out sharply against the background of black space. When a star set beyond the earth's horizon Ye. Khrunov, during a flight of the Soyuz-5, was able to
It was 90-95 km.

determine the height of the layer.

Once, directly

46

b e f o r e s u n r i s e , s t r o n g l u m i n e r c e n c e , i n t h e form o f columrs g o i n g from t h e lower l i g h t s t r i p n e a r t h e h o r i z o n t o a n a l t i t u d e a p p r o x i m e t e l y twice t h a t of t h e n i g h t corona,was seen i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n between areas of t h e t w i l i g h t corona and t h e n i g h t corona. T h i s luminescence was o b s e r v e d c l o s e t o t h e e q u a t o r on t h e downward c i r c u i t of t h e o r b i t . V i s u a l l y , t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e c o l u m ~i s The c o l o r of t h e When

s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of t h e n i g h t c o r o n a .

luminescent columns i s a y e l l o w i s h g r a y w i t h a p i n k t i n t .

o b s e r v i n g t h e column-shaped luminescence, i t seemed as i f powerful s e a r c h l i g h t beams were d i r e c t e d upwards from t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e .

G. Beregovoy f i r s t saw t h i s phenomenon.

During a Soyuz-9 f l i g h t , a s t r o n a u t s twice o b s e r v e d i n t e n s i v e luminescence l a s t i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y s e v e n m i n u t e s i n t h e n i g h t s i d e

of t h e e a r t h n e a r t h e South Pole.
O b s e r v a t i o n m a t e r i a l was usell by Leningrad s c i e n t i s t s ,
A. Buznikov,

K. Kondrat'yev, A. Lazarev, M. Miroshnikov and

0. Smoktiy, f o r c o m p i l i n g a s i n g l e p i c t u r e o f t h e development o f

o p t i c a l phenomena i n t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere when i t i n t e r a c t s w i t h solar radiation. J o i n t a n a l y s i s gf t h e s e observations c a r r i e d out

by s c i e n t i s t s and a s t r o n a u t s showed a v e r t i c a l - b e a m s t r u c t u r e of

t h e daytime r a d i a t i o n of t h e e a r t h ' s u p p e r atmosphere d u r i n g s p a c e

twilight. The a u t h o r s of t h e d i s c o v e r y showed t h e sequency o f ~ p v ~ l n p ment o f o p t i c a l phenomena i n t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere. When a

spacecraft i s i n t h e night s i d e of t h e e a r t h t h e r e i s an ash-gray l u m i n e s c e n t l a y e r w i t h a b r i g h t upper boundary i n t h e s h a p e of a

47

corona and a light strip near the horizon.

As the spacecraft

approaches the day side of the earth, the upper boundary of the uight layer thickens and disperses. Then, space d a m appears with its characteristic color gamma near the horizon. The luminescent

layer remains on the right and left side of the dawn, but sections

of the corona in its direct vicinity are diffused and take on the
form of thi3 luminescent filaments. The astronauts drew them in their flight log-books. Havi1.E carefully studied and analyzed visual observations, scientists came to the conclusion that there is a horizontal non-uniform day radiatior, of the earth's upper atmosphere. When researching into the atmosphere from earth by using rockets and artificial satellites until now most attention has been paid to the altitude distribution of its parameters. For example,

rocket probing made it possible to obtain the vertical dependence of the composition, temperature, pressure and optical characteristics of atmosphere to an altitude of approximately 500 km. Photography and spectrophotometry of space dawn determined the vertical profiles of brightness in an altitude range of 4 5 - 5 0 0 km.

- concept of horizontal x n i f o r m i t y of the optical properties of ihe

the lower layers of the atmosphere was also propagated to greater altitudes. The vertical-beam structure observed by Soviet scientists and astronauts shows the existence of horizontal non-uniformity o f radiation of the earth's upper atmosphere. This has a scientific and practical value when solving problems of an applied nature
48

conc2rning the energetics of the upper layer of the atmosphere and variations of its structural parameters. Studies

f this

phenomenon can be useful when determining t h e optical conditions for autonomous navigation and spacecraft orientation in nearearth paths. Visual obscrvations of space-time parameters o f

the horizontal non-uniformity,with siniultaneous experiments to study the spectra o f horizontal non-uniformity,must be continued. This will cnable us t o explain t h e reasons for vertical-beam struc ture and study its seasonal and latitadinal changes.

49

I . SENTINELS OF SCIENCE

Satellites Serve Mankind

G. Petrov, Academician
"Izvestiya", March 15, 1972. The basic feature of the Soviet space program is its sequence. Each new phase of research is a logical continuation and development of the previous one. The first launch of the Soviet artificial

/27

earth satellites was a "test of strength" in discovering a new world. The processing of observation material of the movement of

the first three satellites and measurement data gave interesting scientific results. The previously held concepts of near-earth

outer space were considerably cl~snged. At the same time, it was necessary to change from reconnaissance experiments to systematic, complex research and to in-depth analysis of various phenomena occurring in a natural "laboratory", which in fact near-earth space

is, on such unprecedented scales, and their connection with processes on the Sun. The question arase on the practical use of rocket and space technology achievements in the national economy, mainly for weather forecasting and communications. This task c x l d not be carried out immediately. There were complex technical problems to be solved, There was

for example, the building of meteorological satellites.

also the need for specialized and complex experiments aimed at the

50

p r e p a r a t i o n and s o l u t i o n of t h e most c o m p l i c a t e d b i o l o g i c a l and t e c h n i c a l problems f o r man ..n s p a c e . t o t h e numerous Kosmos v e h i c l e s . Much s c i e n t i f i c informai:ion had been o b t a i n e d s i n c e Kosmos-1
A1 t h e s e t a s k s were a l l o t t e d 1

was launched.

I n teil years much knowledge was o b t a i n e d on t h e

s t r u c t u r e of t h e ug?er atmosphere, t h a t is, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of d e n s i t y , t e m p e r a t u r e and v m ~ n c i t i m c c o r d i n g t o a l t i t u d e , and a

a l s o changes of t h e s e v a l u e s .

T h e o r e t i c a l s u p p o s i t i o n s on t h e

dynamic n a t u r e o f t h e u p p e r atn.osphere, e s p e c i a l l y changes of d e n s i t y depending on s o l a r a c t i v i t y , were e x p e r i m e n t a l l y c o n f i r m e d . Comparison of r e s u l t s o b t a l n e d by t h e t h i r d a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e d u r i n g maximum s o l a r a c t i v i t y w i t h o b s e r v a t i o n o f d a t a on t h e movement of Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s , s h o w e d t h a t d u r i n g h a l f t h e s o l a r a c t i v i t y c y c l e t h e a v e r a g e d e n s i t y a t a n a l t i t u d e of 200 km was reduced by a f a c t o r o f 2 , and a t a n a l t i t u d e of 3 0 0 lan by n o t less t h a n a f a c t o r of 3 1 / 2 . Now, one c a n f o r e c a s t t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e

upper atmosphere d u r i n g any p h a s e o f s o l a r a c t i v i t y .

I n 1958, by a n a l y z i n g p o l a r a u r o r a p r o c e s s e s , S o v i e t s c i e n t i s t s

showed t h a t when tksse t o o k p l a c e t h e r e was a n i n t e n s e w a r m i n g - u p , a "bulge" of t h e upper atmosphere.

I t m u s t be s a i d t h a t a t f i r s t

t h i s p r o p o s a l was met w i t h much s k e p t i c i s m . l o n g e r any doubt. According t c t h e r e s u l t s

Now, t h e r e i s no
0:

/28

a n a l y s i s of s a t e l -

l i t e b r a k i n g , t h e i n c r e a s e i n p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y i n r e g i o n s where

there a r e p n ? z r

ZZYG~-&S

&t a l t i t u d e s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 300

km is

s e v e r a l times g r e a t e r t h a n i n lowcr latitudes,

I t appeared t h a t

51

even weak geomagnetic disturbances have a global effect on temperature and density of the upper atmosphere. The relative effect of

these disturbances is especially great when there is minimum solar activity

At the present time, information obtained by satellites equipped with mass spectrometers allows us t o talk quite definitely on the composition of the upper atmosphere. Whereas the basic component of atmosphere is nitrogen up to an altitude o f 180-200 km, as the altitude increases there is a prevalence of atomic oxygen. Still higher, in years when there is minimum solar activity, from altitudes of 500-600 lan and years when there is maximum activity

--

from altitudes of 1,000-1,500 km, the atmosphere is a helium-hydrogen one. Before direct measurement was done, on the basis of which one could calculate the temperatures of electrons and ions in the atrrcsphere, there were very contradictory views on their values.

In

particular, it was thought that there was a temperature balance between electron and ion components of the ionosphere. this was not so. The first direct measurement of ion temperature carried out in Kosmcs showed thai-.at daytime it was considerably iower than the electron.
Until quite recently, there were heated arguments on the very

In fact

fact of the ionosphere's existence. Approximately ten years ago there was a much-discussed hypothesis on the presence of some hypothetic polar aurora which is constantly taking place in all
52

latitudes,and supports the night ionization of the atmosphere by supplementing the lack of solar ionization. Measurements done in several Kosmos showed quite convincingly that a particle flux, which is in fact observed in low and medium latitudes, is quite insufficient for this. Since the night ionosphere exists, this

means that the speeds at which the ionosphere appears and disap pears are not as great as was supposed. Acccrdingly, the intensity of solar radiation responsible for ionization is now reckoned as being approximately ten times less than before. Apart from this,

it was shown somewhat later that at night the ionosphere lifts, as it were, and ionization moves upwards. Quite recently there was no doubt o f the link between the earth's "constant" (main) magnetic field, determined by sources inside the terrestrial globe,and the "variable" magnetic field depending on the influence of external sources. The intercon-

nection between these fields was especially obvious after Kosmos research. Data was obtained for the first time on the global

distribution of magnitude and direction of the main geomagnetic field, and also information on the stnicture of the possible mechanisms of comparatively rapid changes of the earth's constant and variable field. Experiments condiicted in cirtei- space determined the degree of correspondence between the actual picture with theoretical models, based on observations on the earth's surface in the course of centuries. One important scientific result of this research is that,in fact,near the earth there are constant conditions which, as suggested, only appezr during magnetic storms.
53

Who i s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n ?

Mainly, r e s e a r c h i n t o

complex h e a t exchange and mass exchange p r o c e s s e s i n t h e upger atmosphere i s important i n p r a c t i c e .

I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s t r u c t u r e and dynamics of t h e e a r t h ' s upper atmosphere s i m p l i f y t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a on t h e atmospheres o f o t h e r p l a n e t s , a n d c r e a t e a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f p l a n e t a r y atmospheres. Autolr3tic docking o f a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s i n o r b i t and t h e c o n t r o l l a b l e f l i g h t i n t h e upper l a y e r s o f t h e atmosphere r e q u i r e t h e knowledge o f t h e change o f a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n depending on t h e time o f t h e y e a r , l o c a l time, e t c . F e a t u r e s of t h e o u t e r i o n o -

s p h e r e , t h a t i s , t h a t r e g i o n which can o n l y be s t u d i e d by r o c k e t s and s a t e l l i t e s , a r e i m p o r t a n t f o r e a r t h r a d i o communications w i t h s p a c e v e h i c l e s , r a d i o communications bztween manned s p a c e c r a f t and f o r u s i n g a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s f o r r a d i o communication and t e l e v i s i o n systems. I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e magnetic f i e l d i s w i d e l y used when p r o s p e c t i n g f o r m i n e r a l s , p i l o t a g e and a v i a t i o n . However, magnetic

p l o t t i n g i s an extremely- iabor-consuming t a s k and r e q u i r e s m c h time. Maps, even when compiled w i t h a c c u r a t e and r e l i a b l e measiire-

ments, a f t e r a c e r t a i n t i m e : do n o t show t h e t r u e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the field. The g r e a t s p e e d s o f s a t e l l i t e s , as i t were, have E l e c t r o n i c computers e n a b l e

reduced t h e dimensions o f o u r p l a n e t .

u s t o p r o c e s s a l a r g e amount o f e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a i n a r e l a t i v e i y
s h o r t time.

Some Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s were s p e c i a l l y launched f o r r e s e a r c h i n g cosmic r a y s . Much s t u d y h a s been made o f o u r Sun.

I t i s impcrtant

t h a t some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e Sun, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e l i n k e d w i t h s o l a r a c t i v i t y , a l t h o u g h i n a c c e s s i b l e t o s t u d y from e a r t h , can be registered systematically. During p e r i o d s when t h e r e i s a s h a r p

i n c r e a s e i n s o l a r a c t i v i t y t h e r e i s a ma.rked l i n k between " e a r t h " and " s o l a r " phenomena. The b e t t e r we can s t u d y t h i s l i n k , t h e situation

b e t t e r we s h a l l be a b l e t o f o r e c a s t t h e r a d i o l o g i c a l on t h e f l i g h t time o f a s t r o n a u t s .

I n f o r m a t i o n o f t h i s dependence

i s n e c e s s a r y i n many o t h e r s p h e r e s o f man's p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y .
I t must be s a i d t h a t e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d d u r i n g g e o p h y s i c a l

e x p e r i m e n t s i! ;

Kosmos

s a t e l l i t e s h a s been v e r y v a l u a b l e f o r Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s

d e v e l o p i n g and implementing t h e Meteor program.

nave become a b a s i s on which t h e p r e s e n t m e t e o r o l o g i c d l system h a s been founded. Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s have a l s s become a unique p r o v i n g ground f o r space technslogy. For example, t h e Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s f i r s t t e s t e d These e x p e r i m e n t s opened new

a u t o m a t i c docking methods i n o r b i t .

h o r i z o n s f o r c r e a t i n g complex s p a c e s y s t e m s , and mainly f o r m u l t i purpose o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s . The USSR i s s u c c e s s f u l l y implementing t h e s p a c e r e s e a r c h progr?m, s u c c e s s i v e l y p a s s i n g from one i m p o r t a n t p h a s e t o t h e n e x t . Space r e s e a r c h w i l l be c o n t i n u e d w i t h t h e same sequence and thoroughness and w i t h d e t a i l e d p r e p a r a t i o n f o r each new s t e p , c h a r a c t e r i d t i c of Soviet science.

55

The Kosmos Program in Action "Pravda", March 15, 1 9 7 2 .

Ten years ago, on March 1 6 , 1962 the Kosmos-1 artificial

eaxth satellite was sent into orbital flight. A new program was implemented for studying the upper layers of the atmosphere and near-earth outer space. Since then, almost 500 Kosmos satellites

have been launched. Research carried out in satellites of this series is shown in the conversation with scientists published below. At our "round table" is the director of the Scientific Research Institute of Nuclear Physics o f the Moscow State University, academician S . N. Vernov, the director of the Institute of Physics of the Atmosphere of the Academy o f Sciences of the USSR, Academician A.M. Obukhov, and the director of the Institute of Cosmophysical Research and Aeronomy of the Yakut Branch o f the Siberian Department of the Academy of Sciences o f the USSR, Doctor of Physican and Mathematical Sciences Yu. G. Shafer. Yu. Zaytsev conducts the conversation.
S.

/30

N. Vernov opens the conversation:

"Flightsof the first artificial earth satellites and automatic interplanetary stations shcwed that we knew very little of the closest outer environment o f our planet. Before the satellites were launched many scientists did not even
assume

that the earth was surrounded by radiation belts.

Even more unexpected was the discovery of solar wind continuous flow of plasma fr,m the Sun was called.

--

as the

It appearcd

56

that near-earth outer space is the arena of complex physical processes. The boundaries of the magnetosphere are changed by

solar wind, the "population" o f particles in radiation belts increases and decreases, the composition and density of the upper atmosphere changes, magnetic storms and polar auroras connected with them occur which interfere with radio communication. It is obvious that these processes must not be examined in isolation. They can only be studied properly in close interconnection, mainly with different developments of solar activity. In

this respect, Kosmos vehicles have given us unique opportunities. Observations on the level of ionizing radiation were carried out by the first Kosmos satellites. This was necessary for establishing flight safety conditions for astronauts. Prolonged measurements made it possible to determine the permissible radiaticn doses depending on the altitude of the orbit, and geomagnetic and solar activity. On the basis of this information,scientists concluded that radiation safety could be guaranteed for future flights of Vostock and Voskhod spacecraft. From the scientific point of view, this research is important to understand processes in the lower boundary of radiation belts, that is at altitudes o f 2 0 0 - 4 0 0 km,especially in high latitudes. It is at these altitudes that interaction between charged particles and the earth's atmosphere occurs and they penetrate the ionosphere. The study o f this interaction, determinatioa of the lifetime of particles in dense atmospheric layers, and the dependence of their

b e h a v i o r on geomagnetic d i s t a r o a n c e

i s necessary t o understand

t h e s t r u c t u r e and d y n a a i c s o f r a d i a t i o n b e l t s . Let us t a k e , f o r example, t h e pxoblem o f p a r t i c l e a c c e l e r a t i o n

i n o u t e r space.

T h i s a l s o o c c u r s Rear t h e e a r t h , on t h e Sun, i n

t h e h e a r t of t h e g a l a x y , and o b v i o u s l y , beyond i t .

But when t h e s e

" a c c e l e r a t o r s " a r e f a r from o u r p l a n e t , we o n l y s e e t h e f i n a l result

--

we s e e , f o r exafiple, cosmic r a y s i n c l u d i n g t h o s e w i t h Hobever, we know l i t t l e o f t h e environment where

g r e a t energy.

p a r t i c l e a c c e l e r a t i o n Gccurs. T h e r e f o r e , we c a n n o t e x p l a i n simply p a r t i c l e d i s t r i b Q t i o n o f cosmic r a y s a c c o r d i n g t o energy. Th; p i c t u r e i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n r a d i a t i o n b e l t s . t h e g r e a t amount o f measurements made i n them, w e

Due t o

have s u f f i c i e n t

i n f o r m a t i o n t o LJnswer t h e q u e s t i o n how p a r t i c l e s a c c e l e r a t e , how t h e y change t h e i r t r a j e c t o r y and what phenomena accompany t h i s . Furthermore, s c i e n t i s t s can now f o r e c a s t p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r i n g i n radiiition b e l t s . The q u e s t i o n now a r i s e s how t o u s e i d e a s and

/31

t h e o r i e s developed f o r r s d i a t i o n b e l t s t o o t h e r a r e a s o f s p a c e - t h e Sun and Galaxy." Academician A , M. Obukhov s p e a k s : "Geophysics h a s a l s o a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e Kosmos r e s e a r c h program. Mainly, I have i n mirLd t h e whole r e s e a r c h i n t o These

p r o p e r t i e s of t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere a l o n g i t s whole l a y e r .

e x p e r i m e n t s a r e d i r e c t l y l i n k e d w i t h t h e problem of u s i n g a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s f o r weather f o r e c a s t i n g and a l s o w i t h q u e s t i o n s o f a general geophysical nature,

58

Naturally, launches o f Kosmos satellites weremade mainly For expericental purposes. One of the main tasks was to find new

methods and means of collecting quantitative information on the earth's atmosphere, that is, those characteristics which can be exprcssed in numbers. These include radiation temperature, the amount of cloud covering the surface of the earth,and the size of individual clouds.
It has been possible to approach the problem of cloud "rating'.

The fact is that we show cloud elements on television pictures in a somekihat individual manner. We nust give a quantitative charac-

teristic not of each individual cloud,but of the whole cloud system. Such a system plays a i important role in typifying weather. f Itms

established that different cloud system have a characteristic spatial distribution - - "a spectrum", thar is, properties which can be fixed by recording earth and atmospheric radiations from satellites. Soviet scientists were the first to carry out a global experiment for receiving thermal radio-frequency radiation of the earth and its atmosphere with the Kosmos-243 satellite. In particular,

it was possible to compile a map of Antarctic ice, irrespective

of whether its boundary wss covered by clouds or not.

The tempera-

ture distribution of the ocean throughout the wholr world was also obtained. Apart from this, by recording thermal radio-frequency radiation one can determine the moisture content in the atmosphere,

59

including water droplets in clouds, and detect the centers of intense precipitation hidden by large clouds. Experience accumulated in the course of geophysical experiments on Kosmos was used for the actual development and implementation of the Meteor meteorological system." Yu. G. Shafer, a Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, contimes the convershtion: ffKosmossatellites play an important part in the scientific program for studying cosmic rays. participate in this research.
An artificial earth satellite has a specified time of active

Scientists at our institute

existence. measurement.

Systemat-icobservations normally require continuous Therefore, satellites identical in construction and They are put into

with the same scientific equipment are used.

near orbit in sequence at an interval of approximately six months. The next satellite is launched before the previous one has completed its calculated period in space. As a result, for a certain time they are at identical altitudes in the same latitudes. During this time their instruments are calibrated and the results of measurement are ",titched'* together. In this way, one can carry

out an exFeriment without breaks for a considei-able time, and organize, as it were, a cosmic weather patrol. The reason behind

this patrol is in expectation of a favorable concurrence of circumstances, when the natural laboratory itself will yield some interesting phenonsnon which would be difficult or impossible to simulate on earth and obtain artificially.
60

We were interested, for exmple, in the question:

On what

/32

do changes in the average nuclear composition of cosmic radiation depend?

It was suggested that there are moments when the Sun

expels predominantly heavy nuclei.

This theoretical supposition

was confirmed when an actual event took place during a patrol search, and we observed it three times. Research conducted by Kosmos satellites determined the periodic changes of the nuclear composition of cosmic radiation. The results were unexpected. Analysis of
Y

great number o f

measurements showed that during years of minimum solar activity the average nuclear composition increased. Ayparently, this is

explained by the existence of interaction on the boundary of solar wind with the interstellar medium of the transient region, the density o f which changes depending on solar activity. The fact itself of the discovery of a transient region with a high concentration of radiation is remarkable. During a flight, shall we say, to Jupiter a spacecraft must cross it. Conse:uently,

the design of such a spacecraft must provide protection from the effect of strong ionizing radiation."

61

Meetinn Plasma Storms

Doctor of P h y s i c a l and Mathematical S c i e n c e s , D i r e c t o r o f t h e L a b o r a t o r y o f P o l a r Auroras a t t h e Space Research I n s t i t u t e o f t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR. "Pravda" P r e s s Department. B y u l l e t e n ' d l y a r e s p u b l i k a n s k i k h g a z e t , No. 6,March 4,1972. Long b e f o r e t h e f i r s t r o c k e t s and s a t e l l i t e s were launched
i t was known t h a t p o l a r a u r o r a s a r e caused by c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e

f l u x e s e n t e r i n g t h e atmosphere - - e l e c t r o n s and p r o t o n s w i t h an energy from s e v e r a l hundreds o f e l e c t r o n - v o l t s t o t e n s o f k i l o e l e c t r o n - v o l t s and above. T h i s was e s t a b l i s h e d by ground o b s e r v a t i o n s

o f p u l a r a u r o r a s , t h e s t u d y o f t h e i r s p e c t r a , a l t i t u d e measurement and r e s e a r c h by p h o t o c h e m i s t r y i r - t o p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r i n g when t h i s

takes p l a c e .

During p o l a r a u r o r o 3 , a t a l t i t u d e s h i g h e r t h a n 100 km,

t h e r e i s s t r o n g i o n i z a t i o n o f t h e atmosphere which c o n s i d e r a b l y i n f l u e n c e s t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f r a d i o waves. S i n c e q u e s t i o n s of

r a d i o communications a r e of primary i m p o r t a n c e , e s p e c i a l l y f o r a r c t i c r e g i o n s , where, t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , t h e y depend on t h e e f f e c t s of p o l a r a u r o r a s and magnetic s t o r m s , che s t u d y 01 p r o c e s s e s l i n k e d x i t h t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s h a s always a t t r a c t e d s c i e n t i s t s ' a t t e n t i o n . The r a n g e of work h a s been s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d w i t h t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e s p a c e age. The f a c t i s t h a t many e f f e c t s l i n k e d w i t h

t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f h i g h - e n e r g y c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s on t h e upper atmosphere c o u l d o n l y be s t u d i e d w i t h r o c k e t s and s a t e l l i t e s .

It

i s remarkable t h a t t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of t h e f i r s t g r e a t
complex experiment i n s p a c e , I mean t h e l a u n c h o f t h e t h i r d S o v i e t

62

a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e , w3s r e s e a r c h ict.-,these h i g h - e n e r g y c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s i n t h e upper atmosphere,and e f f e c t s c a u s e d by them.

A d i r e c t c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h i s workwere t h e e x p e r i m e n t s con-

d u c t e d by t h e Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s . The program o f t h e Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s i n c l u d e s a whole r a n g e o f study o f high-energy p a r t i c l e s . For example, t h e r e a r e h i g h -

energy p a r t i c l e s l i n k e d w i t h r a d i a t i o n b e l t s and even h i g h e r

e n a r p p a r t i c l e s o f cosmic r a y s .

B a s i c a l l y , we a r e i n t e r e s t e d

i n low-energy p a r t i c l e s , t h a t i s , p a r t i c l e s which c a u s e p o l a r a u r o r a s , and t h e i o n i z a t i o n o f t h e upper atmosphere, i t s warmingap, etc. The f i r s t S o v i e t s a t e l l i t e s d e v o t e d e n t i r e l y t o t h e

s t u d y of t h i s problem were t h e Posmos-3, a d l a t e r t h e K o s ~ 1 ~ s - 5 which was i d e n t i c a l t o i t . The s a t e l l i t e s were launched w i t h a n a n g l e of i n c l i n a t i o n o f

43 d e g r e e s t o t h e e q c i a t o r i a l p l a n e .
f

I n essence, t h i s o r b i t d i d n o t

a l l o w us t o c a r r y o u t measurements d i r e c t l y i n t h e a r e a o f p o l a r auroras. i n detail.

W c o u l d o n l y r e s e a r c h t h e lower and medium l a t i t u d e s e

Therefore, t h e main a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t s

/33

was p a i d t o a b t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e i o n o sphere. Another i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t o f t h e s e a r c h conducted by t h e s e s a t e l l i t e s was t h e s t u d y o f p h o t o e l e c t r o n s - - s u p e r t h e r m a l p a r t i c l e s w i t h energy of t e n s and hundreds o f e l e c t r o n s - v o l t s . They occupy t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n between e l e c t r o n s o f 'lcoldl' plasma (of t h e i o n o s p h e r e ) and h i g h - e n e r g y p a r t i c l e s , a n d a r e t h e d i r e c t r e s u l t of ionization

- - t h e detachment of an e l e c t r o n from
63

a neutral atom. Data on their intensity werestudied, and it was

shown that photoelectrons can penetrate one hemisphere from another along magnetic lines of force.
A

new phase in studying the nature of polar auroras was the

The satellite's orbit was regularly passed almost at a

launch o f the Kosros-261 satellite. specially chosen

SI

that its p a t h

tangent along the polar aurora's zone. This significantly increased the amount of time spent by the recording equipment in the auroral atnosphere [from Aurora, the goddess o f dawn, as all phenomena are called connected with polar auroras). Simultaneously,

Kosmos-259 and Kosmos-262 satellites were operating at lower latitudes and measuring the intensity of hard radiation. However, satellite measurement has a number of significant limitations. Owing to its great speed it crosses the area of space in which we ar-e interested in a very short time. Hence, the satellite passes the polar aurora arc with
a

mean thickness of [approxi-

mately 10 km) in one or two seconds. Apart from this, owing to the earth's daily rotation the projection
of

t h e sstellite's

p i t h is

offset to the west with each revolution, that is, subsequent measurement is not done in the same place as the previous one. is advisable to combire satellite measurement with simultaneous ground observations.
A

It

complex experiment of this type was done by Kosmos-261 in

3ecember 1968. The satellite contained equipment for studying charged particles causing polar auroras, superthermal eliergy electrons, and also variations o f dens'ty of the upper atmosphere
64

during auroras.

S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a network o f ground g e o p h y s i c a l

s t a t i o n s filmed t h e p o l a r auroras i n t h e sky, recorded t h e i r brightn e s s and a l t i t u d e , d e t e r m i n e d several c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n v a d i n g a c t i v e p a r t i c l e s , a n d measured t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e upper atmosphere. O b s e r v a t i o n s were made a t t h i r t y ground p o i n t s i n t h e

Sairiet Union.

The l a u n c h o f t h e Kosmos-261 s a t e l l i t e was t h e f i r s t j o i n t s p a c e experiment conducted i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e program f o r collaboration with s o c i a l i s t countries i n t h e f i e l d of research and u s e o f o u t e r s p a c e f o r p e a c e f u l p u r p o s e s . Many g e o p h y s i c a l

ground o b s e r v a t o r i e s and reFearch institutes o f s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e work. The experiment produced v a l u a b l e r e s u l t s .

W a r e g l a d t h a t t h e h e l p p r o v i d e d by c o l l e a g u e s from s o c i a l i s t e
c o u n t r i e s was o f u s e and, i n many c a s e s , even d e c i s i v e . Among t h e s e r e s u l t s t h e r e a r e e f f e c t s o b t a i n e d d u r i n g j o i n t r e s e a r c h of a powerful chromospheric f l a r e on t h e Sun d u r i n g December 2 8 , 1 9 6 8 . day m e r i d i a n (11 AM
I t happened when Europe was c l o s e t o t h e mid-

Greenwichtime).

I n t h i s way, ground

statisns ~f s . o i i a * l i s t L u u n t r i e > welt! i n a very f o r t u n a t e p o s i t i o n

f o r observing t h e f l a r e . The Kosmos-261 s a t e l l i t e , a t t h a t time,

was i n t h e s o u t h e r n h e n i s p h e r e n e a r t h e a r e a where t h e s t a t i o n s

were p o s i t i o n e d .

As a r e s u l t , i t was p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e changes i n

t h e lower i o n o s p h e r e l i n k e d w i t h t h e h a r d X-ray r a d i a t i o n o f t h e f l a r e and i n t h e middle i o n o s p h e r e , caused by s o f t e r r a d i a t i o n . The new i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d i s i n t e r e s t i n g and shows t h e movement o f plasma i n t h e i o n o s p h e r e .
I t was knobn t h a t a f t e r

65

midnight i n n o r t h e r n l a t i t u d e s near p o l a r a u r o r a zones t h e e a r t h ' s ionosphere is very "devastated".

Here, even a t s e v e r a l hundreds o f

k i l o m e t e r s t o t h e s o u t h o f t h e a u r o r a z o n e , r a d i o communications a r e badly a f f e c t e d . T h i s phenomenon was c a l l e d t h e i o n o s p h e r i c

"failure".

A p p a r e n t l y , p r o c e s s e s which p r e s e r v e t h e n i g h t i o n o -

s p h e r e s t o p working a n e , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e i s no upward l i f t o f ionization. Research showed t h a t a t t h i s time s p e c i f i c v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e magnetic f i e l d occur,which show t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t and a d r i f t o f a n i o n i z e d component o f t h e atmosphere. There i s , as i t were, an " e v a p o r a t i o n " and " e f f l u x " o f t h e i o n o sphere. The Kosmos-348 s a t e l l i t e c o n t i n u e d t h e complex experiment begun by Kosmos-261.
I t was launched d u r i n g t h e summer and i t was

p o s s i b l e t o compare t h e g e o p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a t v a r i o u s s e a s o n s .
The satc??itc's cquipiiicnt had been iiiipkuved.
E s p e c i a l l y , i t had

been p o s s i b l e t o i n c r e a s e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f an i n s t r u m e n t r e c o r d i n g t h e spectrum o f p h o t o e l e c t r o n s , t h a t i s , d i s t r i b u t i n g them a c c o r d i n g t o energy.

I t appeared t h a t t h e spectrum o b t a i n e d

i s v e r y c l o s e t o t h a t c a l c u l a t e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y , b u t h a s some
s p e c i f i c f r a c t u r e which, o b v i o u s l y , i s l i n k e d w i t h i o n i z a t i o n i n t h a t energy raxige. I n c o n c l u s i o n , one must n o t f o r g e t t h e O r e o l s a t e l l i t e , launched i n t h e program f o r S o v i e t - F r e n c h c o o p e r a t i o n i n o u t e r space research. To a g r e a t e x t e n t , i t i s a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f e x p e r i The

and Kosmos-348 s a t e l l i t e s . ments conducted by t h e KOS-~OS-261

Oreol s a t e l l i t e h a s more s o p h i s t i c a t e d equipment.

Apart from

measuring t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p o l a r a u r o r a p a r t i c l e s , I t carries o u t r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e i o n c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e upper atmpcphere i n polar regions. The a n a l y s i s of t h e i o n c o m p o s i t i o n i s l i n k e d w i t h The

t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e n a t u r e o f " f a i l u r e s " i n t h e iofiosphere.

more e l o n g a t e d o r b i t o f t h e O r e o l s a t e l l i t e w i l l givd us a number

of a d d i t i o n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n t h i s r e s p e c t .

The o r b i t ' s apogee

i s a t an a l t i t u d e o f 2 , 5 0 0 km, t h a t i s , beyond t h e l i m i t s , so t o
s p e a k , o f t h e normal i o n o s p h e r e .
A t t h e s e a l t i t u d e s one c a n

measure - h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a u r o r a l p a r t i c l e s u n t i l t h e y i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e e a r t h ' s ionosphere.

W a l s o hope t o o b t a i n new informa-tion on a s p e c i f i c , b u t v e r y e

i m p o r t a n t phenomenon i n n a t c r e - - t h e "hydrogen p o l a r a u r o r a " caused by t h e i n v a s i o n o f h i g h - e n e r g y p r o t o n s i n t h e atmosphere, a s c e r t a i n t h e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f these p r o t o n s , and compare r e s u l t s o f measure1iients w i t h t h e o r y .

Magnetic Measurement i n Space Sh. Sh. Dolginov Candidate of P h y s i c a l and hiathenlatical S c i e n c e s , D i r e c t o r o f t h e Department o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f T e r r e s t r i a l Magnetism, t h e Ionosphere and Radio Wave P r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s , USSR. "Pravda" P r e s s Department. B y u l l e t c n ' d l y a gorodskikh g a z e t , No. 1 0 , March 2 4 , 1972. L i n e s o f f o r c e o f a magnetic f i e l d , s t r e t c h i n g f o r t e n s o f thousands o f k i l o m e t e r s i n t o o u t e r s p a c e , d e t e r m i n e t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f n e a r - e a r t h s p a c e , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f many p r o c e s s e s

67

which o c c u r i n h i g h a t m o s p h e r i c l a y e r s , a n d p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e

i n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c o r p u s c u l a r r a d i a t i o n on e a r t h .
I n f o r m a t i o n on magnetic d e c l i n a t i o n i s w i d e l y u s e d f o r d e t e c t i n g m i n e r a l s , p i l o t a g e and a v i a t i r n . When a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l -

l i t e s were launched, t h e measurement o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d was done

more q u i c k l y and o v e r a c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r p a r t o f t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e t h a n was p o s s i b l e p r e v i o u s l y .
F i r s t r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d i n n e a r - e a r t h o u t e r s p a c e was c a r r i e d o u t by t h e t h i r d S o v i e t

a r t i f i c i a l earth satellite. of t h e USSR.

T h i s w a s o n l y done o v e r t h e t e r r i t o r y

N e v e r t h e l e s s , a s a r e s u l t of t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , t h e

f i r s t e v a l u a t i o n s were o b t a i n e d on t h e d e g r e e o f convergence o f

various v a r i a t i o n s of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l concepts of a f i e l d with t h e a c t u a l one. I n f o r n a t i o g o b t a i n e d showed i t was p o s s i b l e t o u s e a

geomagnetic f i e l d i n s p a c e technology - - f o r d e t e r m i n i n g s a t e l l i t e o r i e n t a t i o n i n absolute space. The Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s c a r r i e d o u t e x p e r i m e n t s i n t o t h e s t u d y of t h e magnetic f i e l d n e a r e s t t o t h e e a r t h . tasks. There were two b a s i c

The f i r s t - - r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e main

geomagnetic f i e l d w i t h a s o u r c e i n s i d e t h e e a r t h r a n d measuring them o v e r time. The second

--

s t u d y o f t h e v a r i a b l e e f f e c t s i n a mag-

n e t i c f i e l d which a r e l i n k e d w i t h magnetic a c t i v i t y , and t h e e f f e c t of s o l a r c o r p u s c u l a r r a d i a t i o n . The l a u n c h o f Kosmos-26 and Kosmos-49 s a t e l l i t e s r e s u l t e d i n

t h e f i r s t magnetic measurements and c o v e r e d 7 5 % of t h e e a r t h ' s

68

surface.

A uniform s u r v e y x c o m p l i s h e d i n a s h o r t time showed a

~ Y Z Grroln

magnetic f i e l d

s e c u l a r v a r i a t i o n s and we c o u l d d e t e r m i n e This i n f o r -

i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r an epoch o f a c t u a l e x p e r i m e n t s .

mation was used f o r compiling an i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n a l y t i c a l model o f t h e e a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d . I n 1 9 7 0 , t h e l a u n c h o f Kosmos-321 a l l o w e d us t o o b t a i n a d i s t r i b u t i o n of a magnetic f i e l d over 90% o f t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . Comparison o f measurements by t h i s s a t e l l i t e w i t h t h e two p r e v i o u s ones allowed u s t o d e t e r m i n e w i t h g r e a t a c c u r a c y t h e s e c u l a r changes

o f a magnetic f i e l d o v e r t h e whole s u r f a c e .
The Kosmos-321 s a t e l l i t e was equipped w i t h a quantum cesium magnetometer which c a r r i e d o u t measurement e v e r y 2 sec. This pro-

v i d e d i n t e r e s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on a number o f q u e s t i o n s on t h e v a r i a b l e magnetic field. In particular, the e f f e c t of the

e q u a t o r i a l c u r r e n t j e t i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e magnetic e q u a t 2 r on t h e daytime s i d e was measured f o r t h e f i r s t time by s a t e l l i t e . The e q u a t o r i a l c u r r e n t j e t was f i r s t o b s e r v e d i n 1 9 2 2 . However, a f t e r SO y e a r s o f v a r i o u s compreheiisive r e s e a r c h t h i s phenomenon, t o some e x t e n t , i s s t i l l u n e x p l a i n e d . Satellites

r e s e a r c h , c o m b i n e d w i t h ground measurement,gives w e l l - d e f i n e d i n f o r mation f o r b u i l d i n g a model o f an e l e c t r o j e t , The Kosmos-321 f l i g h t gave us i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t i n f o r mation on t h e mechanism of magnetic s t o r m s i n p o l a r r e g i o n s . In

p a r t i c u l a r , w e were a b l e t o d e f i n e t h e t o p o l o g y o f m a g n e t o a c t i v e zones i n t h e s e r e g i o n s . during During one p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e n s i v e s t o r m

March 8 - 1 0 , 1 9 7 2 t h e e f f e c t s o f p o l a r e l e c t r o j e t s were
69

measured.

A t t h e p r e s e n t time, t h i s in'.ormation i s used f o r

studying t h e e a r t h ' s conduction, The geomagnzeic f i e l d p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e program. i n t h e Kosmos

7 d m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e s p a c e v e h i c l e s were equipped w i t h

s p e c i a l magnetometers f o r d e t e r m i n i n g s a t e l l i t e o r i e n t a t i o n i n a b s o l u t e s p a c e by t h e e a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d . The Kosmos-215 had

a magnetic damping s y s t e m which d e c e l e r a t e d t h e i n c o h e r e n t r o t a t i o n of t h e v e h i c l e ' s body around t h e c e n t e r o f masses.

I t i s worthy o f n o t e t h a t a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s n o t o n l y
i n c r e a s e t h e range of d i r e c t r e s e a r c h , b u t a l s o showed t h a t t h e y

were a new means o f e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n

i n geophysics.

I t was p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e a h i g h d e g r e e of measurement w i t h

s a t e l l i t e s , a n d o b t a i n by them new i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s i z e and d i r e c t i o n of t h e main magnetic f i e l d which a r e c r e a t e d by i n t e r n a l and c o n s t a n t l y a c t i v e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s , and a l s o new da:?

/36

on t h e morphology and p o s s i b l e mechanisms

o f r e l a t i v e l y r a p i d changes o f t h e main magnetic ( c o n s t a n t ) and

variable earth fields.

SOO!

The S a t e l l i t e I s t h e Hero o f t h e Dav P r o f e s s o r V . Mikhaylov "Izvestiya", J u l y 11, 1971.

The development o f o u t e r s p a c e h a s p r o v i d i r l t h e S o v i e t Union

w i t h new impetus.

The Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s a r e a c o n v i n c i n g example In

o f t h e r a t i o n a l approach t o s o l v i n g problems i n a s t r o n a u t i c s .

70

essence, a whole rangeof scientific tasks in the Eosmos program was carried out mainly by using several types of unitized satellites. Experience in building the first satellites for carryingout acsual scientific experiments showed that the use of past achievements can significantly reduce the time for developing them and cut their cost. Therefore, it was decided to "circulate" the best rational solutions.
A

small unitized complex of auxiliary systems and instruments was

developed mainly for satellites with different purposes. This included a radio telemetering system with storage, a radio command link;, a radio monitorink device for orbit parmeters, an on-board common time instrument, an altitude control system, power supply and temperature regulation. The overall utilization allowing satellites to be built on a producticn line basis, began with this auxiliary complex. Three basic bypes of unitized satellites were built. The first

was an unoriented satellite with chemical power supply for shortterm scientific experiments. An iinoriented sattliite with a solar power supply, and oriented towards the Sun, was to be used for longer research. Apart from this, a "space arrow" satellite was built for conducting scientific experiments requiring accurate orientjtion towards earth in low near-circular orbits, and first aerogyroscopic orientation systemin the worldwith aerodynamic stabilizers was used. The body of the unitized hemispherical bases.
It is

satellites it; a cylinder with divided into three compaxtments

containir,g current sources, auxiliary equipment and scientific instrumenzs. The solar batteries are placed on the
body's surface and in the same place equipment and scientific

71

instrument sensors of all types depending on the experiment are attached outside on specially designed bars. Inside the pres-

surized body,containing instruments,there is a certain space for scientific equipment. The body o f the satellites is filled with a gas-heat carrier to ensure thermal conditions for on-board system, and the surface has specific coefficients of absoryrion and reflection of external thermal fluxe;. The lower hemisphere is a radiator and has louvers.

If it becomes cool insidL, the flaps of the louvers are rutated outside from the side with a cover which has a large absorption coefficient of solar radiation; if it becomes warm, on the other hand, they are rotated by the side with good heat emission. The scientific instruments are rantrolled by programming and timing device.; and by a radio command link d,+ng communication sessions. A high-information radiJ telemetering system with a memory is used for recording and transmitting scientific information to ground measurement points.
It can transmit information

/37

directly when conducting experiments, if the satellit? is in the action zone of ground receiving points, or recording the results of measurement on the memory when it is outside of this zone. Kosmos unitized satellites not only carried out experiments according t o a program announced by TASS on March 16, 1962, but also according to a program o f international cooperation for research and the use o f outer space for peaceful purposes. For

axample, during Kosmos-261 and Kosmos-348 flights, designed for

72

g e o p h y s i c a l r e s e a r c h , many c o u n t r i e s i n t h e world c a r r i e d o u t simultaneous o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h ground a i d s . Leading i n s t i t u t e s o f t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR and o t h e r departments a r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s u g g e s t i n g and c a r r y i n g o u t experiments i n u n i t i z e d s a t e l l i t e s , as a r e r e s e a r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s of c o u n t r i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e Xnterkosmos program.
A l a r g e amount of u s e f u l s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n h a s been

o b t a i n e d by launching t h e Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s .

Astronomv i n I n v i s i b l e Ravs "Nauka i zhizn"',

No. 9 , 1972.

T h i s comparison w i l l p r o b a b l y p u z z l e t h e r e a d e r . p a r i n g qir and armor:

W a r e come

t h i s a l m o s t w e i g h t l e s s g a s which a b u t t e r f l y

e a s i l y c u t s w i t h i t s wing and heavy p l a t e s which a f f c r d p r o t e c t i o n from d e s t r u c t i v e t r t i l l e r y s h e l l s . The e a r t h ' s atmosphere n o t o n l y g i v e s l i f e , b u t as a r e l i a b l e s h i e l d p r o t e c t s i t , and i n s u l a t e s t h e e a r t h from t h e l e t h a l e f f e c t of o u t e r space. S h o r t - u v e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c r a d i a t i o n from t h e Sun The atmosphere p r o t e c t s us

t o e a r t h c a n k i l l a l l l i f e on e a r t h ; . from t h i s .

I t h a s t h e same r e l i a b l e p r o t e c t i o n 2 s a t h r e e - f e e t

t h i c k l a y e r of armor p l a t e a g a i n s t u l t r 3 v i o l e t , X - r a y and gamma radiation. Look a t t h e diagram ( - i g . 1 ) . The r a d i a t i o n wavelength i s

s e t along t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s , t h e a l t i t u d e above t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i n kilomete,, ;long t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s on t h e r i g h t , on t h e

73

left

--

air pressure at a give11 altitude expresse? i, fractions of , The curve shows the altitude above s c a level at

an atmosphere.

which radiation arriving from space is attenuated by the upper atmospheric layers by a factor o f 10.
. 3

.
Fig. 1. The depth o f penetration ilito the earth's atmosphere of electromagnetic radiation of different ranges arriving from space.
Key:

a. Radiation line of interstellar hydrogen X = 21 cm

b . Relic radiatiov re&im
c.
e.
fOG p m
d

Electron-positron annihilation line E = 0.5 MeV e f. Maximum "pion" gamma quanta E = 7 0 MV Pressure, a r o t:s G. h. Wavelength. cm i. Everest .i Earth's surface k. Quantum energy, eV r. Ultraviolet radiation 1. Radio wiildow" Infrared radiation in. S . Altitude, km X-rays 11. '). Gamma rays 1 ' . Range a f the spectrum \ljc light (1
If
'

.1

p 1

74
,

The s c a l e o f q l c c t r o m a g n e t i c waves i s d i v i d e d i n t o decades:

t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e s h e r e a r e wave:,

t h e l e n g t h and f r e q u e n c i e s o f The qua?ita o f

2,

which have

an even d i f f e r e n c e t o a f a c t o r o f 1 0 .

t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r a d i a t i o n a l s o d i f f e r i n energy t o

factor of 1 C .

Twenty-three decades - - s u c h i s t h e w i d t h o f t h e spectum o f e l e c t r c - m a g n e t i c r a d i a t i o n s , s t u d i e d by modern s c i e n c e . Rays which

a r e c a p a b l e o f p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere ( o f c o u r s e , i n a n a t t e n u a t e d form) c o n s t i t u t e j u s t o v e r f i v e d e c z d e s . They

k 1 c r . g t o t h e v i s i b l e and u l t r a v i o l e t r a n g e o f t h e spectrum and a l s o t o t h e centimeter-decimeter ranges.

Water v a p o r s and c a r b o n d i o x i d e molecul:;

long-wave i n f r a r e d and s u b m i l l i m e t e r range. from 3,030

are a b s o r b e d i n t h e

Radiation i n a range
is absorbed

:. ( 1

cm) t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 , 8 0 0

by a t m o s p h c r i c n i t r o g e n , s h o r t e r t h a n 1,800

- - by oxygen and

-/38

n i t r o g e n m o l e c u l e s , and even. s h o r t e r wave r a d i a t i o n by oxygen and n i t r o g e n atoms.

A l a r g e p a r t o f t h e spectrum o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves i s

beyond t h e r e a c h o f t e l e s c o p e s s e t up on t h z bottom o f t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere.

Over t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s , h i g h - a l t i t u d e b a l l o o n s and r o c k e t s ,
a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s and s p a c e c r a f t have c a r r i e d numerous p h y s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s i n t o t h e upper l a y e r s o f t h e atmosphere and beyond i t , Almost s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , new d i r e c t i o n s o f a s t r o n o m i c submillimeter, infrared, u l t r a v i o l e t ,
A new g e n e r a t i o n o f a s t r o n o m i c i n s t r u

r e s e a r c h have a p p e a r e d :

X-ray and gamma astronomy.

ments h a s appeared which a r e u s e d f o r r e c o r d i n g r a d i a t i o n i n t h e s e ranges.

75

Research into space objects in electromagnetic wave ranges previously inaccessible have led to a number of fundamental discoveries. Our concepts of the world which surround us are being

broadened and altered.

X-Ray Astronomy Is Ten Years Old Professor S. Mandel'shtam "Rauka i zhitn'", No. 9 , 1972.
An

Unexpected Discovery This year we celebrate one of the newest directions in astron-

omy - - X-ray astronomy. These ten years have been marked by outstanding astronomical discoveries. This was said recently by
I

V. L . Ginsberg, bearing in mind the number of equally important discoveries, the count for astronomy-physics for the ten yesrs was
5 : 2 (astronomy:

quasars, pulsars, "X-ray stars", relic radiation, the difference between electron and nuonic

space lasers; physics:

rieutrinos, the violation o f the complementary principies of invarientsj [ I . ] . The discovery of X-ray "stars'! and thc space X-ray "background" /39 are the most important. Since scientists now have at- their disposal rockets and earth satellites able to carry measuring equipment beyond the limits of the earth's atmosphere, wide research has begun on studying heavenly bodies in wavelength ranges inaccessible to observations from the earth's surface,due to the absorbant effect of the earth's

76

atmosphere.

In 1 0 4 8 t h e X-ray r a d i a t i o n o f the Sun was o b s e r v e d

f o r t h e f i r s t time from a g e o p h y s i c a l r o c k e t a t a h e i g h t o f approxi m a t e l y 1 0 0 km. T h i s raciiiition is g e n e r a t e d by t h e o u t e r e n v e l o p e

of t h e heavenly body i t s e l f

- - t h e s o l a r corona.

The t e m p e r a t u r e The e x c i t a -

of t h e corona i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y one m i l l i o n d e g r e e s .

t i o n mechanism for X-ray r a d i a t i o n i n t h e s o l a r c o r o n a i s b a s i c a l l y thermal - -

f r e e e l e c t r o n s a t hi gl, t e m p e r a t u r e , f l y i n g n e a r atoms,

i o n i z e them, t h a t i s , d e t a c h t h e o u t e r e l e c t r o n s and "excite" t h o s e t h a t remain s t i l l bonded t o t h e n u c l e u s . w i t h a p a s s a g e o f time i n t h e o r d e r o f These e l e c t r o n s ,

s e c , r e t u r n t o an

"unexcited" s t a t e , r a d i a t i n g t h e photon o f t h e s p e c i f i c f r e q u e n c y . The combination o f t h e s e photons g i v e s a b r i g h t - l i n e component o f t h e spectrum. When t h e s e f l i g h t s are f a r t h e r from t h e i o n s , t h e

f r e e f a s t e l e c t r c n s do n o t d e t a c h o r " e x c i t c " t h e bond e l e c t r o n s ,

bt;t o n l y somewhat d i s t o r t t h e i r t r a j e c t o r y i n t h e i o n e l e c t r i c

field.

Photons a r e a l s o r a d i a t e d , and t h e s e i n combination g i v e uous component of t h e spectrum c a l l e d t h e b r a k i n g r a d i a t i o n .

jc

a cont

The d e n s i t y o f m a t t e r i n t h e corona

very s m a l l

- - at the

base o f t h e corona i t o ~ l y o n t a i n s about 1 0 a p a r t i c l e s p e r c u b i c c c e n t i m e t e r ( f o r comparison. t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere a t t h e base i s 100 b i l l i o n times g r e a t e r ) . Therefore, t h e Sun's

X-ray r a d i a t i o n f l u x i s very weak i n comparison w i t h t h e o v e r a l l flux of s o l a r radiation: n e a r t h e boundary of t h e e a r t h ' s atmos-

p h e r e , aCproximately * O s p h o t o n s of r a d i a t i o n w i t h a wavelength of 1 - 1 0 A fal!. each second on an a r e a o f one s q u a r e centimeter, which

0

77

in energy units is approximately

erg.cm-**sec-'.

(The full

flux o f electromagnetic radiation from the Sun near the boundary

o f the earth's atmosphere is 1. 5-106 erg*cm-2.sec-l. Nevertheless,

the registration of X-ray solar radiation is completely feasible by using modern radiation receivers - - photon counters (see below) with a window area of approximately one square centimeter. Imediately after X-ray solar radiation was discovered, the question naturally arose; Are there still heavenly bodies emitting X-ray radiation and can they be observed? The answer was no. X-ray radiation from the nearest star, similar to our Sun, a Centaurus, which can have a hot corona and, consequently, emit X-rays, due to i t s great distance from the earth i s , a c c n r d i n ? tc theoretical calculation, orly 1O-l' erg-cm-2-sec-1 10 or 10-6 phot
x

cm-2-sec-1, wF.ich is practically iniiisi'ile.

In the United States on July 18, 1962, Giacconi and Rossi

am"

co-workers attempted to detect X-ray radiation of the moon by

using X-ray photon ,ounters on a geophysical rocket reaching an altituc. of approximately 2 2 5 6m. The attempt was unsuccessful;

Lunar X-ray radiation Kas detected late1 by Soviet scientists, including :he a i i t h ~ rcf t h e s e l i n e s , by u s i n g instruments on the
1. .ar S i i t e l i i t E - s LtnL-16 asci L x a - I? 1.
ii;

1565.

However, American scientists nade an extremely important discovery: X-ray radiatio.1 was observed leaving space, the source
o f xhich b a close to the center of our Galaxy. rs

In subsequent

experiments several groups of American scientists, a l s o using photon counters in rockets, confirmed the existerlce of this X-ray
78

source and established that it was in the constellation o f Scorpius, / 4 0 at approximately 20' from the center of the galaxy. At the same timc a second, somewhat weaker X-ray source,was discovered in the so-called Crab Nebula, and X-ray cosmic background. In this way, X-ray astronomy was born.
9

a Bifr'use

- - covering the whole sky - The discovery o f the

first X-ray source :;ith a flux of approximately lo-' erg-cm-2-sec-1 or phot-ern'"- sec-l, and afterwards other powerful X-ray sources,was a scientific sensation. covery had been made been discovered. X-Ray Stars and Galaxies
Thus, this year
As

It was obvious that an outstanding dis-

--

new previously unknown heavenly bodies had

X-ray astronomy (nonsolar) is t.en years old.

any other young child, X-ray astronomy has developed very

quickly, giving much pleasure and disappointment to its excited parents - - physicists and astronomers.

I intentionally put

physicists first since, as in the case of radio astronomy, during the first period of its development,X-ray astronomy was more indeb-ied to physicists than astronomers. This i s cxplained since, obviously, physicists have a greater range of skills for successful.ly developing and te: ting new methods and equipment required duriag accunulating experimentq! facts than astronoqers (the reader has probably guessed that the author of the article is a physicist).

79

At the moment, X-ray astronomy is a seething cauldron. There

is a continuous flow o f scientific articles describing new observations and new hypotheses, experimental information which has been obtained and immediately becomes obsolete, hypotheses are substituted by new ones,and tific conferences fierce discussions arise at scien-

...

What do we know today'? At the present time, about a hundred discrete X-ray sources are known. The strongest of them, as before, is the source in

the Scorpius constellation Sco X-1. Later measurement for the X-ray radiation flux in the llclassicll range of the spectrum 1-10 A , more suitable for observations, was approximately
7 5 phot-cm-'-sec-',
0

which is 5*10-7 erg*cm-2*sec-1. The next

source o f radiation flux is in the Crab Nebula Tau X-1 and is approximately 2.7 phot
x

cm-'*sec-l.

The weakest observed sources which is

are approximately 0.03 phot-cm-'-sec-', 2 - 1 0 - lerg-cm-2-sec . ~ -1

The majority of these observed sources are close to the plane o f odr Galaxy in the Milky Way and are concentrated in two groups with galactic longitudes o f 315-40' and 60-120' near the constellations of Scorpius-Sagittarius aad Cygnus-Cassiopeia. This corresponds to directions toward the two nearest spiral

arms of our Galaxy. The "mean" distance from us to the stars in the first arm is approximately 8 2 , 0 0 0 light years, and in the second is half that distance. Hence, one cail calculate that the

80

power o f r a d i a t i o n o f a " s t a n d a r d " g a z a c t i c X-ray s o u r c e i n t h e range o f waves 1 - 1 0 A i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y

0

erg-sec-l, that is,

2 , 5 0 0 times t h e power i a d i a t e d by o u r Sun i n t h e whole wave band

range (remember t h a t o n l y a 1 0 b i l l i o n t h f r a c t i o n o f complete s o l a r r a d i a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d f o r a f r a c t i o n o f X-ray r a d i a t i o n ) . P r o c e e d i n g from t h i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y - b a s e d s u p p o s i t i o n on t h e number o f p o s s i b l e " s t a n d a r d " X-ray s o u r c e s i n o u r Galaxy as b e i n g i n t h e o r d e r of 100, we o b t a i n a v a l u e i n t h e o r d e r o f 1

lo3'

e r g - s e c ' 1 i n t h e X-ray range f o r t h e power o f r a d i s t i o n o f

o u r Galaxy

- - a t y p i c a l s p i r a l g a l a x y o f a v e r a g e dimensions.

A t t h e p r e s e n t time, a p p a r e n t l y , t h e r e a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n

/41

known d i s c r e t e s o u r c e s o u t s i d e o f o u r Galaxy e x t r a g a l a c t i c o r metagalactic.

--

w e s h a l l c a l l them

These a r e s o u r c e s , c o i n c i d i n g i n
M-87 i n t h e Virgo c o n s t e l -

d i r e c t i o n with three radio galaxies:

l a t i o n , Centaurus-A and Cygnus-A, t h e b r i g h t e s t q u a s a r s 3C 2 7 3 , t h e two s o - c a l l e d S e y f e r t g a l a x i e s - - NGC 4 1 5 1 and NGC 1 2 7 5 , and a l s o t h r e e s o u r c e s i n t h e Galaxy n e a r us - - t h e s o - c a l l e d Large M a g e l l a n i c c l o u d and one s o u r c e - - i n t h e Small b l a g e l l a n i c c l o u d .
I t i s amazing t h a t X-ray r a d i a t i o n f l u x o f t h e M-87 r a d i o g a l a x y

( i t i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 m i l l i o n l i g h t y e a r s from u s ) j s a p p r o x i mately

d3 r g - s e c - l , e

which i s 1 0 , 0 0 0 t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e

X-ray r a d i a t i o n o f o u r Galaxy alid - 0 t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t b - + . e m i t t e d by M-87 i n t h e ratio range. s t a t i s t i c a l l y -fot idea c a l c u i a c i o n s

1,C)OO metagalactir

Accordilg t o reaFonable,
01.e

can e x p e c t approxintate:.y

X-ray sj(iti,ces.

X-Ray T e l e s c o p e s

W must s t r e s s t h e f o l l o w i n g : e

i n s p i t e of t h e f r i g h t e n i n g

power o f X-ray r a d i a t i o n from s o u r c e s shown a t t h e end o f t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , r a d i a t i o n f l u x a r r i v i n g on e a r t h ( t h a t i s , t h e boundary o f e a r t h ' s atmosphere) i s e x t r e m e l y s m a l l owing t o t h e g r e a t d i s t a n c e s t o g a l a c t i c and e x t i a g a l a c t i c s o u r c e s . This c r e a t e s From

e x c e p t i o n a l e x p e r i m e n t a l d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r X-ray astronomy.

t h e s t r o n g e s t (act countirig t h e Sun] o f known s o u r c e s :if X-ray rzldiation, Sco X - 1 , o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e l y 75 p h o t . c ~ i i - z * s e c - ia r r i v e a t t h e l i m i t s o f t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere, and from a " s t a n c a r d " s o u r c e approximately 0 . 1 phot.cm-2*sec-1. For comparison, l e t u s show

t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 . 1 0 7 p h o t . c n ! - 2 * s e c - l r e a c h e s u s from S i r i u s , t h e s t r o n g e s t s t a r i n t h e o p t i c a l r a n g e , t h a t i s , 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 times g r e a t e r than l i g h t ph.,tons. For t h e p r e s e n t , i t i s d i f f i c u l t and

even i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a c c u r a t e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f X-ray s o u r c e s , t h e i r s p e c t r a , p o l a r i z a t i o n and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e p h y s i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i r nature.

I . S . S h k l o v s k i y , a c o r r e s p o n d i n g member of t h e Academy

o f S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR r e c e r i t i y c a r r i e d o u t an i n t e r e s t i n g comparison. Accepting t h e s e n s i t i v i t y u f xodern X-ray r a d i a t i o n p h o t - c m - 2 . s e c - 1 , we can now o b s e r v e sources In

r e c e i v e r s a s being

which a r e o n l y l o 4 t i m e s weaker t h a n t h e s t r o n g e s t s b u r c e .

o p t i c a l astronomy,with a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same d e t e c t i o n s e n s i t i v i t y , u s i n g moderli g i a n t t e l e s c o p e s and p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e sky w i t h long e x p o s u r e s , m e

C ~ P hserve n

s t a r s which a r e lo1'

t i m e s weaker

82

t h a n Sirius i n r a d i o astronomy t h e correspoiiding i n t e r v a l i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y l o 7 times.

The number o f o b j e c t s which can be

r e c o r d e d w i t h equipment o f p r e s e n t - d a y s e n s i t i v i t y i n o r d e r of magnitude f o r X-ray astronomy i s lo3, f o r o p t i c a l astronomy and r a d i o astronomy

- - lom
for

--

lo6.

I t must b e added t h a t t h e s p e c t r a l

r e s o l v i n g power f o r X-ray astronomy today i s o n l y 1 0 - 1 - 1 0 - 2 , optical

--

l o e 4 and f o r r a d i o astronomy

--

and t h e a n g u l a r angular

r e s o l v i n g power i s 1 a n g u l a r min, 0 . 1 a n g u l a r s e c and

sec, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
I n t h i s way, X-ray astronomy w i t h i t s o b s e r v a t i o n potexktial

i s s t i l l i n t h e development s t a g e and i s i n f e r i o r t o o p t i c a l and

r a d i o astronomy. U n t i l t o d a y , c o u n t e r t e l e s c o p e s ( F i g . 2 ) have

been mainly used f o r r e c o r d i n g r a d i a t i o n i n X-ray astronomy. Photons, p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e i n p u t a p e r t u r e , i n t h e form o f a t h i n n e t a l f o i l '0

1

/42

, J r g a n i c f i l m f o r X - r a y s , e n t e r a chamber c o n t a i n i n g g a s and c a u s e i o n i z a t i o n i n i t . The

e l e c t r o n s which form a r e s c a t t e r e d by aii

_-

+--<

e l e c t r i c f i e l d a p p l i e d between t h e p l a t e

; ,

"

( c a t h o d e ) and f i l a m e n t ( a n o d e ) , and cause an a v a l a n c h e - l i k e i n c r e a s e o f

Fig. 2 . An X-ray counter telescope. 1 - Collimator; 2 - Inp u t a p e r t u r e ; 3 -Anode; 4 - C a t h o d e ; 5 - Photon counter

e l e c t r o n s r e g i s t e r e d i n t h e form a c u r r e n t impulse. These impulses a r e

a m p l i f i e d w i t h s p e c i a l a m p l i f i e r s and a r e computed i n t h e r o c k e t o r s a t e l l i t e .

The number o f r e c o r d e d impulses d u r i n g t h e expoFure t i n e i s

transmitted by telemetry t o e a r t h .

The a r e a o f t h e i n p u t a p e r t u r e

i s s e v e r a l hundreds and even s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d s o f s q u a r e c e n t i -

meters.

The c o u n t e r has s e v e r a l t e n s of anode f i l a m e n t s .

A colli-

mator l i m i t s t h e c o u n t e r ' s f i e l d of a i s i o n , l o c a l i z i n g t h e X-ray s o u r c e s i n t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e ; f o r t h e most p a r t , t h e f i e l d of v i s i o n of t h e c o l l i m a t o r i s s e v e r a l s q u a r e d e g r e e s . Telescopes a r e normally i n s t a l l e d i n a v e r t i c a l r o c k e t , t h e a x i s o f t h e c o l l i m a t o r i s brought tDward t h e r e q u i r e d p o i n t o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e by a g y r o s y s t e m , o r slow s c a n n i n g o f s p e c i f i c areas of t h e celestial sphere is c a r r i e d out. I n 1968 t h e USSR launched a s p e c i a l a s t r o n o m i c Kosmos s a t e l l i t e , and i n 1970 t h e Uhuru s p e c i a l X-ray a s t r o n o m i c s a t e l l i t e was launched by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e c o u n t e r telescope, t h a t i s , t h e mini-

m m o b s e r v e d photon f l u x , i s d e t e r m i n e d a s i n a l l measurement u systems by t h e "noise"-"background" l e v e l of t h e c o u n t e r (more

a c c u r a t e l y , t h e v a l u e o f t h e s t a t i s t i c a l f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e number o f "background" p u l s e s ) . The f a c t i s t h a t c o m i c r a y

p a r t i c l e s which p e n e t r a t e t h e photon c o u n t e r s c a u s e background p u l s e s i n them. T b e o r c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t t h e s i g n a l h o i s e

r a t i o , determining t h e system's s e n s i t i v i t y , i n c r e a s e s very slowly

w i t h t h e a r e a o f t h e c o u n t e r a p e r t u r e and t h e l e n g t h o f o b s e r v a -

tion

- - p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y t o t h e square r o o t o f t h e product of both

I n t h i s way, i t i s t e c h n i c a l l y v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o i n c r e a s e

values.

t o any e x t e n t t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f c o u n t e r t e l e s c o p e s by i n c r e a s i n g the area of the counters o r length of observation.

a4

However, t h e r e

i s a n o t h e r method

--

t o c o l l e c t X-ray r a d i a t i o n by s p e c i a l o p t i c s

and g u i d e i t o n t o a small photon c o u n t e r which, b e c a u s e o f i t s small s i z e , has l i t t l e n o i s e . Greatly e l o n g a t e d p a r a b o l i c m i r r o r s

LS

o p e r a t i n g when t h e r e a r e g l a n c i n g i n c i d e n c e r a y s c a n be used o p t i c s f o r c o l l e c t i n g X-rays.

The working a r z a o f t h e m i r r o r o f X - r a y m i r r o r t e l e s c o p e f o r g l a n c i n g i n c i d e n c e i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0 cm2, t h e i n p u t a p e r t u r e o f t h e counter

- - 1 c 2 . However, i t must be n o t e d t h a t t h e u s e o f m

mirror telescopes has l i m i t a t i o n s ; apparently, it i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e p l a c e t e l e s c o p e s f o r receiving h a r d r a d i a t i c n w i t h a wavelength s h o r t e r than 10

1.
/43

What Do W Know o f t h e Nature o f X-Ray S z a r s and G a l a x i e s ? e

Let us now r e t u r n t o d i s c r e t e g a l a c t i c s o u r c e s .

In s p i t e of

t h e r e l a t i v e l y lcw d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y when d e t e r m i n i n g t h 2 i r c o o r d i n a t e s , i t was p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t s i x o f them c o i n c i d e

i n p o s i t i o n w i t h remnapts o f

supernovae

- - t h e C r a b Nebula, Tycho

Brahe, C a s s i o p e i a - A , t h e V e i l Nebula i n Cygnus, Vela and Puppis. Sources o f X-ray r a d i a t i o n o f "old" remnants of. s u p e r n o v a e example, t h e Veil Nebula i n Cygnus, which exploded a p p r o x i m a t e l y
5 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s ago, a p p a r e n t l y , i s t h e f r o n t o f a shock wave w i t h a

gas t e m p e r a t u r e o f 3 - 4 m i l l i o n d e g r e e s , s p r e a d i n g from t h e n u c l e u s Over a g r e a t d i s t a n c e . The most i n t e r e s t i n g was t h e Crab Nebula supernova

- - a remnant o f a

which e x p l o d e d , a c c o r d i n g t o Chinese c h r o n i c l e s , i n

1 0 5 4 and, as one o f o u r famous a s t r o n o m e r s s a i d , d u e t o i t s f e a t u r e s

85

i s t h e w e t - n u r s e and bread-winner o f many a s t r o n o m e r s .

Nebula d i d n o t i n t h e X-ray r a n g e , i t a p p e a r s

The Crab t h a t i t con-

s i s t s of a r e l a t i v e l y extended e n v e l o p e w i t h a d i a m e t e r o f 1 - 2
a n g u l a r minutes
i-1

comparison w i t h s o f t X-.-ay r a d i a t i o n from a

c?i

small n u c l e u s , h c w n e a r l i e r a s i h e s t a r

t h e 1 6 t h magnitude

g i v i n g r a d i o - , o p t i c a l and X-ray p u l s a r s w i t h a p e r i o d of 0 . 0 3 3 sec. X-ray r a d i a t i o n o f t h e Crab Nebula a n d , by t h e way, i t s r a d i a t i o n i n r a d i o - and o p t i c a l r a n g e s i s nc.t t h e r m a l [ a s , f o r example, t h e r a d i o - , o p t i c a l and X-ray s o l a r r a d i a t i o n ) - - i t i s caused by t h e r a d i a t i o n o f f r e e e l e c t r o n s e m i t t e d b y a nucleuq w i t h s p e e d s c l o s e t o t h e speed o f l i g h t , i n a s t r o n g magnetic f i e l d ( t h e s o - c a l l e d synchrotron r a d i a t i o n ) . I n t h e remaining remnant o f s u p e r n o v a e were n o t o b s e r v e d . l i s t e d above p u l s a r s

However, f o u r more p u l s a r s ' \ e r e o b s e r v e d among One of them l i e s i n t h e a r e a o f t h e

o t h e r X-ray s t a r s r e c e n t l y .

Crab Nebula . - i t s p e r i o d i s 3.8266 s e c ; a p p a r e n t l y , i t c o i n c i d e s with NP0527 r a d i o p u l s a r . X-ray p u l s a r s Cyg X-I., Cen X-3 i n t h e If

c o n s t e l l a t i o n of H e r c u l e s a l s o have b o t h f a s t p e r i o d i c chagge;

r a d i a t i o n f l u x , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p u l s a r s , and s l o w e r changes w i t h a p e r i o d 3f s e v e r a l days.

l ' h i s f o r c e s one t o assume t h a t we a r e

o b s e r v i n g d u a l s y s t e m s , c o n s i s t i n g o f two s t a r s , r e v o l v i n g around a common c e n t e r 3 f g r a v i t y , of which ;ne s t a r i s r e a l l y t h e X-rr.y pulsar. P e r i o d i c c b s c u r i n g o f t h i s s t a r when i t p a s s e s beiiind t h e

9140

t h e secc-td s t a r

c a u s e s slow changes o f b r i g i i t n e s s . a r e e x t e n d e d s o u r c e s , and zs f o r

The remilants o f s u p e r n o v a e "intermittent"

86

s o u r c e s , as was s a i d e a r l i e r , t h e a c c u r a c y f o r

d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f X-ray s o u r c e s on t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e is small and, t h e r e f o r e , i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y such s o u r c e s w i t h known o p t i c a l o r r a d i o s t a r s o r , on t h e c o n t r a r y , c o n f i r m t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c X-ray s o u r c e does n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h any o p t i c a l o r radio source. Sco X - 1 and Cyg X - 2 ,
A t p r e s e n t , e x c e p t i o n s are s t r o n g s o u r c e s

t h e p o s i t i m o f which was d e t e r m i n e d by u s i n g

a s p e c i a l a t t a c h m e n t , a s o - c a l l e d gauze c o l l i m a t o r ; t h e f i r s t had an a c c u r a c y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 a n g u l a r minute,and t h e s e c o n d o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 a n g u l a r minutes. The X-ray s o u r c e Sco X - 1 c a n be

i d e n t i f i e d with s u f f i c i e n t r e l i a b i l i t y with a blue star of t h e 1 3 t h magnitude. This s t a r has v a r i a b l e o p t i c a l r a d i a t i o n over

time - - r e l a t i v e l y f a s t s c i n t i l l a t i o n and s l o w e r changes o f b r i g h t ness

- - and, a p p a r e n t l y ,

i s a dual star.

Similar rapid scintilla-

t i o n w i t h a p e r i o d of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 min and s l o w e r changes o f b r i g h t n e s s were a l s o o b s e r v e d i n Sco X - 1 X-ray r a d i a t i o n . Sco X - 1

/44

i s a v e r y compact plasma f o r m a t i o n w i t h a d i a m e t e r i n t h e o r d e r o f
lO.000 k and a d e n s i t y of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1016 p a r t i c l e s p e r c u b i c m

c e n t i m e t e r , a n d h a s a t e m p e r a t u r e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 m i l l i o n degrees. T h i s plasma c l o u d , due t o t h e l o s s o f e n e r g y by r a d i a How energy

t i o n , c o u l d have o n l y e x i s t e d f o r a n o r d e r o f a second.

i s "pumped" i n

Sco X - 1 ,

f o r t h e p r e s e n t , remains u n c l e a r . Several

The s i t u a t i o n w i t h Cyg X - 2 i s even more complex.

hundred s t a r s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n a r e c t a n g l e o f t h e p o s s i b l e e r r o r f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e X-ray s o u r c e . The most l i k e l y

c a n d i d a t e i s a l s o t h e "blue" s t a r o f t h e 1 5 t h magnitude, p r o b a b l y

a7

a d u a l , w i t h r a p i d l y changing b r i g h t n e s s .

Whether the Cyg X - 2

belongs t o t h e same class o f o j e c t s as Sco X - 1 o r i s a n o t h e r t y p e of star i s not ye; clear. Fron what h a s b r e n s a i d , i t f o l l o w s t h a t one of t h e main proo-

lems o f o b s e r v a t i o n X-ray astronomy t o d a y i s t o l e a r n t o d e t e r m i n e

t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f l o c a l s c u r c e s w i t h an accuracy s u f f i L i c n t enough, more o r less, f o r r e l i a b l e comparison radio s t a r s .
I f w e now r e t u r n t o e x t r a g a l a c t i c s o u r c e s , o f which w e spoke

w i t h o p t i c a l and

e a r l i e r , once a g a i n t h e mechh;,isrn o f X-ray r a d i a t i o n , t o a considerable extent, is unclear. One i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t a t t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n when t h e n a t u i e o f e x t r a g a l a c t i c X-ray s o u r c e s was b e i n g a n a l y z e d . su2ernovae The apFearance o f

i s a r e l a t i v e l y r a r e phenomenon; i n o u r Galaxy t h e s e

s t a r s a r e o b s e r v e d o p t i c a l l y y o n an averiige,once e v e r y s e v e r a l hundred years.

I f one t a k e s t h e t o t a l number o f g a l a x i e s c l o s e t o

o u r Galaxy, f o r example, a t a d i s t a n c e o f 30-SU m i l l i o n l i g h t y e a r s , t h e number o f s u c h phenomena w i l l b e s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e enough to n o t i c e t h e Lppearance o f a supernova months. Young supernovae once e v e r y s e v e r a l

two or thrce months o l d , e m i t t i n g a

X-ray f l u x i n t h e o r d e r o f 104*-1043 e r g - s e c - l , g i v e a X-ray f l u x on t h e boi*ndary of t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere of a p p r o x i m a t e l y e r g * c m - 2 * s e c - 1 , t h a t i s , s u f f i c i e n t t o be o b s e r v s d . e n t l y , such e x p l o s i o n s have been o b s e r v e d t w i c e : Appar-

t h e Cen X - 2 source,

f i r s t o b s e r v e d i n 1967, q u i c k l y r e a c h e d a b r i g h t n e s s comparable

88

with that of Sco X-1, and then quickly disappeared; in a similar way, the Cen X-4 source, first observed on July 6 and 9 1969, reached a brightness 2 . 5 times greater than that of Sco X-1 and then faded relatively slowly,and on September 2 4 was no longer visible. X-Ray Background and the Future of the Universe
As

was said above, apart from discrete galactic and metagalac-

tic X-ray sources diffuse cosmic X-ray "background" is observed

- - the whole universe is weakly illuminated by X-rays. Perhaps,

this background is the greatest riddle and causes theorists most trouble when interpreting the nature of it. The background was

experimentally studied in an extremely wide spectral interval from super-soft X-ray radiation,with a wavelength of SO gamma radiation with a wavelength of

--

A, to

hard

a ' .

The absolute value

of the flux from the diffuse background is very small.

Undoubtedly, the greatest part o f the diffuse background has an extragalactic nature, This follows since the radiation flux for wavelengths shorter t h a n 1 A , not absorbed in interstellar gas in our Galaxy, is isotropic - - a radiation flux in lirriits af +lo% does not depend on the galactic latitude; the flux is reduced in
1 In experiments mentioned above for measuring the X - r a y radiation of the moon fi-om a lunar satellite, measurement o f the diffuse background in a s c f t region of the spectrum of 8-14 k was done and was a iecord for that time. These measwements were important becabse observation of the X-ray background was carried out for the first time far beyond the limits o f the earth's atmosphere, which prevented any processes in the remaining upper layers o f the earth's atmosphere from playing any r c l e in the Tormation of the background.
0

89

v e r y s o f t r a d i a t i o n when a p p r o a c h i n g t h e p l a n e o f t h e Galaxy, when, owing t o t h e " f l a t t e n e d " s h a p e o f t h e Galaxy,photons i n i n t e r s t e l -

l a r g a s must t r a v e l g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s t h a n i n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n s .
S e v e r a l s u p p o s i t i o n s e x i s t on t h e nature o f t h e d i f f u s e background.
A t f i r s t g l a n c e , i t i s most n a t u r a l t o assume t h a t t h e

background i s c a u s e d by t h e t o t a l X-ray r a d i a t i o n o f a l l g a l a x i e s within t h e universe. However, c a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t t h e estimate

o f normal g a l a x i e s , s u c h as o u r Galaxy i n t h e u n i v e r s e , g i v e s a v a l u e
two o r d e r s s m a l l e r t h a n t h e o b s e r v e d . The estimate o f r a d i o

g a l a x i e s o f t h e Centaurus-A and Virgo-A (M-87) t y p e and a l s o 3C 2 7 3 q u a s a r s and p u l s a r s o f t h e C r a b Nebula t y p e i s o f l i t t l e h e l p . In

t h i s way, i f one does n o t assume t h e e x i s t e n c e o f e x t r e m e l y powerf u l m e t a g a l a c t i c s o u r c e s o f X-ray r a d i a t i o n s t i l l unknown, t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e d i f f u s e background i s fsrmed by r a d i a t i o n o f s p a c i a l l y u n s e p a r a t e d s o u r c e s i s n o t confirmed. There a r e other

h y p o t h e s e s , but s p a t i a l l y however, they a l l meet with s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s . Nor do we understand how v e r y s o f t r a d i a t i o n "breaks

through" t o us:

r a d i a t i o n w i t h a wavelength i n t h e o r d e r a f 50

must be p r a c t i c a l l y c o m p l e t e l y a b s o r b e d i n o u r Galaxy's i n t e r s t e l -

l a r gas.
However, t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n i s t h i s . There I s

r e a s o n t o assume, more o r l e s s , t h a t t h e r m a l r a d i a t i o n o f i n t e r g a l a c t i c g a s c o n t r i b u t e s most t o t h e d i f f u s e background. In prin-

c i p l e , one can d e t e r m i n e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e and d e n s i t y o f t h e g a s according t o t h i s r a d i a t i o n .

A t t h e present time, evaluations of

t h e t e m p e r a t u r e f l u c t u a t e 'between 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 and 300 m i l l i o n d e g r e e s ,

90

and e v a l u a t i o n s o f d e n s i t y between 3 and 10 p a r t i c l e s p e r c u b i c meter. The d e n s i t y of i n t e r g a l a c t i c g a s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n cosmology.

As i s known, t h e f z c t i s o u r u n i v e r s e has been expandingover

the last 10 million years. two p o s s i b i l i t i e s :

Modern t h e o r e t i c a l cosmology s u g g e s t s

t h e s o - c a l l e d "open model" of t h e u n i v e r s e ,

when i t s expansion w i l l c o n t i n u e i n t h e f u t u r e , and t h e t f c l o s e d model"

, when

t h e u n i v e r s e w i l l b e g i n t o compress

i n about

1 0 b i l l i o n y e a r s ' time.

I n f a c t , such a model i s f e a s i b l e and

depends on t h e a v e r i g e d e n s i t y o f m a t t e r i n t h e u n i v e r s e .

If it

is less t h a n a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l d e n s i t y , an open model r e s u l t s ,

and i f g r e a t e r , a c l o s e d model. The l a t e s t c a l c u l a t i o n s g i v e t h e

c r i t i c a l d e n s i t y c l o s e t o t h r e e p a r t i c l e s p e r c u b i c meter. However, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s shown a b o v e , f o r t h e d e n s i t y o f m a t t e r i n t h e u n i v e r s e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i f f u s e X-ray background, a r e b a s e d on s u c h u n c e r t a i n e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e t o g i v e a s i m p l e c o n c l u s i o n on t h e model o f our universe. However, we s t i l l have s u f f i c i e n t time t o t e l l o u r

r e a d e r s what a w a i t s us

- - t h e f u r t h e r expansion of t h e u n i v e r s e o r

i t s "co 1l a p s et!

X-Ray O b s e r v a t o r i e s i n Space
A1 t h e r e s u l t s shown above were o b t a i n e d by equipment i n 1

r o c k e t s and e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s ( a e r o s t a t s were sometimes used f o r r e s e a r c h i n t o h a r d X-ray r a d i a t i o n ) , when t h e l e n g t h o f o b s e r v a t i o n o f each s o u r c e d i d n o t exceed t e n s o f seconds o r one o r two

91

minutes.

As was s a i d , t h e equipment's s e n s i t i v i t y t o weak r a d i a -

t i o n f l u x e s c a n be increasedbylengthening t h e d u r a t i o n o f o b s e r v a tions. The s e t t i n g up of a n X-ray t e l e s c o p e on t h e moon i s t h e

/46

most promising and i s t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . The f i r s t experiment i n o p e r a t i n g a s m a l l c o u n t e r t e l e s c o p e a t t h e P h y s i c s I n s t i t u t e i m . P. N. Lebedev of t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR,which worked f o r s e v e r a l months on t h e Lunokhod-1, made
it p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n f o r b u i l d i n g s u c h

t e l e s c o p e s , and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , show t h e measures r e q u i r e d t o enable them t o " s u r v i v e " i n t h e r i g o r o u s c o n d i t i o n s of l u n a r n i g h t .

Large

c o u n t e r and r e f l e c t i n g t e l e s c o p e s f o r glai,cing i n c i d e n c e , s e t up on t h e moon,can be d i r e c t e d a t t h e r e q u i r e d p o i n t of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e by commands from e a r t h , a n d h o l d t h e examined X-ray s o u r c e i n t h e i r f i e l d o f v i s i o n f o r many h o u r s and days by u s i n g s p e c i a l o p t i c a l s t e l l a r guides. i n memories and sessions. The i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d w i l l be r e c o r d e d

t r a n s m i t t e d back t o e a r t h d u r i n g communication

One g r e a t advantage of an o b s e r v a t o r y on t h e noon i s

t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a r e no r a d i a t i o n b e l t s h e r e which i n t e r f e r e w i t h X-ray o b s e r v a t i o n s i n n e a r - e a r t h o r b i t . New p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r e x t r a - a t m o s p h e r i c astronomy and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , f o r X-ray astronomy a r e p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e

o f manned l o n g - t e r m o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s o f t h e S a l y u t t y p e i n t h e

USSR, and " c e l e s t i a l l a b o r a t o r i e s " which a r e t o be launched i n t h e

USA.

Automatic c o n t r o l u n i t s p l a y a l a r g e r o l e i n s p a c e r e s e a r c h . When one i s

However, man's r o l e cannot be o v e r e s t i m a t e d .

92

i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e unknown, each s u b s e q u e n t o p e r a t i o n from t h e numerous o p e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e d i n a s t r o n o m i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n must be s e l e c t e d c a r e f u l l y , b a s e d on a n a l y s i s o f r e s u l t s o f p r e v i o u s measurement: sometimes, one must r e p e a t one o r s e v e r a l measurements,

sometimes change t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t , i t s s e n s i t i v i t y o r r e s o l v i n g powers, etc. I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o program t h i s

sequence o f o p e r a t i o n s , a n d e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l i n s t r u ments from e a r t h . V a l u a b l e r e s e a r c h can o n l y be done by man

--

an a s t r o n a u t i n a s p a c e c r a f t w i t h h i g h t e c h n i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and thorough t e c h n i c a l knowledge. I n t h e n e a r f u t u r e it w i l l be

t e c h n i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o send i n t o s p a c e l a r g e c o u n t e r t e l e s c o p e s w i t h an a p e r a t u r e a r e a o f s e v e r a l s q u a r e m e t e r s , a n d r e f l e c t i n g t e l e scopes f o r glancing incidence w i t h a diameter o f approximately a meter,and a l e n g t h of 5 - 6 m e t e r s which can be c o n t r o l l e d by man. I t w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o o b s e r v e w i t h t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s , f o r example, o b j e c t s of t h e Sco X - 1 t y p e i n t h e n e a r e s t g a l a x i e s by i n c r e a s i n g

e t h e d i s t a n c e w p e n e t r a t e t h e u n i v e r s e by s e v e r a l t e n s of times.
An a s t r o n a u t o r i e n t i n g a s p a c e c r a f t w i l l d i r e c t t h e t e l e s c o p e a t t h e o b j e c t t o be examined o r a t t h e n e c e s s a r y p o i n t of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e , t h e n h o l d t h e o b j e c t i n t h e f i e l d of v i s i o n w i t h an autonomous guidance system w i t h an a c c u r a c y of s e v e r a l seconds by " o p t i c a l " s t a r s . By u s i n g s p e c i a l e l e c t r o n i c and o p t i c a l cameras, t h e a s t r o n a u t w i l l photograph s e c t i o n s of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e i n X-ray and v i s i b l e r a y s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g a c c u r a t e l y t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of X-ray sources, and l i n k i n g them w i t h " o p t i c a l " s o u r c e s and

93

studying the structure of elongated X-ray sources.

Radiation

spectra can be studied by spectrometers, radiation time characteristics (pulsation, scintillation and explosion) by photometers, and radiation polarization by using polarimeters. Long-term manned

orbital stations containing many instruments controlled by man, combined with lunar observatories, will give X-ray astronomy regularity, production and precision of observations, which are peculiar to ground optical and radio astronomy.
ROW

Prospects for Extra-Atmospheric Astronomic Research

V. G. Kurt
Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences "Priroda", No. 5, 1972. In the middle of the last century,the French phj-losopher and positivist,Auguste Comte,maintained that the chemical composition

/47
i

of stars, in principal, would never be determined by man.

However,

ten years after Comte's lecture spectral analysis was created, whereby it was possible to determine the chemical compcsition of stars. Spectroscopy rapidly earned its place in astronomy, not

only for determining the chemical composition, but also researching into many physical properties of stars, planets, galaxies and other celestial objects. Nevertheless, Comte's followers would have said that all types of radiation would be inaccessible to us if they did not penetrate the atmosphere. Only a minute fraction of the almost limitless electromagnetic spectrum reaches the earth's surface.

94

The space age has meant a revolution in astronomy appearance of all-band astronomy.

--

the

Completely new equipment is

required to perceive waves in X-ray,submillimeter and other ranges. Optical astronomy, going into space, meets new difficulties. This article is devoted to all these questions. What Interferes with Ground Observations? All theoretical building of astronomy

--

from the movement of

planets suggested by Ptolemy,to modern cosmology observations. As means of observations developed, the whole

--

is based ~n

astronomy mastered Radia-

accessible range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

ti.on reaches the earth's surface through two transmission windows: the optical, extending from 3,000 fi to 1-2 pm, and the radio window in a wavelength band from several millimeters to 10-30 m. Before the end o f the ~ O ' S , all observations were done in the optical band, and the radio window has only been used for the :ast
20 years.
i .

Where in the atmosphere is the absorbent "screen" which holds back the remaining electromagnetic radiation? Ultraviolet radiation (A = 3,000-1,800 $is absorbed by ozone at altitudes of

30-70 km, by molecular oxygen at altitudes less than 130 km (A =

1,800-1,000 A), and by atomic oxygen and nitrogen a t altitudes up to

200 km (A < 1,000

A).

Above 100 km the atmosphere is very thin but

is sufficient to completely absorb X-ray radiation.

The situation

is somewhat different in the infrared region where radiation is absorbed by nitrogen, water vapor and carbon dioxide molecules

95

which accumulate at relatively low altitudes.

Due t o this, indi-

vidual areas of the infrared region can be observed from "aircraft" {lo-20 km) or "aerostat" ( 2 0 - 4 0 km) altitudes. Great altitudes

are required for researching into submillimeter waves which lie between the far infrared and radio region of the spectrbm. Long-waves cosmic radio radiation is reflected by the ionosphere which extends for a great distance from the earth. One ~ u s t

take equipment to an altitude of 10,000 k and above to research m into kilometer waves. This situation is shown visually in Fig. 3 ,

where a curve corresponds to an altitude at which radiation is attenuated e times 2

Selective absorption by the atmos-

nn

r-

phere is not the only main limitation fur ground telescopic obssrvations. A second limitation is caused by atmospheric turbulence which, as a rule, does not allow one tc obtain a resolution better than 0".5

- - --

- 1".

The latter causes a reduc-

/48 -

Fig. 3. Radiation tion in the penetrating power and resolving trznsmission by the earth's atmosphere power of telescopes. For example, the in ultraviolet and X-ray regions of the extreme working stellar magnitude, at spectrum. The Y-axis the the altitude to which one can still fix objects of a cerwhich radiation of a given wave1 ,ligith tain brightness, is 23m, and the spatial penetrates; the curve shows atoms and moleresolution for the moon i s 1 km, for Mars cules absorbing radiation. ? e - - is the base of natural logarithms equal to 2.7182

...

96

--

150 km.

Effects caused by turbulence of the atmosphere are

especially felt when large instruments with a mirror diameter greater than 2 - 3 m are being operated (Fig. 4 ) . Therefore,

astronomers are carefully looking for spots with the best astroclimate for testing the capabilities of large telescopes. In the next ten years approxi-

mately ten telescopes with a diameter of

2-4

m will be introduced in places where

However, these diffi-

the dimension of a star image quite often Fig. 4. Dependence on the extreme fixed stellar magnitude mext on the telescope diameter (on the x-axis) and angular diameters of the disc image of the star (figures above the curves). All the curves are drawn for a constant focal telescope distance. Key: a * mext* is less than 0".5.

culties will completely disappear if one sends a telescope in a rocket or satellite beyond the limits of the atmosphere

- - that is, produce a space telescope.

Requirements of a Space Telescope Analysis of the possibility of using large space telescopes must be

done after studying those of earth instruments. Of course, the cost of a large orbital telescope is 10-100 times greater than that

of a similar

earthinstrument, which must be taken into account

when planning future experiments. At the same time, there are no basic difficulties which prevent one, during the next 10-20 years, from putting into near-earth orbit or even setting up on the moon, a large optical telescope with a diameter of up to 3 m (Fig. 5 . )

97

.:-

fiQ
b.
-B-"
"

-.
1

. h . _ . .

REPRODUClBlLlTY OF THE ORIGINAL PAGE IS POOR, -.. .. --

*.---

v-

In p r i n c i p l e , s u c h a t e l e s c o p e can o p e r a t e i n a s p e c t r a l range from 800

!

(andperhaps i n a n even s h o r t e r wave) t o wavelengths

of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 mm.
Requirements f o r t h e mirror of a space teles c o p e need n o t d i f f e r from Fig. 5. An o p t i c a l diagram of a n o r b i t a l t e l e s c o p e equipped w i t h a d e f r a c t i o n spectrograph. 1 Defraction g r a t i n g ; 2 - Spectrum o f s t a r ; 3 S p e c t r o m e t e r a p e r t u r e ; 4 - Main m i r r o r ; 5 - Secondary m i r r o r ; 6 - Orient a t i o n t e l e s c o p e s ; 7 - Rays from n a v i g a t i o n a l s t a r s ; 8 - Rays from researched star.

t h o s e r e q u i r e d today o f t h e b e s t ground t e l e s c o p e s . theory, t h i s mirror can have i n t h e c e n t e r o f i t s f i e l d o f v i s i o n an a n g u l a r In

r e s o l v i n g power determined by d e f r a c t i o n and e q u a l i n g f o r X = 1,000 kopek

A/D3,

which

i s 0".006.

T h i s means t h a t one c o u l d s e e a f i v e Of

149

c o i n a t a d i s t a n c e o f 500 km t h r o u g h s u c h a t e l e s c o p e .

c o u r s e , t h e p r e s e n t l e v e l cjf t e c h n o i 3 g y c a n n o t produce t h e required q u a l i t y o f s u r f a c e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h i s , s i n c e t h e p r o d u c t i o n of

a m i r r o r w i t h a d i a m e t e r o f up t o 2 m w i t h a r e s o l v i n g power o f
O'l.2

i s s t i l l beyond o u r c a p a b i l i t i e s .

One m u s t remember t h a t t h e

m i r r o r o f a n o r b i t a l t e l e s c o p e w i l l work i n w e i g h t l e s s n e s s , although
i t was b u i l t on t h e ground.

The t r u e d i s c h a r g e o f a m i r r o r and

3 Here, X i s t h e wavelength, D i s t h e m i r r o r d i a m e t e r . I f both these a r e measured i n c e n t i m e t e r s , t h e l i m i t o f t h e a n g u l a r r e s o l v i n g power w i l l be o b t a i a e d i n r a d i a n s . To c o n v e r t i t i n t o seconds o f a r c t h e number o b t a i n e d must be m u l t i p l i e d by 206,265.

98

methods for checking the mirror surface, which are continually being developed, will produce a resolving power of 0".1.

I am

intentionallv omitting to mention the temperature conditions of a mirror, since this is a purely technical question. In principle,

any required degree of stability is feasible. Apart from this, there is no doubt that the mirror of an orbital telescope must be made from sitall, a substance with a very small (practically zero) coefficient of thermal expansion. It is obvious thst the accuracy of the altitude control system and stabilization of such a telescope must correspond with its rosolving power or exceed it, that is, must equal 0".03-0".1. By itself such an accuracy cannot be accomplished, if guidance is done by an examined star-like object, there still remains the problem of temperature defLrmation and warping of the telescope components (Fig. 6 ) . However, one can assume that an accuracy of

0".1 will be achieved in the nzar future in automatic unmanned stations specially designed for astronomical observations.

. --

Fig. 6. The movement of a space observatory in near-ground orbit; the orientation of the telescope is kept constant towards the star being investigated.
99

--.,

REPRODUCIBILITY THE ORIGINAL . .OF .-.-

_ _ . . I

PAGE:^; POOR; ai E

Let us examine t h e p e n e t r a t i n g power of a t h r e e - m e t e r s p a c e t e l e s c o p e , s t a r t i n g w i t h a b r i g h t n e s s background o f -Sm p e r s q u a r e degree. With f l u x from a s t a r e q u a l t o t h a t from t h e background

we o b t a i n a v a l u e f o r t h e e x t r e n e f i x e d s t e l l a r magnitude + 2 7 m , and w i t h a r e s o l v i n g power e q u a l t o 0".2,one o n l y 1 0 % and even +2gm. n o t i c e s a c o n t r a s t of

Flux from a s t a r +2gm i n t h e v i s i b l e range

is

lo-'

p h o t = c m - 2 - s e c - 2 , o r 2.5*10'9 y h o t - c m - 2 0 s e c - l 1 f o r t h e The m i r r o r w i l l c o l l e c t from t h e s t a r on

I f t h e d e t e c t o r g i b e s one p u l s e f o r

maximum of t h e spectrum. a d e t e c t o r 0.6 p h o t = s e c - l .

t e n i n c i d e n t p h o t o n s , we o b t p l n 0.06 p u l s e s / s e c .

I t i s obvious

t h a t such an o b j e c t c a n o n l y be r e c o r d e d w i t h a l a r g e a c c u m u l a t i m time of p u l s e s , a n d s p e c t r a l r e s e a r c h of it i s p r a c t i c a l l y impossible. During p h o t o g r a p h i c r e c o r d i n g t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n time must I n t h i s way, by a c t u a l l y e v a l u a t i n g

/50

be approximately 200 h o u r s .

the p o s s i b i l i t i e r cf a three-meter -clescope w e f i n a t h a t a s c a r c e l y d i s c e r n i b l e o b j e c t i n t h e s k y must b e no weaker t h a n

2Sm.

Such a s t a r can be r e c o r d e d by e l e c t r o p h o t o m e t r y f o r a

time o f 1 0 0 - 1 , 0 0 0 s e c w i t h an e r r o r ;lot exceeding

lo%,

and p h o t o -

graphed w i t h an exposure i n t h e o r d e r of s e v e r a l h o u r s .
I f d u r i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s o u t s i d e t h e atmosphere t h e r e w m l d be

no s k y background, t h a t i s , a s t a r o r galaxy wouzd be o b s e r v e d on

an a b s G l u t e l y b l a c k sky w i t h a d e t e c t o r n c t having i n h e r e n t n o i s e , t h e d e t e c t i o n l i m i t would o n l y be determined by t h e o b s e r v a t i o n time.

Fcr a c t u a l d e t e c t o r s w i t h a dark background of 1 0 - 1 0 0 p u l s e /

s e c , t h e extreme s t e l l a r magnitude w i l l be 2Sm, and when t h e r e i s

100

a sky background determined by z o d i a c a l l i g h t and a background of

weak, i n d i s c e r n i b l e s t a r s and g a l a x i e s , i t c o u l d b e 1 - 2 m worse. I n t h i s way, t h e e x p e c t e d g a i n , i n comparison w i t h t h e b e s t t e l e scope s i t u a t e d i n a p o s i t i o n w i t h i d e a l a s t r o c l i m a t e , i s s c a r c e l y g r e a t e r t h a n 1-2m.

I t w i l l s t i l l b e i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t w i t h such

an i n s t r u m e n t , f o r example, p l a n e t s revolving around t h e n e a r e s t

s t a r s , s i n c e t h e i r s t e l l a r magnitude f r o n a d i s t a n c e o f 1 0 l i g h t
y e a r s i s +30m w i t h a n a n g u l a r r a n g e from t h e s t a r o f 0".3-1".5.
As f o r t h c r e s o l u t i o n o f p l a n e t d e t a i l s i n t h e s o l a r system, i t

i n c r e a s e s by 5-10 times and f o r t h e moon r e a c h e s 10-200 m,anci f o r Mars 15-30 km.

I t must be n o t e d t h a t much b e t t e r r e s o l u t i o n h a s

bee o b t a i n e d f o r t h e s e heavenly b o d i e s by i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s t a t i o n s equipped w i t h p h o t o t e l e v j s i o n equipment, however, i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s t a t i o n s have n o t been s e n t towards o t h e r p l a n e t s of t h e s o l a r system,and a s p a c e t e l e s c o p e w i l l n o t compete f o r r e q o l v i n g i n d i v i d u a l d e t a i l s on t h e i r v i s i b l e s u r f a c e 4 S p e c t r a l and P h o t o m e t r i c Research There i s an i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e main t a s k o f f u t u r e e x t r a a t m o s p h e r i c t e l e s c o p e s w i l l be s p e c t r a l and p h o t o m e t r i c r e s e a r c h i n t h e u l t r a v i o l e t , i n f r a r e d and s u b m i l l i m e t e r r e g i o n s o f t h e spectrum. I n t h i s r e s e a r c h t l e r e s o l v i n g power of a t e l e s c o p e i s However, r e s e a r c h i n t o extremely

n o t so e s s e n t i a l i f i t is b e t t e r t h a n 1".

t h e s t r u c t u r e of weak g a l a x i e s , q u a s a r s , e t c . , i s i n t e r e s t i n g a t a r e s o l u t i o n o f 0".1.
4 For exampie, photographs were c.:ained o f b e t t e r t h a n 1 km.

o f Mars w i t h a r e s o l u t i o n

101

Photometers for all regions of the spectrum, photographic material for visible and ultraviolet regions and television equipment for all regions apart frcm the submillime+.er,willbc used for collecting information from such a telescope. The best method is

the use of photoelectric detectors for ultraviolet and visible regions, photoelectric multipliers and electronic and optical transducer tubes where an efficiency of 0 . 3 of a pulse on a photon has been achieved on a dark background of 1 pulse/sec. Therefore,

there must be joint efforts to improve detectors in the infrared and submillimeter ranges. Normally, these detectors require
(4O

cooling, sometimes even to a temperature of liquid helium and their sensitivity is much less than the maximum one.

K, )

But in

one ultraviolet region alone the number of objects observed by a three-meter telescope is practically inexhaustible. An American orbital astronomical observatory (OAO),equip~ec! with telescopes with a diameter of up to 4 0 cm,has obtained information for 10,000 stars in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. Obviously, the launch into orbit of a two- or three-meter telescope will be preceded by launches of telescopes with a diameter of 1-1.5 m in type OAO vehicles equipped mainly with spectrometers and photometers for the near-ultraviolet region (1,0003,000

1).
Let us turn now to the X-ray wavelength band extending from

Equipment for the X-Ray Band

0.1 to 100

i, which

corresponds to quantum energy of

102

.I

100-0.1 k i l o e l e c t r o n v o l t s .

G a s - f i l l e d p r o p o r t i o n a l counters with
Lr

a t h i n b e r y l l i u m window (up t o 1 0 0 pm)

organic f i l m w i t \ a

t h i c k n e s s o f 1 0 - 1 i.lm ( n y l a r , formvar, p o l y p r o p y l e n e , p o l y c a r b o n a t e ,

etc.) have a monopoly i n t h i s r e g i o n .

R e s u l t s have a l r e a d y been

p u b l i s h e d , o b t a i n e d d u r i n g t h e l a u n c h o f a c o u n t e r w i t h a dimension of 1
x

I m , howc,er, t h e r e i s a predominance o f c o u n t e r s w i t h a n

a r e a o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,000 c m 2

U n t i l now, t h e main r e s u l t s i n

t h e X-ray r e g i o n of t h e spectrum were o b t a i n e d by r o c k e t s a t a l t i t u d e s of 100-200 km, and t h e l e n g t h o f e a c h e x p e r i m e n t was 5 min. However, it a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s s i t u a t i o n w i l l soon change. The f i r s t s a t e l l i t e equipped f o r X-ray r a d i a t i o n r e s e a r c h , t h e has a l r e a d y l e d t o i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c o v e r i e s . Uhuru (USA),

Up t o t h e p r e s e n t time,

more t h a n 50 d i s c r e t e X-ray s c u r c e s have been o b s e r v e d , of which only a b o u t 1 5 have been i d e n t i f i e d w i t h known o p t i c a l o b j e c t s . These a r e t h e remnants o f t h e e x p l o s i o n s of nova, d i f f u s e n e b u l a , remnants of supernova, t h e S e y f e r t galaxy. t h e 3C 273 q u a s a r , M a g e l l a n i c c l o u d s and

The class o f X-ray o b j e c t does n o t c o i n c i d e

8

w i t h r a d i o s o u r c e s and i s r a d i a t i o n mechariisms:

s p e c i a l group of o b j e c t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t

t h e r m a l i r r a d i a t i o n of plasma, h e a t e d t o

m i l l i o n s o f d e g r e e s ; s y n c h r o t r o n r a d i a t i o n of r e l a t i v i s t i c e l e c t r o n s i n m a g n e t i c f i e l d s ; a n i n v e r s e Compton e f f e c t o f e l e c t r o n s i n i n f r a r e d photons, etc. There i s e x t r e m e l y i n t e r e s t i n g r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e i s o t r o p i c X-ray background [Z], t h e n a t u r e of which i s s t i l l n o t f u l l y explained.

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e backsround c a n be e x p l a i n e d

103

by several independent iirechanisms, each of which dominates one or other region of the spectrum. This may be so: thermal radiation
O K

of an intergalactic gas at a temperature of lo6

and a density

near to the critical (2-10-29 g/cm3); the decay of aO-mesons; the inverse Compton effect of relativistic electrons in quanta of relic submillimeter radiation which has remained from previous stages of development of the universs. At the present time, sources with a flux intensity (in the region of 2-8 i) 10'2-10'3 the X-ray range. quantum*cm-2-sec-1, be observed in can

Normally, a proportional counter can simul-

taneously determine the flux from a source, its spectrum, the position o f the source in the sky and the angular dimension. spectral resolving power o f proportional counters is small: the 2-8 1 range is 15-20%, decreasing by five times for 50 the spectrum of sources is only determined approximately. The in

1, since
In con-

junction with a cellular collimator,counters can determine the position in the sky and the angular dimension of sources with an accuracy o f approximately one degree, however, a modulation collimator gives a determination acc~iracyof up to 20", it is true only

in the very brightest sources of the Scorpius XR-1 type with a flux of 20-1 phot*cm-Z*sec1 -

Their sensitivity to charged particles creating a background complicates observations by proportional counters.

By using

special methods, whereby one can select pulses according t o shape (rejecting pulses corresponding to particles, and allowing only

104

f o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g X-ray quanta), and by i n t r o d u c i n g b l o c k i n g by u s i n g an a d d i t i o n a l c o u n t e r , one c a n r e d u c e t h e background by 10-30

times,

However, a t t h e p r e s e n t time t h e r e i s a n o t h e r method which

is t h e u s e o f o b l i q u e i n c i d e n c e r e f l e c t i n g p a r a b o l i c m i r r o r s f o r
incidence angles g r e a t e r than 88-89 degrees. The u s e o f t h e s e

m i r r o r s , combj led w i t h small c o u n t e r s , w i l l g i v e g r e a t a d v a n t a g e s when observin,; weak s o u r c e s i n t h e s o f t X-ray r e g i o n , where X > 1 0 1, and t h e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s q u i t e l a r g e . The f i r s t e x p e r i I t c a n be

m e n t s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n have a l r e a d y been conducted.

assumed t h a t i n t h e n e x t 1 0 y e a r s t h e s i z e o f c o u n t e r s w i l l be i n c r e a s e d t o 100,000 cm2 (3

x

3 m2) and t h i s w i l l g i v e a s h a r p

i n c r e a s e t o t h e number o f r e c o r d e d X-ray s o u r c e s , m a i n l y , e x t r a galactic. P r o b a b l y , a c o u n t e r w i t h a n a r e a o f 100,000 c m 2 w i l l be

a b l e t o record about 1,000 s o u r c e s , mainly, e x t r a g a l a c t i c . However, t h e a n g u l a r r e s o l v i n g power of s u c h a g i a n t c o u n t e r , as b e f o r e , w i l l be about one d e g r e e . In principle, a s u b s t a t i a l

i n c r e a s e i n t h e a n g u l a r r e s o l v i n g power c a n be o b t a i n e d by a counter

s e t up on t h e moon's s u r f a c e and o r i e n t e d t o t h e l o c a l

horizon.

Then one c a n c a l c u l a t e i t s a n g u l a r dimension and one o f i t s c o o r d i n a t e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r i s i n g and s e t t i n g time o f t h e o b s e r v e d o b j e c t s over t h e horizon. I n a c t u a l f a c t , t h e r e s o l v i n g power

r e a c h e s one a n g u l a r minute when t h e c o u n t e r i s moved 3 km f a r t h e r from t h e h o r i z o n , a n d t h e v e r t i c a l dimension by 1 m. The second p o s s i b i l i t y f o r t h e s u b s t a n t i a l improvement of t h e r e s o l v i n g power i n t h e i n f r a r e d r e g i o n o f t h e spectrum c o n s i s t s o f

195

using large, oblique incidence r e f l e c t i n g telescopes with a d i a -

meter o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y

m o r more.

Today, t w o - m i r r o r o b l i q u e

i n c i d e n c e systems w i t h a d i a n i e t e r of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 c and a m r e s o l v i n g power o f 5" a r e b e i n g u s e d f o r p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e s o l a r disc. I t seems compelezely f e a s i b l e t o b u i l d a X-ray s p a c e t e l e -

scope weighing s e v e r a l t o n s w i t h an e f f x t i v e a r e a of s e v e r a l thousand s q u a r e c e n t i m e t e r s , g i v i n g a r e s c l v i i t g power o f 5". dimensions o f such a n i n s t r u m e n t w i l l be a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 m (Fig. 7 ) .

It can be assumed t h a t i n t h i s c a s e it w i l l h e p o s s i b l e

The

t o u s e a Bragg c r y s t a l s p e c t r o m e t e r which w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e s p e c t r a l r e s o l v i n g power by s e v e r a l o r d e r s . The u s e of s p a r k chambers w i t h a n a r e a of s e n s i t i v i t y of

1 m 2 ( o r above) and weighing

more t h a n a t o n c o u l d be used
i n t h e harder region of the spectrum. Fig. 7. An imaginary diagram o f an X-ray o r b i t a l t e l e s c o p e . 1 Prop o r t i o n a l cou t e r w i t h a s u r f a c e of up t o 1 0 m , equipped w i t h a c e l l u l a r collimator; 2 - Solar batteries; 3 - Orientation teles c o p e s ; 4 - Antennas. Such a n i n s t r u m e n t

would d e t e c t A - r a d i a t i o n from

e x t r a g a l a c t i c sources.
A normal o p t i c a l t e l e -

scope, w i t h a d i a m e t e r o f 1 . 5 - 3 m,can be used f o r t h e

l o n g - d i s t a n c e i n f r a r e d and s u b m i l l i m e t e r r e g i o n of t h e spectrum. However, r e q u i r e m e n t s

106
~.__. __.

f o r t h e s u r f a c e p r o c e s s i n g of a m i r r o r f o r

this region of the spectrum are often considerably lower than for the ultraviolet or optical bands.

Of course, an image dimension

This lack of

/53

of 0".1 cannot be achieved in these conditions.

requirements considerably decreases the cost of the mirror itself, the monitoring systems fcr the quality of the mirror and, finally, orientation and stabilization systems. OF the other hand, one can increase the diameter of the mirror and this can prove very useful. Possibly, in this way astronomers will be able to produce a special infrared telescope with a mirror diameter of up to 10 m. Obviously,

the weight of such a telescope will exceed 10 tons, although the mirror will weigh little in comparison with those of scopes. Extraterrestrial Radio kstronomy Space antennas with measurements from several hundreds of meters to several thousands of kilometers are required radic, astronomical long-wave area. been published. in the earth tele-

region of the spectrum, especially for the

Several designs of such systems have already Ground observations are made more difficult not In principle, the earth's dimensions

only by the ionosphere.

themsejves do not allow one t o increase the resolving power of radio telescopes indefinitely. The defraction limit, equal to X/D, limits the resolving power for X
= 3

cm by a value of 5*10'4 sec

of arc when spacing interferometer antennas at a distance equal to the earth's diameter.
It now seems possible, by taking one of the interferometer

antennasinto space, t o considerably increase the resolving power 107

of a radio interferometer (Fig. 8 ) .

Of course, there are great

difficulties for producing such an instrument: there must be simultaneous accurate orientation of both antennas; signal recording must be synchronized with an accuracy of up to when the

antennas are at a distance of L - 300,000 km; the signal must be recorded 3r transmitted to earth on a very wide frequency band. Only in this way can one attain a resolving power of up to
2-

angular seconds.

Fig. 8. A diagram of a space radio interferometer; one antenna - on earth, the other - - in near-earth orbit. Possibly, the future of extra-atmospheric astronomy will entail the use of large instruments weighing many tons. Each tele-

scope of this type is a unique instrument with practically unlimited / 5 4 use (several years) according to the inexhaustible scientific program, Its great cost, including many years of preparatory work, means that the scientific observation program must be developed thoroughly. 108 Obviously, the use of such instruments can be an

arena f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c cooperation.

Bearing i n mind

t h a t t h e l i f e s p a n of a l a r g e unique t e l e s c o p e i s s e v e r a l y e a r s , and probably d e c a d e s , t h e r e a r e t h r e e methods f o r o p e r a t i n g such an o b s e r v a t o r y : f u l l y automated; nanned wit'.. a changeover crew;

and f i n a l l y , v i s i t e d by a crew f o r r e y a i r i n g t h e s y s t e m s , r e p l a c i q equipment, e t c . A p p a r e n t l y , a l l t h r e e methods w i l l be used.

I t must b e n o t e d t h a t f o r l a r g e o p t i c a l t e l e s c o p e s u l t r a p r e c i s e o r i e n t a t i o n (0".1 manned v e h i c l e : o r even 0".01) cannot be a c h i e v e d i n a

L

t h e blood c i r c u l a t i o n i n t h e a s t r o n a u t ' s body,

h e a r t b e a t s and b r e a t h i n g , and any movement w i l l d i s t u r b t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e t e l e s c o p e i f it i s r i g i d l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e manned vehicle. T h i s can e a s i l y be avoided by u s i n g X-ray, gamma-, i n f r a -

r e d and r a d i o t e l e s c o p e s , where one can be l i m i t e d by l e s s a c c u r a c y of o r i e n t a t i o n (see Table).

Region of t h e Spectrum

A - r a d i - X-ray a t ion

Ultraviolet and optical 0" 1

Infrared

Submil1ime t e r

Required o r i e n t a t i o n accuracy and r e s o l ving power

App~~ximately 1 0 '

lo

10"

G r e a t e r o r i e n t a t i o n accuracy i s h a r d l y r e q u i r e d f o r a s t r a o m i c a l observations. Such a c c u r a c y can be a c h i e v e d i f r e q u i r e d . The

f a c t i s t h a t superconducting gyroscopes,with a d e v i a t i o n of l e s s than O".OOl p e r y e a r , a r e b e i n g developed f o r e x p e r i m e n t s checking P o s s i b l y , such d e v i c e s w i l l be t h e b a s i s

t h e t h e o r y of r e l a t i v i t y .

of new s t a b i l i z a t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n systems n o t l i n k e d w i t h s t a r s :

t h e p o s i t i o n o f gyroscope axes can be l i n k e d t o any system o f astronomical coordinates. Although t h e s e a r e f o r e c a s t s , experiexice

shows t h a t t h e a c t u a l development of equipment always o u t s t r i p s f o r e c a s t s , and t h e f u r t h e r we look i n t o t h e f u t u r e , t h e f a s t e r technology d e v e l o p s . Undoubtedly, d u r i n g t h e l a s t 20 y e a r s a s t r o p h y s i c s ha5 become t h e most i m p o r t a n t of t h e p h y s i c a l and mathematical s c i e n c e s . o n l y needs t o l i s t t h e b a s i c d i s c o v e r i e s made i n t h a t time: One the

/ss -'

d e t e c t i o n of r e l i c s h o r t - w a v e r a d i o r a d i a t i o n , which h a s confirmed t h e t r u t h of t h e h o t u n i v e r s e model; q u a s a r s , w h i c h showed u s t h e m e t a g a l a c t i c r e g i o n , and a r e c l o s e t o t h e boundaries of t h e

universe; pulsars,which a r e f a s t spinning neutron s t a r s , t h e o r e t i c a l l y f o r e c a s t 30 yeclrs ago; d i s c r e t e s o u r c e s o f X-ray r a d i a t i o n ; s o u r c e s of maser r a d i a t i o n o f hydroxyl and w a t e r v a p o r , t h e r e c o r d i n g o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 l i n e s o f i n t e r s t e l l a r m o l e c u l e s , and much more.
Almost a l l t h e s e d i s c o v e r i e s were made u n e x p e c t e d l y ,

due t o u s i n g new technology o r d i s c o v e r i n g new s p e c t r a l bands. can be assumed t h a t l a r g e o r b i t a l t e l e s c o p e s w i l l mean f u r t h e r

It

s u c c e s s e s i n a s t r o p h y s i c s , a n d toclay t h e r e a r e mwe u n s c i v e d p r o b lems t h a n s o l v e d ones. One can o n l y hope t h a t i n t h e n e x t decade

n3

t h e d i s c o v e r i e s made w i l l be t h i s one.

l e s s i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h o s e made i n

1iO

A TASS Report on t h e Prognoz F l i g h t

"Pravda",

A p r i l 15, 1972.

A Prognoz a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n was launched on A p r i l 1 4 , 1972

a t 3 h o u r s 5 4 minutos

Moscow time

i n t h e S o v i e t Union,in accord-

ance w i t h t h e o u t z r - s p a c e r e s e a r c h program.
The s t a t i m i s d e s i g n e d f o r s t u d y i n g s o l a r a c t i v i t y , and i t s e f f e c t on t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y medium and t h e e a r t h ' s magnetosphere. The s t a t i o n weighs 845 kg.

I t was p u t i n t o h i g h l y e l l i p t i c a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e o r b i t and
has t h e following parameters: maximum d i s t a n c e from t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( i n t h e apogee)

--

---

200,000 km;

- - minimum d i s t a n c e from t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( i n t h e p e r i g e e )

950 km;

---

o r b i t a l p e r i o d around t h e e a r t h orbital inclination

--

97 h o u r s ;

--

65 degrees,

The s t a t i o n was s e n t i n t o a p r e d i c t e d t r p j e c t o r y from t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e o r b i t o f an a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e . The Prognoz a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n c o n t a i n s s c i e n t i f i c equipment d e s i g n e d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g c o r p u s c u l a r , gamma- and X-ray s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , s o l a r plasma f l u x e s and t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e e a r t h ' s magnetosphere, and a l s o f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y o f magnetic f i e l d s i n n e a r - e a r t h o u t e r space. Beaides s c i e n t i f i c e q u i p m e n t , t h e s t a t i o n i s equipped w i t h : r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r working on a f r e q u e n c y o f 928.4 megahertz, a
a

111

r a d i o system f o r a c c u r a t e measurement of o r b i t a l elements, and a r a d i o t e l e m e t r y system f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g back t o e a r t h o p e r a t i o n a l d a t a o f i n s t r u m e n t s and s c i e n t i f i c equipment. According t o t e l e m e t e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , a l l on-board systems and s c i e n t i f i c equipment a r e working n o r m a l l y .
A coordinating

computation c e n t e r i s p r o c e s s i n g t h e incoming i n f o r m a t i o n .

A Solar Patrol

(TASS) " I z v e s t i y a " , May 1 9 , 1 9 7 2 . The S o v i e t Prognoz O b s e r v a t o r y i n O r b i t The S o v i e t s p a c e r e s e a r c h prcgram i s wide and v a r i e d . The

/56

f l i g h t o f a r t i f i c i a l Mars s a t e l l i t e s c o n t i n u e s , a n C a Vencra-8 S o v i e t a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n i s a p p r o a c h i n g Venus. The Luna-19 a u t o -

m a t i c s t a t i o n has heen c a r r y i n g o u t s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h of t h e moon and near-moon o u t e r s p a c e f o r more t h a n e i g h t months. The l a u n c h o f t h e Prognoz s a t e l l i t e was an i m p o r t a n t phase i n r e s e a r c h of t h e Sun and i t s e f f e c t on t h e e a r t h . The l i n k s between t h e Sun and t h e e a r t h a r e e x t r e m e l y v a r i e d . Everyone knows t h a t s o l a r h e a t and l i g h t g i v e l i f e t o t h e e a r t h . However, a p a r t from r a d i a t i o n i n t h e o p t i c a l b a n d , t h e Sun e m i t s r a d i o waves, u l t r a v i o l e t and X-ray r a d i a t i o n and c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s . C o n s t a n t l y e m i t t e d s o l a r plasma f l u x e s - - s o l a r wind

--

move i n

i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s p a c e a t a speed o f hundreds of k i l o m e t e r s 2 e r second. They flow around t h e e a r t h and forr,i a v o i d which i n c l u d e s

11 2

a geomagnetic f i e l d

--

t h e magnetosphere.

This a r e a is f i l l e d w i t h

charged p a r t i c l e s o f d i f f e r e n t energy, ar:d magpetic s t o r m s occ!ir here. P a r t i c l e s p e n e t r a t e t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere c a u s i n g p o l a r These p r o c e s s e s are due

a u r o r a s and o t h e r g e o p h y s i c a l phenomena. to solar activity.

S p a c e c r a f t f l i g h t s have shown t h a t when t h e r e i s a s o l a r f l a r e a g r e a t number o f c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s o f d i f f e r e n t energy a r e emitted i n t o surro-mding space. Sometimes, t h e i r energy i s s o

g r e a t t h a t they p e n e t r a t e t h e s k i n of a spacecraft f r e e l y , e f f e c t t h e s e r v i c e a b i l i t y of t h e equipment,and can be a danger f o r a s t r o nauts. S o l a r o b s e r v a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t beyond t h e e a r t h ' s magnetos p h e r e t r a c k e d t h e p a r a m e t e r changes o f s o l a r wind, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o l a r X-ray and gamma r a d i a t i o n , r a d i o r a d i a t i o n and s o l a r cosmic r a y s . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h a t o f ground

o b s e r v a t o r i e s which c a r r y o u t c o n s t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s n o t o n l y o f t h e Sun,but o f t h e e a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d , cosmic r a y s , e t c . , w i l l be used f a r s t u d y i n g s o l a r a c t i v i t y and t h i s w i l l h e l p t o c r e a t e bases f o r a c c u r a t e space weather f o r e c a s t s . T h i s was t h e -eason

f o r producing t h e Prognoz a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n i n t h e S o v i e t Linion.

The s t a t i o n was launched A p r i l 1 4 , of t h i s y e a r and was

p l a c e d i n t o c a l c u l a t e d o r b i t i n two s t a g e s .

A t f i r s t , the station

and t h e b o o s t e r u n i t were p l a c e d i n t o a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e intermediate o r b i t .

A t t h e 6 8 t h minute o f t h e f l i g h t , a programming and t i m i n g

d e v i c e s w i t c h e d on t h e e n g i n e o f t h e b o o s t e r u n i t which gave 113

the station additional speed and placed orbit. In accordance with the scientific

it

into calculated

flight

programs,

Prognoz station's orbit at a maximum altitude above the earth's surfacs was 200,000 km,and the minimum 9 5 0 km oriented with the apogee toward the Sun. Trajectory measurement showed that the initial parameters of the station's orbit were close to the calculated ones. This orbit is unusual since its parameters, especially the minimum altitude above the earth's surface, change significantly ,lue to solar and lunar fielr's o f gravity. These changes in alti-

/ 57

tude can reach 4 0 0 km and above during each revolution. The Prognoz automatic station (Fig. 9 ) is a cylindricallyshaped,pressurized container with both ends covered by spherical plates. There are platforms inside the container for attaching

equipment. These platforms hold scientific instruments and radio telemetry equipment, solar orientation systems units, and thermal conditions and energy supply units. filled with inert gas. The otltside surface o f the cylindrical section o f the container contains several sensors and scientific equipment units, solar orientation .cystem actuator devices, nitrogen bottles and four solar-battery panels. The pressurized container is

To these panels are fixed a magneto-

meter boos and a loop antenna for receiving radio radiation o f magnetospheric and interplanetary plasma. Scientific equipment

114

Control of the on-board systems, neasurement of movement parameters 2nd scientific and telemetric information from the station,is done by an on-board telemeter complex combined with ground equipment. During the whole flight time, scientific information and data on the operation of various on-baord systems are recorded on a special memory included in the radio telemeter complex. this information is transmitted back t o earth. The station's longitudinal axis must be directed towards the Sun for the scientific equipment and solar batteries to work normally.
A

Later,

solar orientation system brings the satellite into this

position, and the station is gyroscopic2lly stabilized in space by twisting. The station is equipped with passive and active temperature control devices
to

maintain the required thermal conditions in

the instrument container and the required temperature for the individual units of the satellite.
A

solar battery is used as an electrical energy generator is used as a buffer battery.

and a chemical source of cur:ent

This energy supply system provides electricity for all the onboard station systems. Scientific instruments in the satellite are combined into individual groups,depending on the nature o f the phenomena investigated. The first group includes instruments for masuring solar

electromagnetic radiation emitted simultaneously with solar flares.

116

These instruments include an X-ray spectrometer with a proportiond counter for registering X-ray solar radiation in the energy ranee 1.5-30,000 electron volts, and a gamma ray scintillation spectrometer in the energy range 30-350,000 electron volts. The instru-

ixents with the satellite are continuously oriented towards the Sun, The second group of instruments is designed for measuring cosmic ray solar fluxes and high energy particles outside and inside of the earth's magnetosphere. This group contains: a

spectrometer with semi-conductor detectors for measuring proton fluxcs

i:i

the energy range 1-35 million electron volts, a-particles

and heavy nuclei in several energy ranges; a Cherenkov counter for measuring electron fluxes in energy ranges 40-140,000 electron volts, and a scintillation spectrometer for measuring proton fluxes with an energy of 30-210,000 electron volts. The third group contains instruments for registering plasma characteristics of solar wind beyond the earth's magnetosphere, in the transition region between the shock wave front and the boundary of the magnetosphere, and also inside the magnetosphere. The fourth group of instruments includes radio radiation receivers in the 1.6-8 kilohertz and 100-700 kilohertz range, a magnetometer, instruments for determining the satellite's complete spatial orientation, and also equipment for measuring the penetrating radiation dose on the flight track. Information obtained from the Prognoz satellite for the period from April 14 this year, shows the relatively calm condition of an interplanetary medium,characteristic o f the beginning o f a 117

minimum o f s o l a r a c t i v i t y .

The a v e r a g e speed o f s o l a r wind was

300 km p e r s e c , a n d t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e magnetic f i e l d was

The f l u x dimension o f i t s p r i m a r y cosmic r a d i a t i o n was 4 . 8 p a r t i c l e s p e r c 2 p e r sec. X-ray s o l a r r a d i a t i o n d i d n o t m

6-8 gama.

exceed t h e background v a l u e .

During A p r i l 20

1 9 7 2 , e f f e c t s were

o b s e r v e d l i n k e d w i t h a s o l a r f l a r e , a f t e r which c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e f l u x e s were g e n e r a t e d . While t h e s a t e l l i t e w a s i n o p e r a t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d on t h e s h a p e of t h e magnetosphere i n t h e h i g h l a t i t u d e r e g i o n , and a l s o on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n between t h e boundary o f t h e magnetosphere and t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y medium. Data from s a t e l l i t e and ground o b s e r v a t i o n s were compared and analyzed. processed. I n f o r m a t i o n a r r i v i n g from Prognoz c o n t i n u e s t o be The r e s u l t s of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s w i l l be p u b l i s h e d i n

/59

the s c i e n t i f i c press.

Two Prognoz Automatic S t a t i o n s i n J o i n t F l i g h t

(TASS)

"Pravda",

J u n e 30, 1 9 7 2 .

The Prognoz-2 a u t a m a t i c s t a t i o n was launched i n t h e S o v i e t Union on J u n e 2 9 , 1972 a t 6 h o u r s 4 7 m i n u t e s , Moscow time, t o widen t h e r e s e a r c h i n t o s o l a r a c t i v i t y p r o c e s s e s and t h e i r e f f e c t s on t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y medium and e a r t h ' s magnetosphere, which were begun by t h e Prognoz s t a t i o n s .

118

The j o i n t s c i e n t i f i c experiment which w i l l be conducted d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t o f t h e two Prognoz a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s , p u t i n t o n e a r - e a r t h h i g h l y e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t s , i s a component p a r t of t h e o u t e r s p a c e r e s e a r c h program b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e USSR. Prognoz-2 s t a t i o n was p u t i n t o e a r t h s a t e l l i t e o r b i t w i t h t h e following parameters:

Tk-e

----

maximum d i s t a n c e from t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( i n t h e apogee)

- - 200,000 km;
minimum d i s t a n c e from t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( i n t h e p e r i g e e )
5 5 0 km;

- - o r b i t a l p e r i o d - - 97 h o u r s ;

-- orbital inclination - -

65 d e g r e e s .

P u t t i n g t h e Prognoz-2 s t a t i o n i n t o t h e p r d i c t e d t r a j e c t o r y was done e x a c t l y a s when l a u n c h i n g t h e Prognoz s t a t i o n , from an intermediate a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e o r b i t . S c i e n t i f i c equip-

ment i n t h e Prognoz-2 s t a t i o n i s d e s i g n e d f o r r e s e a r c h i n g i n t o c o r p u s c u l a r , gamma- and X-ray s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , s o l a r plasma f l u x e s and t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e e a r t h ' s magnetosphere, and a l s o f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y o f magnetic f i e l d s i n n e a r - e a r t h o u t e r s p a c e . The s t a t i o n i s a l s o equipped w i t h French equipment f o r cond u c t i n g e x p e r i m e n t s i n t o t h e s t u d y of s o l a r wind c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e o u t e r r e g i o n s o f t h e magnetosphere, gamma s o l a r r a d i a t i o n and s e a r c h f o r n e u t r o n s of s o l a r o r i g i n , i n accordance w i t h a S o v i e t French program of c o o p e r a t i o n i n t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n and r e s e a r c h of o u t e r space.

The Prognoz automatic station, launched on April 14, 1972, continues scientific research in accordance with the flight program and on June 29 had completed 20 revolutions around the earth. According to telemetering information, the on-board systems and scientific equipment of both stations are working normally. The long-range space communications center is controlling the joint fliglit of the two stations. Information arriving from the Prognoz

znd Prognoz-2 is being processed at the coordinating computation center.

A Prognoz Relay Race

"Krasnaya Zvezda", July 1, 1972. The second automatic station Prognoz-2 (first launched on April 14) has begun a scientific watch in space. Now, two space observatories are simultaneously researching into solar activity and its effect on the interplanetary medium and terrestrial processes according to a single program. The new station is equipped

with additional instruments produced by French scientists. The scientific director of the experiment, I. A . Savenko, in a conversation with the TASS correspondent talked about the value of the Prognoz satellites in researching iiito the deep and manysided links between processes on the Sun and on earth. "Firstof all, I would like to draw attention to the unusually elongated orbits of both flying observatories. The automatic stations, as it were, are "advanced" to meet the Sun. This trajectory

120

js

necessary when one is investigating solar corpuscular radiations

It is now reliably

and their effects on geophysical processes.

established that the Sun, in a calm condition, constantly emits into surrounding space plasma fluxes called solar wind. This

cosmic "trade-wind" blows evenly and continually in interspace.

It was found that its average speed in interspace is approxi-

mately 300 km/sec. Prognoz and Prognoz-2 are obtaining interesting information, the analysis of which will allow us to establish the effect of solar matter and corpuscular radiations on the radiation belts of the planet, and help us to understand the nature of magneticstorms, polar auroras and other geophysical phenomena. One very important task is done by these space stations during solar flares, when the influence of the Sun on oar planet is felt considerably.
It is known that during flare periods intenseplasma

fluxes flow from active solar regions and m v e at a speed of approximately 1,000 km/sec. This powerful space "hurricane" with its own magnetic field, bursts through the quietly flowing solar w h d .

Of course, research into the interaction of solar plasma on

the earth's magnetosphere is by no means the only task of Soviet flying observatories. They are equipped with instruments which

can observe the Sun and record the wide range of its radiations: from X-ray and gamma rays to very long radio waves. Electromag-

netic radiations, traveling with the speed of light, are the first "heralds" of flares and other active processes taking place on the

121

s u r f a c e and i n s i d e t h e Sun.

Apart from t h i s , b o t h a u t o m a t i c s t a -

tions a r e equipped w i t h instruments designed f o r recording d i f f e r e n t charged p a r t i c l e s

--

e l e c t r o n s , p r o t o n s and heavy n u c l e i o f

cosmic r a y s of solar and g a l a c t i c o r i g i n . French r e s e a r c h e r s a r e v e r y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s s p h e r e of space physics. They have produced two o r i g i n a l i n s t r u m e n t s which These a r e

supplement t h e S o v i e t equipment i n t h e second Prognoz.

i n t e n d e d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g plasma and f l u x e s o f s o l a r n e u t r o n s beyond t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere. The c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n of p h y s i c i s t s , and t h e j o i n t e f f o r t o f s c i e n t i s t s o f d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s i n s t u d y i n g t h e Sun, s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n t h e p r e s e n t experiment w i t h t h e Prognoz-2, w i l l undoubtedly h e l p t o u s e e x p e r i e n c e , e f f o r t s and s c i e n t i f i c means f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f mankind.
"

LAUNCHES OF SATELLITES IN THE KOSMOS SERIES DURING 1 9 7 2

122
- .t u

REPROQUCIBILITY O THE ORIGINAL PAL:-. F -._._.

date

Name of vehicle

Notes

9 =March
10 25 11 25 12 31 13 SApril

14

15 11 16 14 17 21 18 S a My I9 6 20 17 21 25 22 9 J u n e 23 21 24 23 2 . 2:3 5 20 26

u
25

27

30

.;July
6
11 13 19

30 10
31 32

33 31
3.5

1
I

3 Y

I
J

115.2

I540

1U.i

Eight satell i t e s put into o h i t b y one launch vehi c:. e

46 !1 , 42 28 43 ZAugust

44 16 45 18 46 ~ ~ A u ~ u s . 47 :K)

123

*-'.~

y "t "'

REPRODUCIBILITY OF THE ORIGINAL PAGE 15 POOR,

. ...-.. -----.---,

..I_.-

"

..

--

f 4

_.

Notes

1 89.8 1
83,8
!G.U

343
363
507 537

710;C ;9M9 i&,O 1030

92.3 8?,3 92,O

89.7

210 652 973 214 28'3 277

1 71.3 1

295
511 330

G",S 65.8 72.9 71 71 208 65,4 282 71 "14 65,4

19,095

1Eight

1 1

114,O

1495 13175

74

satellites put into )orbit by one launch vehicle

Key throughout table:

a. Kosmos

124

REPR0DLW;LLL I'Y OF THE_ORIGI,NAL,PAGE 1 PQOR, 3

' I

<I

11.

SATELLITES IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY

Meteor Satellites Keep Watch Professor I. Andronov "Pravda", May 25,1972. The Meteor meteorological space system has been in constant operation for five years. During this time much material has been obtaired for studying the uniformity of global meteorological formations, developing new methods for transmitting information on atmospheric conditions,and widening rhe aise of space vehicles used in this system in the interest of the national economy. For example, Meteor satellites have recorded thousands of cyclones and gi*ren the position of tens of thousands of atmospheric fronts. Meteorological satellites have been used for selecting the best routes for vessels in ocean waterways. As a result, it was possible, on an average, to reduce the steaming time by 5-7%,and this produced great economy Meteorological satellites show the ice conditions and ice cover in the Arctic ?.d Antarctic in polar day and night conditions. This has considerably increased the navigation period along the North Sea route. Cloud information, transmitted by satellite, is

163

important for civil air transport, especially flights along intercontinental routes.

125

A s a r e s u l t of l o n g - t e r m use of t h e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l system, features,

known e a r l i e r , were e s t a b l i s h e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e

c l o u d c o v e r and development o f a t m o s p h e r i c p r o c e s s e s .

Hence, bcfore

m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s t h e r e were many u n e x p l a i n e d q u e s t i o n s on t h e occurence and evo1u:ion movement.

of t r o p i c a l c y c l o n e s , t h e i r o r i g i n s and

S i m i l a r i n f o r m a t i o n h a s been u s e f u l when v e s s e l s l e a v e

t h e S o v i e t IJnion f o r a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d ' s oceans where. c y c l o n e s and typhoons s y s t e m a t i c a l l y o c c u r . Atmospheric p r o c e s s e s , f o r

example, i n t h e S o u t h e r n Hemisphere, must be c l o s e l y s t u d i e d t o e n s u r e t h e s a f e t y and economy of t h e s e t r i p s . A n a l y s i s o f m a t e r i a l o b t a i n e d from t h e Meteor s a t e l l i t e s h a s e n a b l e d workers a t t h e Hydrometeorological C e n t e r o f t h e USSR t o e s t a b l i s h t h r e e p o i n t s where c y c l o n e s o c c u r i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. They a r e a l l c l o s e t o J a v a . I n f o r m a t i o n from a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s h a s g i v e n new c o n c e p t s o f t h e atmosphere and p r o ; l e r t i e s o f o u r p l a n e t . For

example, i t was found t h a t t h e atmosphere e x t e n d s n o t i n t h e o r d e r of a hundred k i l o m e t e r s , a s was b e l i e v e d e a r l i e r , b u t s e v e r a l thousands of k i l o m e t e r s from t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . The problem h a s a l s o been s u c c e s s f u l l y s o l v e d f o r p r o c e s s i n g hundreds of thousands o f photographs s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t r a n s m i t t e d from s e v e r a l s a t e l l i t e s , For t h i s , a ground r e c e p t i o n complex h a s

/64

been e s t a b l i s h e d f o r p J c e s s i n g and d i s t r i b u t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d r e c e p t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n p o i n t s have been s e t up i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e country.

126

The foundations have been laid for transferring to basically new numerical methods of weather forecasting. They are gradually bei1.g introduced and used in practice. The development of these

methods needs new requirements of information obtained from the meteorclogical satellite system. The direct transmission of satellite information, accurate maps for the distribution of temperature over the earth's surface,and information on temperature distribution over the whole layer o f the atmosphere are now very important. The Meteor satellite, launched on April :7, 1971, tcsted spectrometric equipment for determining the vertical temperature profile in the atmosphere. The Meteor satellite which went into orbit on December 29, 1971 is testing improved television equipment built by a Soviet scientist and engineers which transmits directly; ground stations, equipped with simple receiving equipment and a small antenna, receive the pictures. Five to ten

minutes after a satellite has flown over, a picture of the cloud cover and the underlying surface area of several millions of square kilometers is received at the station. Meteorologists must now have meteorological information from practically all areas of the earth. It must coincide with synoptic

periods - - to moments when meteorological measurement is being done simultaneously throughout the whole world.
It is als.3 impor-

tant thct this information is uniform and the scale of television pictures is identical. These requirements can be satisfied when the orbit parameters are stabilized by vernier engines in the satellite. By taking into account that satellite operating time is

127

calculated in years, the vernier engine installations must have a sufficient reserve of propulsive mass and xithstanll repeated cut-in. Soviet scientists have developed im-plesaa electrojet rockets

for reducing the reserve of propulsive mass for such satellites.

They u-s solar energy and creete gravity through plasma scattered

in electromagnetic fields. Stationary electrojet engines were

tested for the first time in space in the Meteor satellite launched cn December Z 3 , 1971. The Meteor space system is constantly developing. In the

near furure these satellites will transmit complex mtedrological data on the whole world twice a day. In the future, the meteoro-

logical system will include space vehicles Fituated in three layers. The first layer will include long-term manned orbital stations. These will Frovide visual observations of the geosphere and highspeed meteorological phenomena, high tides, landslides, dust and sand storms, tsunami, hurricanes and earthquakes. The second layer

- - adtomatic satellites of the Metzor type in polar or circumpolar

orbit at an altitxde o f 1,000-1,500 km. Their main task is to provide information required for numerical methods of weather forecasting
09

global and local scales, and conduct observations

on medium-scale and small-scale processes in the atmosphr-e. Finally, the third layer consists of meteorological satellites orbitin; at altitudes of up to 36,000 km for continuous observation of dynamic processes in the earth's atmosphere. They will give pictur: of the overall atmospheric circulation.
a

128

By adding t h e i n f o r m a t i o n from s p a c c v e h i c l e s on a l l t h r e e
l a y e r s , s c i e n t i s t s w i l l be a b l e t o f o r e c a s t a c c u r a t e l y t h e c o u r s e

of e v e n t s i n t h e atmosphere and t h i s w i l l h e l p us a t t a i n t h e
cherished goal

--

c o n t r o l of t h e weather.

S a t e l l i t e s providing information a r e n o t only v a l u a b l e f o r meteorologists. T e l e v i s i o n and i n f r a r e d p i c t u r e s from s p a c e w i l l

/65

h e l p us s t u d y t h e e a r t h on a c o n t i n e n t a l scale and o v e r t h e p l a n e t

as a whole.

As a r e s u l t , new s c i e n t i f i c d i r e c t i o n s have appeared

--

space geography, s p a c e geology, and s p a c e geodesy.

Complex study

of t h e e a r t h by i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s p a c e p i c t u r e s h a s appeared. G e o l o g i s t s were t h e f i r s t t o u s e t e l e v i s i o n p i c t u r e s and t h i s

is q u i t e understandable.

They have used a e r i a l photography f o r However, t h e maximum a r e a of t h e

r e s e a r c h f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e time.

e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e which can be covered from a n a i r c r a f t i n one p i c t u r e is 1 , 0 0 0 - 1 , 2 0 0 s q u a r e k i l o m e t e r s . geological s t r u c t u r e s Whereas t h e l e n g t h of

--

f o l d e d s y s t e m s , d e p r e s s i o n s , S ! geoT?

f r a c t u r e s i s measured i n hundreds and even thousands o f k i l o m e t e r s . Large g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s such a s t h e s e can o n l y be s e e n i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y from space a l t i t u d e s . I t appeared t h a t t e l e v i s i o n p i c t u r e s features

from Meteor s a t e l l j t e s had ''X-ra:r"

--

small d e t a i l s o f t h e

l a n d s c a p e , f o r e s t s , a n d a l l u v i a l rocks d i d n o t h i d e t h e e a r t h ' s geological structure. By u s i n g t e l e v i s i o n i n f o r m a t i o n , s c i e n t i s t s a t t h e A l l - h i o n Aerogeological " r u s t b u i l t up a t e l e p h o t o m e t r i c aiagram o f a l a r g e t e r r i t o r y with an a r e a o f approximately s i x m i l l i o n s q u a r e k i l o meters. G e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of i t r o t o n l y confirmed new 129

r e s u l t s o f ground and a i r c r a f t g e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , t u t chcnged t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e t e c t o n i c f o r m a t i o n o f t h e area and new c o n c e p t s of i t s g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e were formed. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e photo-

g r a p h s showed f r a c t u r e s n o t d e t e c t e d by ground g e o l o g i c a l e x p e d i tions. These f r a c t u r e s a r e o f t e n i n d i c a t i v e o f m i n e r a l s o r areas

of increased seismicity. The m e t e o r o l o g i c a l system o f t h e f u t u r e w i l l open up new prospects f o r researching t h e e a r t h ' s natural resources. Informa-

t i o n on t h e v e r t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e i n t h e atmosphere and t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s n e c e s s a r y f o r d i f f e r e n t branches o f a g r i c u l t u r e . Probing o f t h e a i r e n v e l o p e g i v e s i n f o r m a t i o n on m o i s t u r e r e s e r v e s , and t e l e v i s i o n p i c t u r e s i n d i f f e r e n t s p e c t r a l bands, i n c l u d i n g c o l o r , w i l l g i v e i n f o r m a t i o n on c r o p c a p a c i t y , c r o p g e r m i n a t i o n , f o r e s t and l a n d r e s e r v e s apd f i r e s . I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e b o u n d a r i e s

and s o l i d a r i t y o f i c e f i e l d s , t h e s e a s t a t e and t e u p e r a t u r e w i l l be v e r y v a l u a b l e f o r t h e f i s h i n g i n d u s t r y . This information w i l l

a r r i v e systematically, operatively,and i n large quantities. T h e r e f o r e , i n m o p i n i o n , s p e c i a l i z e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s must be s e t y up i n d i f f e r e n t branchec of t h e n a t i o n a l economy t o s o l v e problems f o r t h e complex p r o c e s s i n g o f i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s m i t t e d from Meteor satellites. The d i r e c t i v e s o f t h e 2 4 t h Congress of t h e Communist P a r t y o f
t h e S o v i e t Union e n v i s a g e d t h e u s e o f s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y i n t h e

i n t e r e s t s o f t h e n a t i o n a l economy.
being used f o r t h i s purpose.

The Meteor s p a c e system i s

Three s a t e l l i t e s , launched i n t o n e a r -

e a r t h o r b i t i n 1 9 7 1 and 1972, a r e c o n t i n u o u s l y s u p p l y i n g

130

m e t e o r o l o g i s t s w i t h complex i n f o r m a t i o n .

I n t h r e e more Meteor

s a t e l l i t e s , launched i n 1969, 1970 and 1971, r e s e a r c h i s b e i n g

conducted i n t o t h e l o n g - t e r m o p e r a t i o n o f o n - b o a r d equipment i n o u t e r space. The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s w i l l h e l p f u r t h e r

r e s e a r c h i n long-term meteorological space o b s e r v a t o r i e s .

The " V e r t i c a l " S e a r c h e s f o r t h e E a r t h

B. Gerasimov
" S o t s i a l i st i c h e s k a v s i n d u s t r i y a "

, January

30, 1972.

A Report from t h e Space Assembly S i t e

I e n t e r e d t h i s amazing w o r l d o f s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y w i t h a n x i e t y .

/66

Of c o u r s e !

A f a s c i n a t i n g journey awaited m through l a b o r a t o r i e s e

and workshops where t h e famous Meteor s a t e l l i t e s a r e born. The "miracles" began i n t h e f i r s t l a b o r a t o r y . I n a room w i t h

t i g h t l y c u r t a i n e d windows I was l e d t o a small i n f r a r e d s e t . I n t r i c a t e l i n e s were f r a n t i c a l l y drawn on a s c r e e n w i t h a n a t t a c h e d oscillograph. "This i s t h e r e s u l t o f your e n t r a n c e , " one o f t h e e n g i n e e r s explained. "The i n s t r u m e n t s r e a c t e d t o a d d i t i o n a l h e a t which you

brought i n t o t h e room."
A few t u r n s o f a h a n d l e and t h e equipment " a d a p t s i t s e l f " t o

my p r e s e n c e .
line.

An e l e c t r o n i c beam a g a i n draws a n a l m o s t s t r a i g h t

"You may smoke

...

I1

131

I go i n t o a f a r c o r n e r and s t r i k e a match. again r e a c t wildly.

The o s c i l l o g r a p h s

When t h e c i g a r e t t e was e x t i n g u i s h e d , t h e l i n e s

on t h e s c r e e n d i d n o t calm down f o r some time, r e g i s t e r i n g t h e c o o l i n g a f t h e c i g a r e t t e I had thrown away. " I n f r a r e d i n s t r u m e n t s are very s e n s i t i v e . T h i s i s why w u s e e

them as s e n s o r s o r i e n t i n g a s a t e l l i t e r e l a t i v e t o t h e e a r t h .
O f c o u r s e , one can u s e o t h e r t y p e s o f s e n s o r s , f o r example,

o p t i c a l o r radar.

I n f r a r e d i n s t r u m e n t s were u s e d w i d e l y d u r i n g

tests i n t h e f i r s t s a t e l l i t e s . T h i s i s how t h e y work. "sense" o n l y two h o t b o d i e s : Infrared sensors i n a satellite t h e e a r t h and t h e Sun. The r a d i a t i o n But i n

o f p l a n e t s and d i s t a n t s t a r s i s n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .

t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h e r e i s a c o m p l i c a t i o n i n t h a t t h e Sun a s a s o u r c e o f e n e r g y h a s no c o m p e t i t o r . I f one d o e s n o t t a k e p r e c a u t i o n s ,

i n f r a r e d s e n s o r s c a n " f o r g e t " t h e e a r t h and b e g i n t o o r i e n t a t e toward t h e Sun. T h i s c a n be a v o i d e d by u s i n g s p e c i a l l i m i t o r s . The Sun, a s

i t Mere, b l i n d s them and f o r c e < i n f r a r e d s e n s o r s t o immediately

t u r n and s e a r c h f o r a warmer body - - o u r p l a n e t .

This unusual

r e c e i v e r i s always b u i i t f o r ground waves i n t h e range from 7 - 4 0 S p e c i a l a u t o m a t i c equipment e n a b l e s i t t o f i n d t h e r e q u i r e d wave and aim towards t h e e a r t h . M v i s i t t o the laboratory coincided with the t e s t i n g of a y " v e r t i c a l " e a r t h s e a r c h system. The "eye" of t h e i n s t r u m e n t i s a

um.

thermal-sensitivz elenent constantly facing the earth.

I t is very

132

s e n s i t i v e and i t must even be p r o t e c t e d from l i g h t .

I t i s n o t so

s i m p l e t o f i n d s u c h a m a t e r i a l f o r t h e screen, b u t a f t e r p e r s i s t e n t s e a r c h i t was found. The s e n s o r i s a o t t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem. Where can one

f i n d an "Archimedes p o i n t o f s u p p o r t t 1 , t o a p p l y f o r c e c a p a b l e o f turning the s a t e l l i t e i n t o the required direction? Previously,

t h i s was done by a m i c r o j e t which c r e a t e d t h e r e q u i r e d t w i s t i n g moment. long.

O f c o u r s e , s u c h "small e n g i n e s " c o u l d n o t work f o r v e r y

One had t o p u t t o o much f u e l i n t o t h e s a t e l l i t e and t h i s

I1

reduced t h e amount o f u s e f u l i n s t r u m e n t s .
I was shown s e v e r a l unique

e l e c t r o m o t o r s w i t h huge r o t o r s .

They a r e s w i t c h e d on a t t h e r e q u i r e d moment o f time and b e g i n t o r o t a t e i n any d i r e c t i o n . The s a t e l l i t e i t s e l f , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e The motors a r e f e d

law of a c t i o n and r e a c t i o n , t u r n s t o meet i t . from s o l a r b a t t e r i e s .

The " f u e l d i s t a n c e " i s months and y e a r s . Solar

I n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e " v e r t i c a l " s o l v e s a n o t h e r problem.

s e n s o r s mounted w i t h i t a r e d i r e c t e d towards t h e Sun and t u r n t h e wings o f t h e s o l a r b a t t e r i e s towards i t . A f t e r t h e " V e r t i c a l " I am shown o t h e r a s s e m b l i e s o f t h e Meteor satellite. For example, s p a c e b e a r i n g s on which t h e wings o f t h e O r d i n a r y b e a r i n g s need l u b r i c a t i o n a n d , But i n s p a c e ? Lubri-

167

sqlar batteries rotate.

a s a r u l e , i n normal c o n d i t i o n s , work well.

c a t i o n immediately b o i l s away i n a h i g h vacuum, and moving p a r t s

w i l l weld t i g h t l y t o g e t h e r and w i l l c e r t a i n l y n o t r o t a t e .

Designers

have s u c c e s s f u l l y d e a l t w i t h t h i s problem.

Many a s s e m b l i e s and

u n i t s o f t h e Meteor a r e o r i g i n a l t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n s . 133

Supersensitive meteorological instruments, d e l i c a t e t e l e v i s i o n equipment, computing and compact memories f i l l e d with miniature e l e c t r o n i c s ,

...

Research o r g a n i z a t i o n s have d e v o t e d

much e f f o r t f o r s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y t o become a m i r a c u l o u s r e a l i t y . The Meteor main assembly shop i s e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g . A f t e r numerous t e s t s a l l t h e s a t e l l i t e ' s u n i t s and a s s e m b l i e s a r r i v e here. These t e s t s a r e complex and a s c l o s e as p o s s i b l e Some components a r e "tempered"

t o a c t u a l space conditions.

in a

r a d i o a c t i v e r a d i a t i o n f u r n a c e , o t h e r s "become accustomed" t o h i g h vacuum i n a l o w - p r e s s u r e chamber, and o t h e r s a r e t e s t e d f o r o v e r loads. Only components which s u r v i v e t h i s "purgatory" are s u i t a b l e Now f o r t h e body o f t h e s a t e l l i t e , c o m p o s e d o f The assembly of s p a c e v e h i c l e s i s , i n d e e d , a

f o r assembjy.

complex equipment. unique one.

There i s no room f o r e r r o r s , and i n l o n g f l i g h t s

t h e r e a r e s t i l l no e x p e r t s c a p a b l e o f c o r r e c t i n g any p o s s i b l e defect. The s a t e l l i t e ' s wings, i t s s o l a r panels, a r e f i x e d s e p a r a t e l y . They a r e a t t a c h e d j u s t b e f o r e t h e l a u n c h and look l i k e t h e comp r e s s e d b e l l o w s o f a huge a c c o r d i a n b e n e a t h t h e p r o t e c t i v e c o v e r of t h e l a u n c h v e h i c l e . The s o l a r wings o n l y open t o t h e i r f u l l

e x t e n t i n o r b i t , a s do t h e "umbrellas" of t h e s a t e l l i t e ' s t r a n s ceiving antennas.

/68 While f i n a l t e s t s a r e b e i n g done, workers a r e c a r e f u l l y packing -

t h e new s a t e l l i t e .

The a c c e p t a n c e d e p a r t m e n t g i v e s i t s a p p r o v a l

and t h e s a t e l l i t e can c o n t i n u e i t s j o u r n e y t o t h e s p a c e l a u n c h a r e a (Fig. 1 0 ) .

134

B. Gerasimo

t h e time fo

cation session meteorological

information

center of which

Now photographs a r e t r a n s m i t t e d from o r b i t t o e a r t h ,

I recog-

/69

n i z e on t e l e v i s i o n s c r e e n s well-known f e a t u r e s o f t h e e a r t h ' s
c o n t i n e n t s , s e a s and oceans. Caspian. Here i s a n i g h t p h o t o g r a p h of t h e

I n f a c t , i t i s a t h e r m a l p o r t r a i t made i n i n f r a r e d r a y s .

A t n i g h t , w a t e r i s warme;. t h a n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s h o r e s and, c o n s e -

q u e n t l y , produces a s t r o n g e r ( b r i g h t e r ) s i g n a l .

The c o a s t a l s t r i p

is darker.

A t daytime t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e .

Photographs, hundreds o f p h o t o g r a p h s .

Part of the planet is

covered by c l o u d , b u t one can s e e t h e "eye" of a f u t u r e typhoon.

I t i s amazing t o see t h e whole p l a n e t and i t s c o n t r a s t s a t one

time.

Almost a l l t h e N o r t h e r n Hemis2here i s a l r e a d y c o v e r e d i n

sncw, and i n tF.e S o u t h e r n Hemisphere it i s summer. But n o t o n l y photographs "determine" t h e w e a t h e r . The s a t e l -

l i t e t r a n s m i t s i n f o r m a t i o , ? on t h e t e m p e r a t u r e and h e a t r e f l e c t e d and r a d i a t e d by t h e e a r t h . Of c o u r s e , i n f o r m a t i o n from s p a c e i s supplemented w i t h t h a t from t h e ground. The w o r l d ' s w e a t h e r s u r v i c e , hundreds o f meteoroi

l o g i c a l s t a t i o n s where thousands of o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e made d a i l y : wind s p e e d s a r e measured and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f a i r masses i s recorded

...

Here t h e r e a r e no f i n e d e t a i l s , one must t a k e i n t o

account e a c h p a r a m e t e r and t r a n s m i t i t t o t h e h y d r o m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c e n t e r i n good t i m e .

A l l i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e s e r e c e p t i o n p o i n t s

i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o Moscow - - t h e c o u n t r y ' s h y d r o m e t e o r o l o g i c a l
c e n t e r which h a s l i n k s w i t h c a p i t a l s o f t h e whole world. many c o u n t r i e s a r e exchanging m e t e o r o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n . Today,

137

A wealth of information arriving in Moscow is fed into high-

speed computers and several minutes later becomes a weather forecast for tomorrow and subsequent days.

Space Meteorologists

V. Yakinienko A scientific reviewer of the "Moskovskiy komsomolets"

"Moskovskiy komsomol:ts", June 29, 1972.

Everyone is interested in the weather; corn-growers preparing to work in the field, captains o f ships making trips of thousands of kilometers, and pilots whose aircraft cover various climatic zones in a single flight. weather will be. For a long time man has observed the weather, tried to fix laws for its formation and attempted to forecast it. meteorological stations on every coatinerlt. There are Each c.ay we wish to know what the

The atmosphere is

studied by radiosondes and metecrological high-altitude rockets; meteorologists use automatic stratospheric balloons, ships, and laboratories in aircraft. If one looks ai a picture of the planet

one can see the irregular sitings o f meteorological stations. Areas where weather is "born" - - large expanses of sea and ocean which occupy more than 70% of the earth's surface, are not covered by permanent meteorological observations. It is difficult to set tp and use meteorological stations in polar regions, mountainous l areas, deserts and in the taiga,

Here, m e t e o r o l o g i s t s a r e h e l p e d by automation.

Automatic give

s t a t i o n s have been b u i l t and a r e working s u c c e s s f u l l y t o

i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s t r e n g t h and d i r e c t i o n o f t h e wind, a i r temperat u r e , t h e amount o f r a i n f a l l and a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e .

New meteoro-

l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s on a world s c a l e a r e r e q u i r e d f o r r e l i a b l e and l o n g - t e r m w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t i n g . M e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s have

become t h e t e c h n i c a l means f o r s o l v i n g t h i s problem.

A modern m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e i s an automated l a b o r a t o r y .

I t s c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e s u c h t h a t i n one r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e e a r t h it
examines more t h a n 8 % of i t s s u r f c t e , and i n a day o b s e r v e s t h e whole p l a n e t . I n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d by a m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e

i n one r e v o l u t i o n i s 1 0 0 times g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t which i s c o l l e c t s d from a l l t h e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s t a t i o n s i n t h e world.

A t the present

time, t h e r e a r e more t h a n 1 0 , 0 0 0 o f t h e s e !

Let us s a y immediately,

t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r ground o b s e r v a t i o n s h a s n o t d i m i n i s h e d w i t h t h e appearance o f m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s .
A t the present

time, t r a d i t i o n ; :

t e c h n i c a l means and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s

a r e supplementing each o t h e r *.nd form a s i n g l e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l service, For example, one remembers t h e complex j o i n t r e s e a r c h

c a r r i e d o u t by t h e crew o f t h e Soyuz-9 s p a c e c r a f t , t h e Meteor m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e and t h e r e s e a r c h s h i p Akademik S h i r s h o v i n June 1970. T h i s work was c a r r i e d o u t by d i f f e r e n t mcans and Such r e s e a r c h supplements e a c h

methods a t d i f f e r e n t a l t i t u d e s . o t h e r and

improves methods and t e c h n i c a l f a c i l i t i e s .

The p r o d u c t i o n o f m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s and c r e a t i o n of a permanent rncteoro'.ogical system i n t h e USSR was done i n s e v e r a l 139

stages,

During t h e f i r s t s t a g e e l e c t r o t e c h n i c a l d e v i c e s which

s t a b i l i z e d a s a t e l l i t e and o r i e n t a t e d i t s body towards t h e c e n t e r o f t h e e a r t h were produced and t e s t e d i n Kosmos-14 and Kosmos-23 satellites. S i x y e a r s ago t h e Kosmos-122, t h e f i r s t S o v i e t m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e used f o r o b t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , was p u t i n t o o r b i t and began i t s work and was u s e d f o r w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t i n g . This l a u n c h

was t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e second s t a g e i n p r o d u c i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s , and t h e n a permanent m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e system. The f i r s t i m p o r t a n t problem was s o l v e d when t h i s m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e was u s e d e a r t h ' s night side.

- - ob*Laining i n f o r m a t i o n on c l o u d c o v e r on t h e
Many complex t e c h n i c a l problems were a l s o For example, two independent o r i e n t a t i o n one f o r c o n t i n u o u s o r i e n t a t i o n earth, the other for the The s a t e l l i t e

solved during t h e f l i g h t .

systems were u s e d i n t h e s a t e l l i t e :

of t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s e c t i o n towards

o r i e n t a t i o n o f s o l a r b a t t e r i e s towards t h e Sun.

o p e r a t e d f o r f o u r months and r e g u l a r l y t r a n s m i t t e d e x t e n s i v e meteorological information. Analysis of information received the

showed t h a t c a l c u l a t i o n s and t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n s t a k e n when

s a t e l l i t e was b e i n g b u i l t were c o r r e c t , a s were t h e methods f o r meteorological observations. T h i s work allowed us t o move t o ',!le t h i r d s t a g e . Meteorologi-

c a l s a t e l l i t e s Kosmos-144 and Kosmos-156 were launched i n 1967, The launch of t h e second o f t h e s e was done so t h a t t h e i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e t o t h e p l a n e of t h e

5 p l a n e of i t s o r b i t was s h i f t e d by 9'
o r b i t of t h e f i r s t ,
140

I n t h i s way, o b s e r v a t i o n s were made over

e a c h area o f t h e e a r t h w i t h an i n t e r v a l o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y s i x hours, and t h e development of a t m o s p h e r i c p r o c e s s e s was t r a c e d . l a u n c h o f t h e s a t e l l i t e s by t h e USSR work

W ~ Sbegun

With t h e

i n A p r i l 1967

on t h e t h e Meteor e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s y s t e m , i n c l u d i n g
two s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o p e r a t i n g s a t e l l i t e s and a ground complex of c o n t r o l , r e c e y t i o n , p r o c e s z i l i g and d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n . I m p o r t a n t e x p e r i e n c e i n s a t e l l i t e meteorology was g a i n e d d u r i n g 1968 t h r o u g h t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s by t h r e e s a t c l l i t e s i n t h e Kosmos s e r i e s

--

1 4 4 , 184 and 206.

The c h o i c e o f

o r b i t s f o r t h e s e s a t e l l i t e s made i t p o s s i b l e t o s o l v e s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n g problems. The f i r s t two s a t e l l i t e s were i n o r b i t s In t h i s

whose p l a n e s were almost p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o each o t h e r .

way, i n f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d o v e r s p e c i f i L g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s t w i c e a day a t s i x - h o u r i n t e r v a l s . This i s important f o r a n a l y s i s

and wzather f o r e c a s t i n g s i n c e one can t r a c e t h e development o f a t m o s p h e r i c p r o c e s s e s w i t h time. O b s e r v a t i o n s by t h e Kosmos-206

were done from p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same o r b i t a s t h e Kosmos-144,but a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 minutes l a t e r . Although t h e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s i t u a -

t i o n h a r d l y changed d u r i n g t h i s t i m e , i t was p o s s i b l e t o c a r r y o u t an o b j e c t i v e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d . I f one t a k e s

i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t by t h e time t h e Kosmos-206 was launched i t s p r e d e c e s s o r Kosmos-144 had been i n o r b i t more t h a n a y e a r , t h e r e f o r e comparison o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e o n - b o a r d equipment of t h e two S a t e l l i t e s was made and t h e e f f e c t of l o n g - t e r m s p a c e f l i g h t

171

on i t s s e r v i c e a b i l i t y was checked.

I t must be n o t e d t h a t when

141

three m e t e Q r o l o g i c a 1 s a t e l l i t e s

a r e working s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i t i s

more d j f f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l them and t h e system a s a whole, and t h e amount o f t e l e m e t e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a r r i v i n g on e a r t h i n c r e a s e s .

I n March 1969 t h e f i r s t s e r i e s - p r o d u c e d Meteor meteoiDlogica1

s a t e l l i t e , which was p a r t o f t h e m e t e o r c l o g i c a l system c r e a t e d
e a r l i e r , went i n t o o r b i t . s a t e l l i t e s a r e varied. The o p e r a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t by Meteor

They o b t a i n an image of t h e c l o u d cfver Special

over t h e whole e a r t h u s i n g p h o t o t e l e v i s i o n equipment.

equipment f i x e s t h e r m a l r a d i a t i o n f l u x e s and t h e 2 l c t n t t ' s t h e r m a l b a l a n c e is c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o them. Land and s e a tempera-

t u r e s are measured, m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t i n t h e atmosphere i s c a l c u l a t e d , the temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n according t o a l t i t u d e i n t h e t r o p o s p h e r e and s t r a t o s p h e r e i s measured, t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e upper cloud boundary i s determined and o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e made on t h e condition
Ul:

W ~ e m u r f a c e s and t h e i c e c o v e r boundary. s

Vie Meteor system h a s been o p e r a t i o n a l f o r more t h a n f i v e years.

We w i l l g i v e one example showing t h e economical e f f e c t o f

Obtaining

u s i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s i n t h e n a t i o n a l economy.

i n f o r r i a t i o n on weather c o n d i t i o n s o v e r t h e ocean a l l o w s one t o choose t h e b e s t r o u t e s f c r v e s s e l s a n d , on an a v c r a g e , s a v e s 5-7%

o f t h e i r steaming time.

InformatiGn o b t a i n e d by s a t e l l i t e s

011

the

i c e cover i n t h e Arctic considerably i n c r e a s e s t h e n a v i g a t i o n p e r i o d through t h e North Sea r o u t e . that in 196i the eastern sector
0 :

For example, one remembers t h e A r c t i c was r;avigable f o r

v e s s e l s a wholc month e a r l i e r mainly due t o t h e Kosmos-144 meteoroiogical s a t e l l i t e . Meteorological s a t e l l i t e s study prccesscs

142

c a u s i n g t h e o c c u r r e n c e m d e v o l u t i o n o f t r o p i c a l c y c l o n e s , areas where t h e y o r i g i x t e and movements. This i s extremely important

when s h i p s l e a v e t h e S o v i e t Union f o r a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d ' s ocean where c y c l o n e s and typhoons o c c u r . The s a f e t y and economy o f

t h e s e t r i p s , t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , i s p r o v i d e d by t h e Meteor system. The work o f prod,cing a;Ld s x c e s s f u l l y u s i n g t h e Meteor system was

awarded o u r c o u n t r y ' s h i g h e s t o r d e r - - t h e Lenin P r i z e . M e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e equipment and systems a r e c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g improved. S p e c t r o m e t r i c equipment f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v e r t i -

c a l t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e i n t h e atmosphere was t e s t e d i n t h e Meteor

lcunched i n A p r i l 1 9 7 1 . T e l e v i s i o n equipment, t r a n s m i t t i n g d i r e c t l y , Five t o t e n

was t e s t e d i n t h e Meteor launched i n December 1971.

minutes a f t e r thr: s a t e l l i t e has flown o v e r , t h e r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n o b t a i n s a photograph o f t h e c l o u d c o v e r and t h e u n d e r l y i n g s u r f a c e a r e a o f s e v e r a l mi!lion square kilometers.

i2

Ion-plasma e l e c t r o j e t t h i s same s a t e l l i t e .

e n g i n e s , u s i n g s o l a r e n e r g y , were t e s t e d

The need t o 2roduce such e n g i n e s , especia1l.l f o r meteorology, i s t h a t i n o r d e r t o c a r r y o u t s i m u l t a n e o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s on a world s c a l e and o b t a i n uniform i n f o r m a t i o n and uniform t e l e v i s i o n p i c t u r e s o r b i t a l p a r a m e t e r s must be s t a b i l i z e d . vernier engines. T h i s can be done by u s i n g

Long-term m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s have c r e a t e d

t h e s e r e q u i r e m t n t s o f s u c h e n g i n e s - - multiple c u t - i n and a s u f f i c i e n t r e s e r v e o f p r o p u l s i v e mass. requirements. Meteorology i s one o f t h e s p h e r e s o f man's a c t i v i t y where t h e r e i s a g r e a t need f o r c o o p e r a t i o n between c o u n t r i e s . The E l e c t r o j e t engines f u l f i l l these

143

S o v i e t Union i s making a v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e d i s c o v e r y o f n a t u r e ' s secrets, and i s a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n between w e a t h e r s e r v i c e s o f d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s . t y p e s o f c o o p e r a t i o n can be v a r i e d . The

/72

There i s a r e g u l a r exchange

of meteorological r e p o r t s , t h e Soviet hydrometeorological c e n t e r

i s one o f t h r e e world m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c e n t e r s which o b t a i n s w e a t h e r

i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e hrhole world ( t h e two o t h e r s a r e i n Washington and Melbourne). Here, p r o c e s s i n g i s done and w e a t h e r r e p o r t s a r e One o f t h e t a s k s

s e n t from Moscok- t o a l l c o r n e r s o f t h e e a r t h .

s e t by t h e d i r e c t i v e s of t h e 24th Congress of t h e Communist P a r t y

o f t h e S o v i e t Union f o r t h e f i v e - y e a r development p l a n

of the

n a t i o n a l economy i n t h e USSR f o r 1971-1975 i s t h e "implementation

o f r e s e a r c h work i n s p a c e f o r development

... o f

meteorological

forecasting
. . . ' l .

... by

u s i n g s a t e l l i t e s , a u t o m a t i c and manned v e h i c l e s

T h e Metcor .cGace m e t e o r o l o g i c a l system i s s u c c e s s f u l l y

s o l v i n g t h e s e i m p o r t a n t n a t i o n a l economic problems.

E a r t h from Space "Sovetskaya Rossiya", A p r i l 1 9 , 1972. One i m p o r t a n t n a t i o n a l economic problem which i s b e i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y s o l v e d by a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s i s t h e l o n g - d i s t a n c e s t u d y o f o u r p l a n e t ' s n a t u r a l medium from s p a c e .
K. Ya. Kondrat'yev,

a c o r r e s p o n d i n g member o f t h e Academy of S c i e n c e s of t h e USSR, t e l l s t h e TASS c o r r e s p o n d e n t o f s u c c e s s e s a c h i e v e d and p r o s p e c t s i n t h i s sphere.

144

" S c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l p r o g r e s s h a s become a p a r t i c u l a r l y

a c t u a l problem i n t h e comprehensive s t u d y o f t h e n a t u r a l medium.

A complex problem o f t h i s k i n d i s o n l y p o s s i b l e by u s i n g s a t e l l i t e s .

U n t i l now, o n l y t h e f i r s t s t e p s have been made i n s t u d y i n g o u r p l d n e t by s p a c e technology. However, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r d i s c o v -

e r i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e a r t h and t h e r i c h e s b e n e a t h it and i n t h e oceans i s e x t r e m e l y wide. The complex combination o f s p a c e and

ground methods w i l l g i v e t h e b e s t r e s u l t s . The p r o d u c t i o n o f models o f f i s h c a t c h e s i n t h e w o r l d ' s oceans can b e an example. F o r e c a s t i n g t h e m i g r a t i o n of s h o a l s i s v e r y

important f o r s u c c e s s f u l f i s h i n g , s i n c e t h e environmental conditions affect fishing operations.

Here, o n t most know t h e p o s i t i o n ,

t h e e x t e n t o f t h e c a t c h areas, t h e d e n s i t y o f f i s h i n t h e f i s h i n g area, the e f f e c t of t h e shoal, t h e s t a t e of t h e ocean's surface, and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

One w i l l spend t e n times as l o n g

s e a r c h i n g f o r f i s h t h a n catching them w i t h o u t a c c u r a t e f o r e c a s t i n g . Much o f t h e r e q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n can be o b t a i n e d r e m o t e l y , a n d i n good time, by u s i n g s a t e l l i t e s . O t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f o r example,

t h e chemical c o m p s i t i o n o f t h e water, c a n o n l y be o b t a i n e d by d i r e c t measurement - - sea buoys. Therefore, the s o l u t i o n lies i n

t h e complex u s e o f l o n g - d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t measurement methods. Later, I s h a l l d e a l K i t h t h e u s e f u l work b e i n g done by Meteor

s a t e l l i t e s continuously c a r r y i n g o u t a space weather p a t r o l .

They

c o n t a i n equipment which can d e t e r m i n e t h e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e e a r t h by day and n i g h t .

145

S c i e n t i f i c equipment i n S o v i e t m e t e o r o l o g i c i i l s a t e l l i t e s i n c l u d e s a c t i n o m e t r i c i n s t r u m e n t s f o r measuring s o l a r r a d i a t i o n r e f l e c t e d by e a r t h , and a l s o t h e amount o f h e a t r a d i a t e d by t h e p l a n e t i n t o o u t e r space. T h i s a l l o w s us t o s t u d y t h e laws o f

p l a n e t a r y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e i n f l u x and e f f l u x o f h e a t , i n o t h e r words, o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e e n e r g e t i c s o f t h e earth. Research d u r i n g r e c e n t y e a r s h a s c a u s e d s u b s t a n t i a l c o r r e c -

t i o n s t o be made t o o u r p r e v i o u s c o n c e p t s o f t h e e n e r g e t i c s o f t h e p l a n e t on which we l i v e . An a c t u a l p a r t o f t h e program of l o n g - d i s t a n c e p r o b i n g s from s p a c e i s t h e s t u d y o f t h e v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e e a r t h ' s surface. An i n t e r e s t i n g experiment was conducted d u r i n g t h e formaHere, photographs
/73 -

t i o n f l i g h t o f S o y u t - 6 , Scyuz-7 and Soyuz-8.

were t a k e n from s p a c e o f t h e s p e c t r z o f v a r i o u s n a t u r a l f o r m a t i o n s .
A synchronous complex o f o p t i c a l measurements t a k e n on e a r t h azC

i n two f l y i n g l a b o r a t o r i e s , a t d i f f e r e n t h e i g h t s , was c a r r i e d o u t .
L a t e r , r e s e a r c h was c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g t h e Soyuz-9 f l i g h t . Analysis

of t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d showed t h a t complex d a t a a l l o w s one t o c a r r y o u t v e r y minute d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f n a t u r a l f o r m a t i o n s . In m y o p i n i o n , t h e r e a r e many problems which c a n o n l y b e

e f f e c t i v e l y s o l v e d when u s i n g manned s p a c e c r a f t , t h e crews of which a r e s p e c i a l i s t . s t r a i n e d f o r czrryifig o u t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s c i e n t i f i c program. The need f o r c o n t i n u o u s and complex o b s e r v a -

t i o n s i n l o n g c y c l e s r e q u i r e s l o n g - t e r m manned o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s . They c a n become a c t c a l s p a c e b a s e s f o r r e s e a r c h i n g i n t o t h e e a r t h ' s n a t u r a ; medium and r e s o u r c e s .

146

One of t h e d e c i s i v e a i v a n t a g e s o f s u c h s t a t i o n s i s t h e f a c t t h a t a man i n them can c a r r y o u t l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and t a k e d e c i s i o n s on which o b j e c t s t o i e s e a r c h . One can a l s o

d e t e r m i n e which set o f equipment (of t h a t c o n t a i n e d i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t ) , which w i l l g i v e t h e f u l l e s t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e phenomena investigated. N a t u r a l l y , t h e f l i g h t e n g i n e e r w i l l a d j u s t any

f a u l t s i n t h e equipment and w i l l g u a r a n t e e i t s p r o l o n g e d and e f f e c t i v e use. The c h a n g e - c v e r crews o f o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s c a n t a k e back t o e a r t h e x p e r i m e n t a l m a t e r i a l s ( f o r example, p h o t o g r a p h i c f i l m ) f o r a n a l y z i n g t h e d a t a and, i f n e c e s s a r y , f o r s u b s e q u e n t c o r r e c r i n g o f t h e experiment program. I n t e r e s t i n u s i n g s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y methods f o r d i s c o v e r i n g our p l a n e t ' s s e c r e t s i s i n c r e a s i n g each year. Geology and geo-

morphology, hydrology and oceanology, geobotany and a g r o b i o l o g y , t h e s e a r e j u s t some of t h e s c i e n c e s which p r o f i t from t h e use of artificial satellites.
"

A TASS Report:

The blolniya-1 and SIS* i n Space April 6 , 1972.

"Pravda",

I n +he S o v i e t Union on A p r i l 4 , 1 9 7 2 t h e Molniya-1 communic a t i o n s s a t e l l i t e and t h e S I S small French independent s a t e l l i t e were launched by one l a u n c h v e h i c l e . The Molniya-1 and S I S s a t e l -

l i t e s were p u t i n t o h i g h l y e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t w i t h an apogee o f
~

"Translatcr's note:

SIS i s Small Independent S a t e l l i t e .

147

3 9 , 2 6 0 k i n t h e Northern Hemisphere and a p e r i g e e o f 480 k i n m m

t h e S o u t h e r n Hemisphere. The s a t e l l i t e s ' o r b i t a l p e r i o d i s 11 h o u r s 45 m i n u t e s , t h e o r b i t a l i n c l i n a t l o n i s 65.6'. The Molniya-1 communications s a t e l l i t e i s d e s i g n e d f o r u s i n g t h e l o n g - r a n g e t e l e p h o n i c and t e l e g r a p h i c r a d i o communications system, and a l s o f o r t r a c s n i t t i n g S o v i e t C e n t r a l T e l e v i s i o n p r o grams t o p o i n t s i n t h e O r b i t a network i n t h e extreme n o r t h , S i b e r i a , t h e Far East and C e n t r a l Asia. Apart from equipment f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g t e l e v i s i o n programs and p r o v i d i n g l o n g - r a n g e m u l t i - c h a n n e l r a d i o communications, t h e s a t e l l i t e h a s command and measurement equipment, and a l s o systems which

o r i e n t a t e i t , c o r r e c t i t s o r b i t and s u p p l y e n e r g y t o i t . According t o i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e equipment i n t h e s a t e l l i t e i s working normally. Communication s e s s i o n s v i a t h e blolniya-1 w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o a c e r t a i n program. The S i S French s a t e l l i t e i s d e s i g n e d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of d i f i e r e n t s o l a r b a t t e r i e s i n o u t e r space.
The SIS s a t e l l i t e was launched i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a program

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o f c o o p e r a t i o n between t h e USSR and France i n t h e r e s e a r c h and u s e

of o u t e r s p a c e f o r f r i e n d l y p u r p o s e s . Ground s t a t i o n s i n i-rance a r e t r a c k i n g t h e S I S s a t e l l i t e ' s f l i g h t and a r e r e c e i v i n g i n f o r m a t i o n from i t .

148

A TASS ReDort on t h e Molniva-2

"Pravda",

May 2 1 , 1972.

I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a program f o r t h e f u r t h e r development of communication systems by u s i n g a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s , t h e

S o v i e t Union launched t h e Molniya- 2 communication

satellite into

a h i g h e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t on May 1 9 , l " 7 2 .

The Molniya-2 h a s m-

board r e t r a n s m i s s i o n equipment working i n t h e c e n t i m e t e r wave band. The Molniya-2 communication s a t e l l i t e i s d e s i g n e d f o r d e v e l oping t h e l o n g - r a n g e t e l e p h o n i c and t e l e g r a p h i c r a d i o communicat i o n system i n t h e S o v i e t Union, t r a n s m i t t i n g S o v i e t C e n t r a l p r o grams t o p o i n t s i n t h e O r b i t a network,and f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation. The s a t e l l i t e was s e n t i n t o an o r b i t w i t h an apogee o f
39,300 km i n t h e N o r t h e r n Hemisphere and a p e r i g e e o f 460 km i n

t h e S o u t h e r n Hemisphere. The s a t e l l i t e ' s o r b i t a l p e r i o d i s 11 h o u r s 45 m i n u t e s , t h e 55. o r b i t a l i n c l i n a t i o n i s 6.' Apart from equipment f o r t r a r s m i t t i n g t e l e v i s i o n programs and p r o v i d i n g l o n g - r a n g e m u l t i - c h a n n e l r a d i o communications, the: s a t e l l i t e has command and measurement equipment, and a l s o s y s t e m which o r i e n t a t e i t , c o r r e c t i t s o r b i t and s u p p l y energy t o i t . Communication s e s s i o n s v i a t h e biolniya-2 s a t e l l i t e w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o a s p e c i f i c program.

149

TABLE 1:

LAUNCHES OF SATELLITES OF THE METEOR SERIES DURING 1972

Orbi-tal Launch period, date min Orbital inclination Apogee, Perigee, to the equatorial km km plane, degrees

Numerical order

Key throughout t a b l e :

a . ivlolniya

150

111.

LUNAR RESEARCH

Glorious Victorv in %ace "Pravda" , March 3 , 1972.

There has been a new victory in space - - the flight program of the Luna-20 automatic station has been successfully completed. Launched on February 14 and reaching the vicinity of the moon, the station went into selenocentric urbit, after a series of maneuvers made a soft landing on the mountainous continental region of the
moon for the first time, took a sample of soil and heaaed back

/75

towards earth.

The station's re-entry vehicle successfully landed

A search group quickly

on February 25 in the designated area.

found the "Luna parcel' in difficult meteorological conditions. Hence, another bright page in the history of space conquest was written. The scope for investigating heavenly bodies has been

increased by using automatic control units. The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the Presidium o f the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and the Council of Ministers of the USSR warmly congratulated scientists and designers, engineers, technicians and workers, collectiver and organizations which tcJokpart in constructing the Luna-20 automatic station and brought lunar soil samples back to earth. "This is a

new achievement for Soviet science and technology in lunar and

151

outer space research

--

t h e r e s u l t o f t h e i n s p i r e d work o f t h e

g l o r i o u s working c l a s s , s c i e n t i s t s , d e s i g n e r s , e n g i n e e r s and t e c h n i c i a n s o f o u r S o c i a l i s t Motherland, g r e e t i n g t h e 5 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y

of t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e USSR," t h i s was t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e document.

I n n o v a t i o n and s k i l l , t h e s e a r e t h e f e a t u r e s which e n a b l e d t h e d e s i g n of t h e Luna-20 and broug4t i t i n t o t e c h n i c a l r e a l i t y . W e

a r e i n d e b t e d t o t h e g r e a t s k i l l o f s p e c i a l i s t s o f ground c o n t r o l
s e r v i c e s who a c c u r a t e l y i,,aneuvered t h e s t a t i o n d u r i n g t h e whole f l i g h t , and e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e s o f t l a n d i n g i n t h e mountainous r e g i o n , d i r e c t e d t h e d r i l l i n g work a t a g r e a t d i s t a n c e and g u i d e d t h e r o c k e t back t o e a r t h .
A l l t h i s showed t h e g r e a t p o t e n t i a l o f

S o v i e t s c i e n c e and s o c i a l i s t i n d u s t r y . S o v i e t a s t r o n a u t i c s h a s been n o t e d f o r i t s d e s i r e t o pave t h e way f o r s p a c e r e s e a r c h from t h e f i r s t . The l a u n c h o f t h e a r t i f i c i a l

e a r t h s a t e l l i t e and t h e h i s t o r i c f l i g h t o f Yu. A. Gagarin, t h e d e s c e n t o f man-made v e h i c l e s i n t h e atmosphere o f Venus and t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n from i t s s u r f a c e , a s o f t l a n d i n g of a v e h i c l e on Mars

- - a l l t h e s e and much more a r e achieve-

ments o f S o v i e t s c i e n c e and technology and a r e c h r c n i c l e d i n t h e knowledge o f t h e u n i v e r s e and have a n o t e " f i r s t achieved". S o v i e t a s t r o n a u t i c s i s c o n t r i b u t l n g much t o l u n a r discover;?. Automatic s t a t i o n s , which went i n t o s e l e n o c e n t r i c o r b i t , p h o t o graphed t h e r e v e r s e s i d e o f t h e moon, made
il

s o f t l a n d i n g on i t s

s u r f a c e and t r a n s m i t t e d a " t e l e v i s i o n r e p o r t " from i t , a l l bore t h e emblem of t h e S o v i e t Union. Automatic c o n t r o l u n i t s l a n d e d on

152

t h e moon t h e Lunokhod-1, t h e l o n g - t e r m s e l f - p r o p e l l 3 d l a b o r a t o r y , a l l o w i n g l u n a r samples t o b e taken w i t h o u t r i s k i n g human l i f e

--

a t Pirst from t h e "Sea" p l a i n , and l a t e r from t h e mountainous area. S o v i e t s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y , which h a s been w i d e l y a c c l a i m e d by t h e whole w o r l d , h a s become a p o w e r f u l ueapon i n t h e r e s e a r c h o f d i s t a n t r e g i o n s o f t h e s o l a r system and i t s heavenly b o d i e s , an5 i s an e x c e l l e n t i n s t r u m e n t f o r s t a d y i n g t h e e a r t h f o r n a t i o n a l economic needs i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f mankind.
I t h a s made a g r e a t c o n t r i b u t i o n

towards t h e development of world s c i e n c e . Tasks accomplished by S o v i e t a s t r o n a u t i c s a r e becoming more i m p o r t a n t and c r u c i a l . Their very n a t u r e c o n s t a n t l y r e q u i r e s t h e

j o i n t e f f o r t o f workers o f many b r a n c h e s and economic r e g i o n s and t h e complex, s y s t e m a t i c approach t o p l a n n i n g . . . I d e c i s i o n t a k i n g . S u c c e s s e s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n g i v e a n example o f how one must combine t h e achievements o f s c i e i l t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l p r o g r e s s w i t h p r a c t i c e and c r e a t i v e d a r i n g when i n t r o d u c i n g methods of modern s c i e n t i f i c management. The d i r e c t i v e s o f t h e 2 4 t h Congress of t h e Communist P a r t y o f t h e S o v i e t Union l a y e d down a wide program of s c i e n t i f i c work i n space. Among them a r e t h e development o f l o n g - r a n g e t e l e p h o n i c

and t e l e g r a p h i c communication, t e l e v i s i o n , w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t i n g and t h e s t u d y o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , g e o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h and t h e s o l u t i o n o f o t h e r n a t i o n a l economic problems by u s i n g s a t e l l i t e s , and a u t o m a t i c and manned v e h i c l e s . Others a r e t h e coritiiiuation of The

b a s i c r e s e a r c h o f t h e moon and p l a n e t s of t h e s o l a r system.

f l i g h t of t h e Luna-20 once more shows t h e f a r - s i g h t e d and f i r m l y based b e l i e f o f o u r s p e c i a l i s t s i n d e v e l o p i n g a u t o m a t i c f a c i l i t i e s f o r s t u d y i n g a d j a c e n t and f a r s p a c e . S o v i e t p e o p l e were w e l l - s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e news o f t h i s wonderf u l achievement o f S o v i e t a s t r o n a u t i c s . They h e a r t i l y g r e e t e d those

who b u i l t t h e s t a t i o n and p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t , and hope

t h a t t h e y w i l l a c h i e v e new s u c c e s s e s i n s p a c e c o n q u e s t . The

Luna-20 f l i g h t i n s p i r e s S o v i e t p e o p l e , m u l t i p l i e s t h e i r e f f o r t s i n t h e s t r u g g l e f o r s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l p r o g r e s s and t h e i n c r e a s e

of p r o d u c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y and f o r t h e contintled s t r e n g t h e n i n g of:

t h e economic and d e f e n s i v e might o f t h e S o v i e t Union. The S o v i e t "Lunar p r o b e " c a u s e d g r e a t i n t e r e s t i n f r i e n d l y s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s , i n t h e p r o g r e s s i v e s o c i e t y and i n , c i e n t i f i c c i r c l e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e whole world. S c i e n t i s t s , information

a g e n c i e s and t h e f o r e i g n p r e s s a r e g i v i n g good r e p o r t s o f i t s results.

"A triumph f o r S o v i e t s c i e n c e " ,

a s c i e n t i f i c event

o f o u t s t a n d i n g importance",

" t h e wav h a s been c l e a r e d f o r t h e

d i r e c t s t u d y o f almost i n a c c e s s i b l e r e g i o n s of t h e moon" a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e r e p o r t s . N e a r - e a r t h o r b i t s , t h e moon, Venus and Mars

- - these

--

how f a r t h e

"space hands" of S o v i e t people have stretched o u t i n search of knowledge inan a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e laws o f n a t u r e .

A l l t h i s was

due t o t h e c o n s t a n t a t t e n t i o n o f t h e Communist P a r t y , t h e S o c i a l i s t Government, and t h e n a t i o n a s a whole f o r t h e c o i q u e s t o f s p a c e f o r f r i e n d l y y u r p o s e s , t h i s i s one of t h e f o r e f r o n t s o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l r e v o l u t i o n .

154

The assault on sDace frontiers continues. Kosmcj automatic control units are heinn launched,

--

there have already been 476

of them. MeteoroJ-cgical and communication satellites continue

their watch. Delicate antennas are receiving signals from vehicles Participants in the new experiment, in a

in Mars and lunar orbit.

letter to the Central Committee o f the Communist Party o f the Soviet Union, the Presidium of the Supremen Soviet o f the USSR,and the Council of Ministers of the USSR assured them that they will respond to the party's and government's concern and attention with new successes. May this be s o !

Four Months in Near-Moon Orbit "Pravda", January 30, 1972. The long-range space communicatjon center, 29.

(TASS).

For

months the Luna-19 automatic station has conducted research in selenocentric orbit. tions around the moon. Researci; into the moon's gravitational field by s!*stematic, prolonged observations o f its orbital ev.>lutionis being conducted on the results o f radio technical measurement of the station's
-

During this time it completed 1,358 revolu-

rbital parameters, Continuous measurement of the characteristics o f the inter-

planetary magnetic field near the moon is beirsj made from near the station.

In this way, it was determined that the field on the

bright side o f t h e muuii i s s c v e r a l tines stronger than the

155

u n p e r t u r b e d magnetic f i e l d .

A t t h e same time, t h e m a g n e t i c f i c l d

on t h e n i g h t s i d e i s c o n s i d e r a b l y a t t e n u a t e d . Both e x p e r i m e n t s were conducted t o broaden t h e s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t s o f t h e moon's i n t e r n a l f o m a t i o n . The s t u d y oi c h a r a c -

t e r i s t i c s o f cosmic r a d i a t i o n i n near-mooii s p a c e i s c o n t i n u i n g . SimultGneously, i d e n t i c a l measurement i; b e i n g done by equipment on board t h e Mars-2 and Mars-3 a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s which a r e more t h a n 200 m i l l i o n k i l o m e t e r s from t h e moon. Interesting, valuable

s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n h a s been o b t a i n e d on t h e dvnamics o f change of i n t e n s i t y o f cosmic r a d i a t i o n c o r p u s c u l a r beams. iw-iards t h e end a f l a s t month t h e r e was

2

In particular,

noticeable increase of

i n t e n s i t y . exceeding i t s average v a l u e by a p p r o x i m a t e l y one m i l l i o n times.

As was s u g g e s t e d , t h i s i s t h e r e s u l t o f a p o w e r f u l chromo-

s p h e r : s o l a r f l a r e and c o i n c i d e s w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n o f ground astronomical observations. Apart from c h i s r e s e a r c h ,

tl-c

density of t h e meteorite

shower i n near-noon space i s b e i n g measured. The Luna-19 s t a t i o 1 1 c c n t i n u e s i t s f l i g h t .

Tne Face o f t h e Moon

B . NepQklonov, a Candidate o f T e c h n i c a l S c i e n c e s

" I z v e s t i y a " , January 2 9 , 1 9 7 2 . The s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h program f o r t h e Luna-19 s t a t i o n i n c l u d e s photography o f i n d i v i d u a l s e c t i o n s of t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e .

T h $ r e h r c , t h e s t z t i o l : i s equirpec! w i t h t e l e v i s i o n cameras.

t'n6

G,tical-mechanical

One i e a t u r e o f them i s t h a t s c a n n i n g o f t h e

image a l o n g t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t i s done by t h e s t a t i o n ' s own o r b i t a l motion. On s e v e r a l o r b i t a l t e l e v i s i o n panoramas one can see t e r i i t o r y c l o s e t o t h e n e s r - e q u a t o r i a l c e n t r a l zone o f t h e n o r t h e r n h a l f of t h e moon's v i s i b l e d i s c . When examining these p i c t u r e s , one must

note t h a t l a r g e s t r u c t u r a l shapes of the luna^ r e l i e f s t a n d o u t

v e r y well:

seas, c o n t i n e n t s , c r a t e r s and f r a c - c u r e s .

Therefore,

t h e y c a n be used f o r s t u d y i n g t h e s h a p e o f t h e b a s i c g e o l o g i c a l formations, t h e degree of destyuction, t h e general nature of t h e r e l i e f , a n d f o r compiling information necessary f o r r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e moon's h i s t o r y .

An i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e panoramas i s a p i c t u r e o f
c r a t e r s o f a s i m i l a r age o f t h e s o - c a l l e d E r a t o s t h e n e s complex. T n i s i s t h e c r a t e r E r a t o s t h e n e s i t s e l f ( F i g . 1 2 a ) , which gave i t s name t;, t h e complex, and t h e c r a t e r s o f Godin and Agrippa ( F i g . 12b). Their general outstanding feature i s t h e d i s t i n c t p r o f i l e contours, and t h e i n t e r n a l s l o p e s
,j

the c r s t e r s a r e steeper than the

e x t e r n a l o n e s , a n d t h e bottom o f t h e craters i s l n w e r t h a n c h e s u r f a c e s u r r o u n d i n g them. C e n t r a l h i l l s r i s e up among t h e c r a t e r s .

'There a r e p r o j e c t i n g l e d g e s on t h e i n t e r n a l s l o p e s o f t h e c r a t e r s . The e x t e r n a l s l o p e s o f t h e c r a t e r w a l l s g r a d u a l l y merge i n t o t h e f i e l d s of c r p t e r e j e c t a .

On Fig. 12a, p o w e r f u l e j e c t a from t h e c r a t e r E r a t o s t h e n e s i n

t h e form o f r i d g e s and w a l l s can be c l e a r l y s e e n a t a d i s t a n c e o f
157

/78

In the central part of the panorama fragment [Fig- 1 2 a ) one

can see t h e southern part o f the Sinus Aestuun

and the region of

t h e Copernicus crater.

They can be described by t h e amsunt o f

e j e c t e d material and differ i n h i l l y r e l i e f and the amount of

secondary craters.

Among t h i s e j e c t a one can c l e a r l y see a huge In this part o f tire picture,

s t o m block several kilometers a c r o s s .

one can also see the typical ancient Stadius crater with broken remnants o f a h-all projecting through the compact c o v e r c f :ea

rock.

In t h i s way, one of t h e youngest formations of t h e lmsr s u r face, c o v e r i n g t h e most ancient, panorama.

i s depicted on fragments o f the

Fi* -r e M o n t h s

in Flight
11, 1972

"Pravda"

, blarch

The

The long-range space commufiication center, 1 0 . (TASS).

Lune-19 automatic station has been carrying out s c i e n t i f i c research

in near-moon orbit for more t h a n f i v e months,

t3n Efarch 10 a t 1300 h o u r s Moscm t i m e the Luna-19 station

completed 1,810 r e v o l u t i o n s a r c u n d the moon.

During t h i s t i l d e ,

516 radio communication sessions were h e l d with t h e s ? a t i o u , d u r i E g

which t r a j e c t o r y measurement % a done according to the satellite's ws

o r b i t a l evolction f o r long-range research into t h e moon's gravi-

tational f i e l d .

159

The d a t a of s y s t e i n a t i c o b s e r v a t i o n s J b t a i m d were p r o c e s s e d i n t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g computer c e n t e r a t i n s t i t u t e s of t h e Academy

o f S c i e n c e s of t h e USSR.

According t o t e l e m e t e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , the s t r t i o n ' s o n - b o a r d systems a r e working normally. The flight o f t h e Luna-19 S o v i e t a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n c o n t i n u e s .

The Moon i n t h e O b i e c t i v e
TASS P i c t o r i a l Review

"Pravda"

, March

19, 1972.

The Luna-19 a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n c o n t i n u e s c a r r y i n g oilt a program

of complex r e s e a r c h i n s e l e n o c e a t r i c o r b i t .

Apart from s t u d y i n g

t h e moon's g r a v i t c t i o n a l f i e l d , magnetic measurement and measurement o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of cosmic r a d i e t i o n , t h e s t a t i o n i s c a r r y i n g o u t s e l e c t i v e panoramic lunar surface. t e l e v i s i o n photography o f t h e
i

T h i s i s being done t o accumulate m a t e r i a l f o r com-

p a r a t i v e t o p o g r a p h i c a l and g e o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u r f a c e and show t h e f e a t u r e s of t h e s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t e c t o n i c s t r u c tu.ies.

On t h e fragment shown ( F i g . 13) of o r b i t a l p e r s p e c t i v e panoramas one can s e e e x t e n s i v e c o n t i n e n t a l s p a c e s i n t h e a r e a f r o s t h e 30th t o t h e hDth degree of s o u t h l a t i t u d e and from t h e 20th

t o t h e 80th degree of e a s t longitude.

T h i s a r e a , on t h e edge of
_ L _

t h e l u n a r v i s i b l e a i s c , has t e e n i n s u f i i c i e n t l y s t u d i e d b o t h by ground t e l e s c o p i c photographs and by photographs o b t a i n e d from

/ 80

160

r*

spacecraft.

The photography was done n e a r t o t h e t e r m i n a t o r l i n e T h i s a l l o x s one t o

when t h e Sun i i a s low above t h e l o c a l h o r i z o n .

i n t e r p r e t on t h e photograph i n d i v i d u a l , s m a l l d e t a i l s o f t h e l u n a r surface r e l i e f .
T h i s r e g i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l a r g e a n c i e n t

c r a t e r s ~ i t smooth f l o u r s belonging t o t h e s o - c a l l e d Ptolemaeus h complex.

..

REPRODUCIBILITY OF THE ORIGINAL PAGE I POOR, . _-. S -__

I

A Year in Near-Moon Orbit

"Pravda", October 4 , 1972. The long-range space communication center, 3 . (TASS). The

Soviet Luna-19 automatic station, launched on September 2 8 , 1971, has been conducting scientific research in near-moon space f o r a year. During this period, the station completed more than 4 , 0 0 0

revolutions around the moon, more than 1,000 radio communication sessions were held with it, during the course of which control commands were given by on-board systems and scientific equipment,
a check of their condition was made and information was obtained

on scientific experiments conducted. During the whole flight of the artificial lunar satellite radio technical measurement of the parameters o f the trajectory of its motion were made to deteimine the orbital evolution. Measurement information is being used to determine the characteristics of the moon's gravitational field which are very important to improve scientific concepts of its evolution and structure. Experiments were conducted from the automatic station into the research of near-moon space by a radio have propagation method, and a study was made of the laws of reflection of radio waves by different portions of the moon's surface. Results obtained show that there i s plasma which has been formed as the result o f interaction of cosmic radiation with the moon's surface.
I

In accordance with the flight program the Luna-19 autoaatic

station took television pictures with an optical-mechanical camera

162
I

w i t h u n i d i r e c t i o n a l scanning.

T h i s photography was a l s o done t o

r e s e a r c h i n t o s p e c i f i c s e c t i o n s o f t h e moon's s u r f a c e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g o r b i t a l panoramas f o r n a v i g a t i n g spacecraft. S p e c i a l equipment measured t h e s p a t i a l d e n s i t y c f meteor p a r -

t i c l e s n e a r t h e moon.

I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t was found t h a t t h e s p a t i a l

d e n s i t y of p a r t i c l e s , n o t b e l o n g i n g t o m e t e o r i t e showers, i s t h e same a s t h a t i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s p a c e . One i m p o i t a n t r e s u l t o f t h e f l i g h t was t h e s y s t e m a t i c i a f o r m a t i o n o f c o r p u s c u l a r beams o f s o l a r and g a l a c t i c cosmic r a d i a t i o n s . More t h a n t e n s i g n i f i c a n t f l u x i n c r e a s e s of p r o t o n s o f s o l a r cosmic r a y s w i t h e n e r g i e s o f g r e a t e r t h a n one T i l l i o n e l e c t r o n v o l t s were r e c o r d e d , and t h i s i s t h e r e s u l t of p o w e r f u l s o l a r f l a r e s . The

i n t e n s i t y of g a l a c t i c beams a t t h a t t i m e a l s o underwent s i g n i f i c a n t changes c a u s e d by d c t i v e p r o c e s s e s on t h e S i n . S i m i l a r measurement was made by t h e Lunokhod s e l f - p r o p e l l e d l a b o r a t o r y , t h e Venera-7, Venera-8, Mars-2 and Mars-3, t h e Prognbz and Prognoz-2 a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s i n s - a r i o u s a r e a s o f i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space. I n t h i s way, a c o n t i n u o u s check was k e p t o f t h e r a d i a t i o n The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d g i v e

s i t u a t i o n i n o u t e r s p a c e f o r two y e a r s .

more i n f o r m a t i o n of t h e e n e r g y s p e c t r a , c h a r g i n g components of cosmic r a y s , a n d t h e way i n which t h e y a r e p r o p a g a t e d i n t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y medium. During t h e whole f l i g h t t h e Luna-19 on-board systems and s c i e n t i f i c equipment worked n o r m a l l y , and t h e p r o j e c t e d program was carried out successfully. 163

The Frglonged space experiment in near-moon orbit is nearing

cJmpletion. Measurement .data obtained during the flight is being processed and will be published.

A TASS Report:

The Luna-20 Automatic Station in Flight

: ' i z v e s t i y i i " , February 14, 1972.

In accordance with the outer space research program, on

February 14, 1972 at 6 hours 28 minutes Moscow time the Soviet Unlon launched the Luna-20 automatic station. The aim of the flight is to carry out further scientific research of the moon and near-moon space. The station was launched towards themoon from an artificial earth satellite orbit and is moving in a trajectory close to the predicted one. According to telemetering icformation, the station's on-board systems and units are %orking normally.
A ground command and

measurement complex is maintaining stable radio communication with the station. The coordinating computation center is processing incoming iniprmation.

TASS Report:

The Luna-20 Station in Near-Moon Orbit

ffPravdaff, February 19, 1972. The flight of the Luna-20 automatic station continues. During

the flight from ear?h t o the moon,radio communication sessions were

164

held regularly with the station, during which the parameters of the movement trajectory were measured and a check was made of the station's on-board systems and units. A flight path correction wc.3 made on February 15 to bring the station into the specified area of :lear-moon space. The spacecraft was decelerzted on February 18 during the flight to the moon, as a result of which it went into circular selenocentric orbit with the following parameters:

- - altitude above the moon's surface - - 100 km; - - inclinatim to the lunar equatorial plane - - 6' 5; - - orbital period around the moon
board systems are working normally. The long-range space communication center is maintaining stable radio communication with the station. A coordinating computation center is processing the incoming information.

--

1 hour 58 minutes.

According to telemetering information, all the stations on-

A TASS Report: The Luna-20 Automatic Station Has Made a. Soft Landing on the Moon "Pravda", February 23, 1972. The Soviet Luna-20 automa:ic station made a soft landing on

/a2

the moon for tne first time in the highland continental region. An important scientific and technical problem was solved for setting down equipment in a region with a complex terrain relief. The Luna-20 automatic station landed on the moon's surface on February 21, i972 at 22 hocrs 19 minutes Moscow time in a position 165

with selenographic coordinates: 3 3 " '2 east longitude.

north latitude and 5'3' 63'

As already reported, the Luna-20 was sent into selenocentric

circular orbit on February 18, On February 19 the station's movement was corrected, as a result of which it went into elliptic orbit with a maximum altitude above the moon's surface of 100 km and a minimum altitude of 21 km. On February 21 at 2 2 hours 13 minutes the main retrofire motor was switched on to set the station down in the calculated position. The engine installation was switched off after 267 sec

and the station was in free fall before reaching an altitude of 760 m. The rest of the descent was made under control, during which the thrust of the main engine was changed by an automatic control system. At a height of 20 m from the moon's surface deceleration was done with a thruster. The position where the Luna-20 landed is in a part of the lunar continent near the north-east tip of the Mare Fecunditatis. According to telemetering measurement, the on-board systems are working normally. The Luna-20 has begun to carry out a work program on the moon's surface.

166

A Landing i n t h e A n a r Highlands
v
Y

A. b s z i i e v s k i y A C a n d i d a t e o f G e o l o g i c a l and M i n e r a l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s , a s c i e n t i f i c worker a t t h e Space Research I n s t i t u t e o f t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR, " I z v e s t i y a " , February 2 2 , 1972.

The Luna-20 l a n d e d i n t h e h i g h l a n d r e g i o n between t h e b:are F e c u n d i t a t i s and t h e blare Crisium on February 2 1 a t 2 2 h o u r s 19 minutes. The l a n d i n g s i t e i s 130 km t o t h e n o r t h of t h a t where

t h e Luna-16 made a moon l a n d i n g , and i n September 1 9 7 0 s e n t back t o e a r t h a l u n a r s o i l sample from t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s . When

approaching t h e l a n d i n g a r e a , t h e Luna-20 f l e w over t h e p l a i n of t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s a n d , d e s c e n d i n g t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 35 km i n t o t h e h i g h l a n d r e g i o n , l a n d e d on t h e moon's s u r f a c e s e v e r a l k i l o m e t e r s from t h e w e s t e r n edge of t h e c r a t e r w a l l o f A p o l l o n i u s C.

A landing i n t h e highland region i s t e c h n i c a l l y extremely

difficult.

The s t a t i o n ' s c o n t r o l system f o r d e s c e n t and d e c e l e r a -

t i o n must a l l o w f o r t h e ruggedness of t h e t e r r a i n below t h e f l i g h t p a t h , aild t h e d e s c e n t v e h i c l e must be c a p a b l e of l a n d i n g on a rugged s u r f a c e . The f i r s t s o f t l a n d i n g on t h e moon was made s i x y e a r s ago, i n February 1 9 6 6 , by t h e Luna-9. S i n c e t h e n , much s t u d y h a s been made

of the e a r t h ' s n a t u r a l s a t e l l i t e . W now known t h a t t h e p l a i n s o f l u n a maria a r e e x t e n s i v e , e hardened f i e l d s o f b a s a l t l a v a , c o v e r e d w i t h a l a y e r o f s p l i n t e r e d r o c k , p a r t l y l o c a l , and p a r t l y c a r r i e d from e l s e w h e r e . Impact and

/83

e x p l o s i v e phenomena, l i n k e d w i t h m e t e o r i t i c bombardment o f t h e
167

s u r f a c e , a r e mainly r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s p l i n t e r i n s of r o c k s on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e and t h e h o r i 7 . o n t a l s h i f t o f m a t e r i a l . Volcanic

I
I

e f f u s i o n s i n l u n a r m a r i a , f o r t h e most p a r t , took p l a c e a p p r o x i mately

3-3.5 billion

y e a r s ago.

S c i e n t i s t s learned of t h i s as

a r e s u l t o f S o v i e t and American s p a c e f l i g h t s .
A t t h e p r e s e n t time, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o s t u d y t h e h i g h l a n d

r e g i o n s d u r i n g r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e moon.

J u d g i n g by many s i g n s , t h e

h i g h l a n d r e g i o n were formed b e f o r e l u n a r n a r i a , p r o b a b l y , d u r i n g v e r y e a r l y s t a g e s o f t h e moon's e v o l u t i o n , 4 - 4 . 5 ago. b i l l i o n years

On e a r t h , t r a c e s o f e v e n t s , t a k i n g p1af.e i n s i m i l a r e a r l y

s t a g e s of t h e development of p l a n e t a r y b o d i e s of t h e s o l a r system, have been " o b l i t e r a t e d " by a c t i v e g e o l c g i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l p r o -

cesses.

A t t h e same time, i n f o r r , a t i o n on t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f

p l a n e t e v o l u t i o n , above a l l o f t h e ebli.:;,

i s needed by , ; c i e n t i s t s

t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e laws of development o f p l a n e t a r y b o d i e s . The a r c a where t h e Luna-20 l a n d e d i s a t y p i c a l example of a highland region.

I t i s a s m a l l p l a t e a u - l i k e e l e v a t i o n r i s i n g , on

m an a v e r a g c , 0 . 5 - 1 k above t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s . covered by numerous c r a t e r s .

Its surface is

The number of c r a t e r s w i t h a diameter

g r e a t e r tha,- a k i l o m e t e r , i n a u n i t of a r e a s u r f a c e ( c r a t e r d e l i s i t y ) i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e landing a r e a , i s approximately t e n times g r e a t e r t h a n on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i F of t h e l a n d i n g s i t e i s t h e A p o l l o n i u r C . To t h e west

c r a t e r with a diameter

of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 km.

The d e n s i t y of s m a l l c r a t e r s w i t h diameters

from s e v e r a l m e t e r s t o s e v e r a l hundreds o f m e t e r s i n t h e l a n d i n g s i t e

168

a r e a , j u d g i n g by a number o f s i g n s , i s r a t h e r l e s s t h a n on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e Marc F e c u n d i t a t i s .

The b u n d a r y o f t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s and t h e h i g h l a n d r e g i o n

1

!:ere Luria-?3 l a n d e d has r!!urcTranhs

I

c 3 e a r l y d e f i n e d s t r u c t u r a l chi - - a c t e r .

L.L

2;

t h i s a r e a o f t h e moons s u r f a c e , t a k e n from

.- ~ l ~ s ~ ~ . - ~ * ~ d u r~nL - normal t e l e s c o p i c o b s e r v a t i o n s from .and - r i g t

. . i r t h , one can c l e a r l y see f r a c t u r e s i n t h e l u n a r c r u s t , which often

form t h e n a t u r a l boundary between t h e s u r f a c e s o f t h e m a r i a and t h e highlands. Sometimes, one can see how a p a r t o f a c r a t e r , a t

t h e edge \ f t h e h i g h l a n d s , has been pushed i n t o t h e l u n a r c r u s t and c o v e r e d by l a v a f i l l i n g t h e d e p r e s s i o n of t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s . O f t e n i n t h e a r e a where t h e mare joins t h e h i g h l a n d s t h e r e a r e a r e a s covered by c h a r a c t e r i s t c i dome-like e l e v a t i o n s , p r e s u m a h l y a f volcanic origin. The i n c r e a s e d d e n s i t y of d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a r g e c r a t e r s i n t h e h i g h l a n d s must clean t h a t f r a g m e n t s of r o c k , e j e c t e d fron, a d e p t h of s e v e r a l hundreds of m e t e r s t o 1 - 3 km, form t h e s p l i n t e r e d surface layer. I n p a r t i c u l a r , l u n a r s o i l i n t h e Luna-20 l a n d i n g

a r e a was formed i n a l a y e r of e j e c t a from t h e c r a t e r A p o l l c n i u s C . , which

is

more t h a n 1 km deep.

On t h e b a s i s of a n a l y z i n g photographs o f t h e moons s u r f a c e ,
s p e c i a l i s t s i n l u n d r g e o l o g y b e l i e v e :hat t h e d e p r e s s i o n in t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s i s one of t h e o l d e s t mare d e p r e s s i o n s on t h e moon. J u d g i n g by r e s u l t s o f a n a l y s i s of l u n a r s o i l samples c o l l e c t e d by Luna-16, t h i s d e p r e s s i o n was f i l l e d w i t h b a s a l t l a v a a p p r o x i m a t e l y
3 . 5 b i l l i o n year;

ago,

The h i g h l a n d s which surrouiid t h e

169

Mare Fecunditatis are geologically older than the lava filling the mare depression. Therefore, it must be expected that rocks which were formed in the very e a r l y s t a g e s of the rcooriss evoiution make up the geological structure in the area where the Luna-20 landed. The Luna-20 experiments continue, but it is already quite clear that this flight is a new stage in moon research.

184

In clearly

shows the efficiency of the method o f lunar and planetary research by automatic facilities chosen by Soviet scientists.

-he Path to the Lunar Highlands

A . Gurshteyn, a Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences

"Pravda", February 2 3 , 1972. Passing the sloping north-east tip of the depression o f the Marc Fecunditatis and flying over, during the final stage of descent, at an altitude o f more than 50 km above the surface of the lunar highlands, cut by ancient relief form:, the Luna-20 made a soft landing close to the small Apollonius C. criter. The

moon landing site is in the southern area of the elongated highland plateau which separates the pl2in of the blare Fecunditatis and the blare Crisium. The prolonged controled descent of an automatic station and the precision landing in the prescribed area o f the lunar highland? was achieved Cor the first time. The lan.:;-ng of an automatic sta; lop. on the lun-: highlands is ivportant for studying the lunar surface, and is new proof of

170

the inexhaustible possibilities which exist when using various

automaitiz >pace uehic1c.s f o r fur+;,Pr research of the moon and

planets. The soft landing of the automatic station in the highlands

is the solution of an important scientific and technical problem,

an2 opens up new possibilities for further comprehensive study of the moon.

In February 1966 the Soviet Luna-9 automatic station

made a soft landing for the first time on the surface o f the p-.anet and transmitted television pictures of a "lunar stone" back to earth. surface. It disclosed the secret on the formation o f the lunar
Ixi April 1966 the Luna-10 became the first artificial

satellite of the moon and began the detailed study of the features
o f its gravitational field.

A gamma spectrometer in the Luna-10

obtained the first information on the mineralogical composition of extensive areas of the l m a r surface. The Luna-13 automatic station, equipped with the necessary instruments, studied directly the physical and mechanical properties of the lunar surface. Soviet autonatic stations of the Luna and Zond series repeatedly photographed different artzq n f the moon on different scales and transmitted back to earth a wealth of information on the structural features of the lunar surface.

An important stage in research, design and construction work

in rocket and space technology was the production of a unitized landing platforr which was sllccessfully used in iuna-16 and Luna-17 fiights. The Luna-16 automatically brcught back to earth a sample
of lun

tgolith from the Mare Fecunditatis. This station mad

171

a soft landing during lunar night 60 hours after sunset, when the

temperaturt >f the lunar rurfacc was already t e n s OF degrees belciu

zero.
It is still impossible to carry out such sciectific problems

in lunar night with manned spucecraft. The Luna-17 station set down on the moon a mobile scientific laboratory - - the automatic Lunokhod-1. It actively researched the surface structure o f the Mare Imbrium for a considerable length of time. The Lunokhod-1 was also equipped with scientific The length of active work,

185

instruments for studying outer space.

characteristic of modern automatic systems, :annot be accomplished during manned flights to the moon.
A

wealth of nein. information on the m o c ? ~ ,collected over the

years as a result of the rapid development of astronautics, has given mtcn new important scientific data. The use of sequence

photography of the far side of the moon, never seen from earth, showed differences
ir,

its visible and reverse hemispheres.

Up

until now, photographs were the basis o f several published maps of the far side of the moon. In 1970, the International Astronomical

Union gave 5 0 0 new names to recently discovered formations on the moon. Over the years, cxperimental data was obtained on the structure of the moon's surface on millimeter, centimeter, and meter scales. Similar information was obtained on the physical and physical and mechanical properties o f various parts o f the moon's surface. This info; ation destroyed the legend o f fine, flowing lunar dust. Both direct and indirect methods were used for

132

d e t e r m i n i n g t h e chemical composition o f t h e s o i l o f v a r i o u s regions o f t h e l u n a r q u r f a c e and b r i n g i n g s a a i y l e a back t o e a r t h , and i n f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d on t h e i r a b s o l u t e age. This research l e d

t o f u r t h e r development work i n l u n a r g e o c h e m i s t r y . Comprehensive s t u d y o f t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e moon's g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d , together with subsequent w2rk i n seismometry and mag-

n e t o m e t r y , l a i d t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r development work iri l u n a r g e o physics. Prolonged measurement o f t h e o r b i t a l e v o l u t i o n o f an

mc?-?,

a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e - i the

t h e Luna-19, c o n t r i b d t e d t o

r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e moon's g r a v i L . c i o n a 1 f i e l d . RecentLy, i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d made i t p o s s i b l e t o s o l v e fundamental problems o f t h e o r i g i n and e v o l u t i o n b o t h of t h e moor, and t h e s o l a r system a s a whole, on a c o m p l e t e l y new l e v e l .
i t i s now i n t e r e s t i n g t o s t u d y l u n a r h i g h l a n d s .

Hence,

There i s r e a s o n t o suppose t h a t l u n a r h i g h l a n d s a r e f o r n a t i o n s of t h e o l d e s t p r e g e o l o g i c a l s t a g e o f t h e moon's development - - t h e c o n d e n s a t i o n s t a g e o f l u n a r m a t t e r from a p r i m a r y , p r o t o p l a n e t a r y gas-duct cloud. I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s t r u c t u r e of l u n a r h i g h l a n d s

c a n d i s c l o s e t h e s e c r e t o f t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f development of t h e s o l a r system. According t o p r e v a i l i n g s c i e n t i f i c o p i n i o n s , t h e l u n a r maria

a r e g i g a n t i c h o l l o w s , f i l l e d by b a r a l t l a v a f l o w s , formed d u r i n g p a r t i a l f u s i o n c f primary l u n a r r o c k . The l a v a h a s i n d i r e c t s i g n s

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f e a t u r e s of t h e moon's i n i t i a l " p r o t o n a t t e r " . But modern s c i e n c e needs d i r e c t informaLion on t h e n a t u r e of l u n a r

h i g h l a n d s f o r r e l i a b l e c o n c l u s i o n s t o >e made a n t h c o r i g i n of o u r natural s a t e l l i t e and i t s e v o l u t i o n s t a g e s . Iiowever, t h e i r

s u r f a c e i s e x t r e m e l y rugged and l a n d i n g s p a c e c r a f t on them i s a d i f f i c u l t task. A f t e r a s p a c e f l i g h t of 7.5 d a y s , t h e Luna-20 l a n d e d a p p r o x i mately 120 km t o t h e n o r t h of t h e a r e a f r o s which t h e S o v i e t Luna-16 had brought s o i l samples t o e a r t h . The a n c i e n t s u r f a c e

o f t h e h i g h l a n d p l a t e a u i n t h e l a n d i n g a r e a o f Luna-20 rises a p p r o x i m a t e l y I. k above t h e mean l e v e l of t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s . m The s u r f a c e i s s l o p i n g and u n d u l a t i n g , p i t t e d w i t h numerous c r a t e r s up t o s e v e r a l nundreds o f meters i n d i a m e t e r . The d i f f i c u l t y o f

.
/86

l a n d i n g a s t a t i o n h e r e i s a g g r a v a t e d s i n c e t h e r e a r e many t e c t o n i c f r a c t u i - e s on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e h i g h l a n d p l a t e a u between t h e Nare F e c u n d i t a t i s and t h e h k r e Crisium. The boundary between t h e mare

and t h e h i g h l a n d s i n t h e l a n d i n g a r e a i s narrow and, d p p a r e n t l y , also tectonic. The l a n d i n g o f t h e Luna-20 c n t h e l u n a r h i g h l a n d s i s a new i m p o r t a n t s t e p f o r s c i e n c e and technol-ogy.
I t opens up wide p o s -

s i b i l t i e s f o r f l i g h t s i n t o complex and most i n t e r e s t i n g , from t h e s c i e n t i f i c p o i c t c f vie:;,

areas of tCc xion.

A TASS

Repor,:

A S p a c e c r a f t Returns

"Pravda"

Febrdary 2 4 , 1 9 7 2 .

The S o v i e t a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n h a s c z r r i e d o u t i t s work p r o g r m on t h e moon.

174

On February 2 3 , 1 9 7 2 , t h e s p a c e c r a f t "as lounched from i t s l a n d i n g s t a g e towards e a r t h . The r e - e n t r y v e h i c l e c o n t a i n s s o i l

samples c o l l e c t e d from t h e moon's almost i n a c c e s s i b 1 . e highlar.ds.

As a l r e a d y r e p o r t e d , t h e Luna-20 made a s o f t l a n d i n g

in the

h i g h l a n d r e g i o n between t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s and t h e Mare Crisium

OE

February 2 1 , 1972 a t 2 2 h o u r s 1 9 minutes.

After landing, t h e

s t a t i o n ' s on-board systems were checked and i t s p o s i t i o n was d e t e r n i n e d on t h e l u n a r surface.

A telephotometric device transmitted

t o e a r t h p i c t u r e s of t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , and t h e p l a c e f o r c o l l e c t i n g

lunar r o c k samples was chosen a c c o r d i n g l y .

of samples began a t a command from e i r t h .

Then, t h e c o l l e c t i o n

The s o i l - c o l l e c t i o n d e v i c e d r i l i e d t h e l u n a r s o i l arid c o l l e c t e d r o c k samples. Due t o t h e i n c r e a s e d s o i l r e s i s t a n c e , t h e d r i l l i n g

was done i n s e v e r a l s t a g e s and t h e d r i l i s t o p p e d a t i n t e r v a l s .

T:e samFles c o l l e c t e d were p l a c e d i n t o a c o n t a i n e r i n t h e s p a c e -

c r a f t and , e a l e d . The s p a c e c r a f t \!as launcheci trom i t s l a n d i n g s t a g e on t h e lunar surface device,

3t

a ccmnaiid from t h e o n - b o a r d programner and t i m i n g

on February 2 5 , i 9 7 2 a t 1 hour St3 m i n u t e s hloscow time.

The t r a j e c t o r y parameters were c l o s e t o t h e c a l c u l a t e d ones. During t h e f i n a l s t a g e of t h e f l i g h t from t h e moon t o e a r t h , t h e r e - e n t r y v e h l c l e was d e t a c h e d and on February 25, 1 9 7 2 w i l l e n t e r t h e dense a t m o s p h e r i c l a y e r s , w i l l be d e c e l e r a t e d a e r o d y n a m i c a l l y and c a r r y o u t a s o f t l a n d i n g m i n g a p a r a c h u t e system. During t h e f l i g h t towards e a r t h t r a j e c t o r y 2easurement w i l l be made d u r i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n s e s s i o n s w i t h t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o

175

d e t e r m i n e t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e l a n d i n g area. have been p l a c e d on t h e r e q u i r e d r e a d i n e s s s t a t e .

Search f s c i l i t i e s

D r i l l i n g i n t h e Highland Region
D. Dryuchenko, Engineer

"Pravda",

February 2 4 , 1972.

The b e g i n n i n g o f e x p e r i m e n t s f o r t h e d i r e c t s t u d y o f t h e p h y s i c a l and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e was made p o s s i b l e by t h e s u c c e s s f u l l a n d i n g o f t h e S o v i e t Luna-13.

I t used

a n a u t o m a t i c s o i l measuring d e v i c e , a p e n e t r o m e t e r and a r a d i a t i o n d e n s i t o m e t e r which were s e t up on t h e s u r f a c e by s p e c i a l f l e x i b l e rods beyond t h e area llamaged when t h e s t a t i o n l a n d e d . P . f t e r t h e Luna-13, t h e American Surveyor v e h i c l e s a l s o l a n d e d a u t o m a t i c d e v i c e s on t h e moon's surface t o d e t e r m i n e t h e soil's stahility.
As a r e s u l t o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s i t was found t h a t t h e moon's

/87

s u r f a c e where a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s would l a n d was c o v e r e d w i t h a l a y e r of l o o s e l y - p a c k e d h i a t a l m a t e r i a l .

I t s b a s i c p h y s i c a l and

mechanical p r o p e r t i e s were a l s o determined t o a d e p t h o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 - 2 0 cm. N a t u r a l l y , s c i e n t i s t s a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e way

i n w h i c h p r o p e r t i e s o f t h i s material change z c c o r d i n g t o d e p t h , i t s
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s t r e n g t h , and where t h e h a r d r o c k b e g i n s and what

form t h e y take.

T h i s l u n a r bedrock has n o t l o s t i t s i n i t i a l proper-

t i e s , as happened w i t h t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r s which were s u b j e c t e d t o

176

t h e d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t o f inany f a c t o r s o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s , p r i n c i p a l l y , cosmic r a d i a t i o n and m e t e o r i t i c boinbardment. T h e r e f o r e , t h e beCrock c a n answer many q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e o r j g i n of t h e moon, t h e e a r t h and o t h e r p l a n e t s o f t h e s o l a r system.

e Can w p e n e t r a t e deep i n t o t h e moon by u s i n g such methods?

an e a r t h t h i s would be s i m p l e .

The e a r t h ' s s u f z c e l a y e r can be

opened by v a r i o u s methods, b e g i n n i n g w i t h a spade and ending w i t 1 1

a d i r e c t e d explosion.

Normally, b o r e h o l e s a r e sunk t o t h e
I t is d i f f i -

r e q u i r e d d e p t h and sampies of r o c k t a k e n from them.

c u l t t o send a n e x c a v a t o r t h e r e , b u t a t t h e moment t h i s i s n o t
required.
I t i s t o o e a r l y t o u s e e x p l o s i o n s , s i n c e h o l e s mxt b e

made and packed w i t h e x p l o s i v e s .

A f t e r s t u d y i n g many methods,

s p e c i a l i s t s have concluded t h a t a t t h i s s t a g e o f development t h e most e f f e c t i v e anc' economic method, o f p e n e t r a t i n g t h e moon's surface is t o sink a hcle. There a r e many methods o f doing t h i s .

Which i s t h e b e s t f o r l u n a r c o n d i t i o n s ? One c a n a d o p t t h e normal d r i l l i n g method w i d e l y u s e d on e a r t h . But how does one d r i l l and e x t r a c t t h e r o c k from t h e h a l e ? c a n n o t be done w i t h w a t e r s i n c e i t w i l l f r e e z e o r e v a p o r a t e . This The

use o f g a s i s c o m p l i c a t e d and e x p e n s i v e .
thc cutting b i t ?

And how does one c o o l

How-

An e l e c t r i c - a r c o r plasma method e x i s t s .

e v e r , i t s u s e i n v o l v e s m m y problems, t h e fiain one b e i n g t h a t s u c h a d r i l l h Q l e i s unsuitable f o r further research - - its walls w i l l m e l t , t h e rock f o r m a t i o n Kill d i s i n t e g r a t e and, most i m p o r t a n t , i t
w i l l b e i m p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a rock sample.

177

Undoubtedly, ir, the future all these methods will be used on the moon. Now, at the beginning of the study, when much is still

unclear and the weight of equipment sent to the moon is reckoned in grams, one must choose the most cfficient, economic and general purpose method. This method of drilling is a modification of the Incidentally, it sat-isfies two diametrically

core drilling method.

opposed problem, one of which is the need to take a monolithic core, the other to extract cohesionless soil.

In this way, the further development of automation methods for

investigating the moon's surface layer has brought about the development of special drilling equipment. used by the Luna-16 for sampling soil. Equipment of this kind was
As i s known, the Luna-16

made a soft landing in the area of Mare Fecunditatis in September 1970. As a result of this successfully conducted experiment, a soil sample was taken from a depth of 350 mm and returned to earth. The next step is to bring back to earth lunar bedrock samples for s t u d y . For this purpose, the Luna-20 containing drilling

equipment, was launched on February 14, 1372.

As

already said, -ihe designers from the very beginning, met

problems concerning the various requirements of scientists for a future ,oil sannpling device. To satisfy these r'ema,..h, complex a drilling unit must work An all types of rock a. collect both 1d cohesionless soil and hard, b:.salttype rock. The sampling must be done so that the natura' Formatic? is destroyed s , little as pos-

sible. A s a result of l o n g , persistent search an L.ptimum solution 173

was found:

t h e equipment must o p e r a t e on t h e p e r c u s s i o n - r o t a r y

d r i l l i n g p r j n c i p l e w i t h an a n g u l a r f a c e and s u b s e q u e n t w i t h d r a w a l o f t h e d r i l l e d work column

- - t h e core.

U n t i l now, t h e problem

o f producing such a d r i l l i n g implement, c a p a b l e of e x t r a c t i n g

d u r i n g one c u t t i n g h a r d , m o n o l i t h i c and c o h e n s i o n l e s s r o c k , h a s n o t been s o l v e d . Experiments i n r o c k on e a r t h , h a v i n g approximate p h y s i c a l and mechanical F r o p e r t i e s t o t h o s e on t h e moon, and a l s o t h o s e c a r r i e d o u t by Luna-16 showed t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t on t h e d r i l l i n g equipment was c a u s e d by i t s own t e m p e r a t u r e , and n o t t h a t of t h e soil. Therefore, t o maintain t h e s e r v i c e a b i l i t y of the d r i l l i n g

equipment i n extreme t e m p e r a t u r e c o n d i t i o n s , i t was d e c i d e d t o p r o v i d e t h e body w i t h h e a t i n s u l a t i o n . Apart from t h i s , i t was found

t h a L i n a verj- h i g h s p a c e vacuum, s o - c a l l e d a g g l u t i n a t i o n o f adjoining m e t a l s u r f a c e s o r t h e a d h e r e n c e of t i n y l u n a r s o i l

p a r t i c l e s t o them can take p l a c e under t h e i n f l u e n c e of intermolecular f o r c e s .

To p r e v e n t t h i s , t h e d r i l l i n g equipment was
I t was o n l y u n s e a l e d j u s t b e f o r e work began.

h e r m e t i c a l l y seal<*;.

L u b r i c a t i o n o f t h e working mechanisms was done d u r i n g d r i l l i n g by an " o i l y fog!', t h a t i s , a s u b s t a n c e e v a p o r a t i n g i n a vacuum. Apart from t h i s , some f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e s were c o v e r e d w i t h a s p e c i a l c o a t i n g which reduced f r i c t i o n i n a vacuum.
A l l t h i s allowed t h e

equipment t o o p e r a t e r e l i a b l y i n d i f f i c u l t l u n a r c o n d i t i o n s .
l h i s exper!.ment

showed iincc mcre t h e g r e a t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r

a u t o m a t i c c o r ? t r o l u n i t s when i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e moon and p l a n e t s . I n t h e f u t u r e , s c i e n t i s t s w i l l b e z b l e t o t e l l from w h i c h rock t h e

179

moon i s made and i t s e x t e n t .

Apart from t h e i r p u r e l y s c i e n t i f i c One may need

v a l u e , t h e s e q u e s t i o n s can be of a n a p p l i e d n a t u r e .

t o know how t h e s e r o c k s d e v e l o p e d , c o u l d one b u i l d on them, and c o u l d t h e y be u s e d f o r d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s . These q u e s t i o n s c a n

o n l y be answered a f t e r g e o l o g i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n s have been made by u s i n g d r i l l h o l e s , f r o m which i n v e s t i g a t e d r o c k samples a r e e x t r a c t e d from d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e f i r s t d r i l l i n g equipment w i l l be a u t o m a t i c and capable of penetrating t o g r e a t depths. and d e s i g n e r s many problems. This w i l l give engineers

M a t e r i a l s must be made which a r e

s u i t a b l e f o r a r o c k - b r e a k i n g i n s t r u m e n t , and t h e amount o f energy expended when c u t t i n g i n t o l u n a r r o c k m u s t be c a l c u l a t e d . Apart

from t h i s , t h e r e i s t h e complex q u e s t i o n of r e p l a c i n g t h e i n s t r u ment whe.. i t i s p u t o u t o f a c t i o n and b u i l d i n g up d r i l l r o d s a s the depth increases.

A l l of t h i s must be done a u t o m a t i c a l l y .

However, t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t d e s i g n e r s , i n c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h s c i e n t i s t s w i l l s u c c e s s f u l l y d e a l w i t h t h e s e problems. The moon w i l l g i v e up more of i t s s e c r e t s .

Automatic C o n t r o l U n i t s Storm t h e Moon Professor P. El'yasberg "Pravdz':, February 25, 1 9 7 2 . These y e s r s w i l l go down i n s c i e n t i f i c h i s t o r y a s t h e time of intensive lunar research. A s t r o n a u t s and a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s have
/89 -

a l r e a d y o b t a i n e d i n f o r m a t i o n which h a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y broadened o u r

180

former c o n c e p t s o f t h e moon.

S p e c i a l i n t e r e s t today i s b e i n g

p a i d t a t h e r e s e a r c h i n t o l u n a r r o c k samples brought back t o

earth. These samples have o n l y been taker, from a few p o i n t s on t h e lunar surface. B u t how v a r i e d i t i s ! Therefore, i t is extremely

L i t e r e s t i n g t c r e s e a r c h i n t o l u n a r r o c k samples f r o n d i f f e r e n t areas.
B d t how c a n we o b t a i n them?
;I

The f l i g h t o f t h e Luna-16

which a u t o m a t i c a l l y s o l v e d

whole s;c..ries c f problems o f l a n d i n g

on a s p e c i f i e d a r e a o f t h e w o n ' s s u r f a c e , c o l l e c t i n g s o i l samples and r e t u r n i n g t o e a r t h

rGm

t h e moon, d e m o n s t r a t e d , p e r h a p s , t h e The most

most a d v m t a g e o u s method t o d a y f o r s o l v i n g t h i s problem. a h a n t xgeous , b u t n o t e a s y . The f i r s t d i f f i c u l t y i s t h e l a u n c h from e a r t h .

To l a u n c h a

modern s p a c e c r a f t one needs heavy, e x p e n s i v e material and a s e r i e s of stationary f a c ; l i t i e s .

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e most sdvantageous

f l i g h t p a t h from e a r t h t o t h e moon depends on t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n

o f t h e s e two heavenly b o d i e s .
a t d i f h r e i l t moments o f time.

The

s t a r t p o i n t on e n r t h v a r i e s

To a v o i d mo1;ing t h e l a u n c h p o s i t i o n ,
in

t h e v e h i c l e i s s e n t i n t o i t s f l i g h t p a t h t o t h e moon (jL*st a: the flight path vehicle is

FU~:

t3

t h e p i a n e t s ) i n two s t a g e s .

In the f i r s t , the

i n t o a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e o r b i t , and t h e n The

s h i f t e d from t h i s o r b i t t o i t s f l i g h t p a t h towards t h e mooil.

launch time from e a r t h and t h e s a t e l l i t e ' s o r b i t s a r e chosen s o t h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e earth-moon t r a j e c t o r y p a s s e s through a s2ecified point. The e a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n and t h e s a t e l l i t e ' s motion

i n o r b i t a r e used h e r e .
181

The second d i f f i c u l t y i s t h e need t o l a n d on a p r e v i o u s l y s 2 e c i f i a c i r e g i o n o f t h e moon sample w i l l be t a k e n . l a n d i n g and launch. kilometers.

- - from t h e s u r f a c e o f which a s o i l

Apart from t h i s , i t is l i m i t e d t o a s a f e T h e r e f o r e , t h i s v a l u e does n o t exceed s e v e r a l

3

'To l a n d i n a c e r t a i n r e g i o n from e a r t h - - a t

dis-

m t a x e o f approximately 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 k - - i s a s d i f f i c u l t a s h i t t i n g a moving b e a r a t a d i s t a n c e o f 4 0 k w i t h a p e l l e t . m The t r a j e c t o r y

must be c o r r e c t e d s e v e r a l times d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t t o a c h i e v e t h e
required accuracy. T h e r e f o r e , d i r e c t l y a f t e r t h e v e h i c l e goes i n t o They measure i t s

o r b i t , ground t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s b e g i n working. range, movement and ar.zular p o s i t i o n .

This information i s f e d i x t o

t h e ground c o o r d i n a t i n g compKtation ceiif-er.

Here, computers d e t e r -

mine t h e s c t u a l t r a j e c t o r y and i t s d e v i a t i o n from t h e p r e d i c t e d one. The s i z e and d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c o r r e c t e d impulse i s a l s o

calculated. This information

i3

transmitted t o the rocket.

According t o

these orders, it turns s o t h a t i t s engine i s pointing i n the r i g h t directiun.

A f t e r t h i s , a t s t r i c t l y d e t e r m i n e d moments o f time
As a r e s u l t , t h e r o c k e t s h i f t s

t h e e n g i n e is s w i t c h e d on and o f f . t o a new, c o r r e c t e d t r a j e c t o r y .

During a f l i g h t t o t h e m3on, a The f i r s t

c o r r e c t i o n o f t h i s t,..-pe can b e made s e v e r a l t i m e s .

c o r r e c t s l a r g e d e v i a z i o n s from t h e t a r g e t ; s u b s e q u e n t ones c o r r e c t possible e r r o r s of the f i r s t . However, t h e r e a r e no l i m i t a t i o n s . In s p i t e o f the corrections

made, i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o achieve- t h e r e q u i r e d accurqcy f o r a d i r e c t l a n d i n g on t h e moon.

182

Apart from t h i s , a d i r e c t l a n d i n g i s simply

impossible i n a l l regions:
t7

f u r example, i t i s much more d i f f i c u l t

l a n d on t h e f a r s i d e o f t h e moon.
L

T h e r e f o r e , when heading

towards t h e noon, orbit beforehad.

ro;ket

i s tarned i n t o i t s a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e

For t h i s , one must reduce t h e f l i g h t s p e e d .

/9 0

Otherwise. t h e r o c k e t will f l y p a s t t h e moon and b e g i n t o move away from it

;-:i

a 'lyperbolic t r a j e c t o r y .

The time, s i z e and d i r e c t i o n

o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r e t c r . . impulse a r e a l s o determined a t t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g computatj-oz c e n t e r , a f t e r A i c h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e o r d e r s a r e transmitted t o the rocket.

After going i n t o l u n a r s a t e l l i t e o r b i t , t h e r o c k e t ' s motion i s

a g a i n measured and i t s a c t u a l t r a j e c t o x y i s d e t e r m i n e d . One o r

s e v e r a l maneuvers a r e r e q u i r e d s o t h a t t h e l u n a r s t a t i o n p a s s e s e x a c t l y above i t s t a r g e t a t t h e r e q u i r e d a l t i t u d e . r e t r o r o c k e t i s s w i t c h e d on. Landing an a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n on t h e moon's s u r f a c e i s an e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t and r e s p o n s i b l e o p e r a t i o n and means t h e s u c c e s s of tlie whole exyerimenc.
As i s known, t h e moon h a s no atmosphere.

After t h i s , the

T h e r e f o r e , p a r a c h u t e s cannot be used and d e c e l e r a t i o n is done by engines. t o zero, The i n i t i a l s p e e d , e x c e e l i n g 1 . 5 km/sec must. de reduced

It: must b e n o t e d t h a t when t h e a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n i s

approaching t h e moon's s u r f a c e t h e r e i s no time t o t r a c s m i t commands from e a r t h . Therefore, control of t h e retrorockets during t h e f i n a l

s t a g e i s t r a n s m i t t e d by a u t o m a t i c s e l f - c o n t a i n 5 d d e v i c e s on board the statior?. Measurement o f t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e i s

n . d e w i t h an a l t i m e t e r , and a c c o r d i 2 g t o t h i s ?.nformation t h e

on-board computer a u t o m a t i c a l l y g i v e s commands f o r s w i t c h i n g on and s w i t c h i n g o f f t h e e n g i n e s .

After t a k i n g s o i l samples and c o n d u c t i n g s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r i -

ments, t h e l u n a r s t a t i o n p r e p a r e s t o r e t u r n t o e a r t h . c r u c i a l o p e r a t i o n remains: on e a r t h .

One f i n a l

t h e r e t u r n f l i g h t and a s o f t l a n d i n g

For a number o f r e a s o n s , t h i s p a r t of t h e f l i g h t d i f f e r s Firstly, the earth

c o n s i l c x s b l y from t h e earth-moon t r a j e c t o r y .

i s many t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n t h e moon and i t s powerful g r a v i t a t i o n

draws a l l t h e p o s s i b l e r e t u r n t r a j e c t o r i e s i n t o a narrow beam. This c o n s i d e r a b l y e l i m i n a t e s t h e e f f e c t o f l a r g e e r r o r s which can o c c u r d u r i n g a launch from t h e moon.

i s simpler t o s e l e c t a landing s i t e :

Secondly, when r e t u r n i n g i t t h e e a r t h has many more e x t e n Finally,

- - i v e even a r e a s where a 1al;ding i s c o m p l e t e l y s a f e .

p a r a c h u t e s can be used s i n c e t h e r e i s a powerful atmosphere. T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e can b e earth.

tLs
; i

J i r e c t f l i g h t from t h e moon t o t h e e n g i n e b e f o r e launch from

The problem h e r e i s t o a l i g n

.loon i n o r d e r t o produce t h e r e q u i r e d t a k e - o f f pulse,..ind t o

switch

on and o f f t h e p r o p u l s i o n system a t a c c u r a t e l y p r e s c r i b e d A f t e r t h e l a u n c h , t h e t;sk o f tl:e c o o r d i n a t i n t

moments of time. r=u:putation

c e n t e r i s t o determine t h e a c t u a l f l i g h t p a t h according

t o measurement d a t a and t o s p e c i f y t h e l a n d i n g s i t e i n o r d e r t o
g i v e i n s t r u c t i o n s t o s e a r c h groups. I n t h i s way, t h e f l i g h t of a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s , d e s i g n e d f o r b r i n g i n k 5ack l u n a r r o c k samples t o e a r t h , r e q u i r e s t h e s p a c e c r a f t

t o : a n y o u t a s e r i e s of complex maieuvers f a u l t l e s s l y .

T h i s can

o n l y be done khen t h e r e i s c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n between ground

I
I

command and the spacecraft.

computer s e r v i c e s and a u t o m a t i c d e v i c e s on b o a r d F l i g h t s o f Luna-16 and Luna-20 show t h e h i g h l e v e l These f l i g h t s are t h e

o f development uf S o v i e t s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y .

r e s u l t o f t h e s e l f l e s s l a b o r of a l a r g e team of s p e c i a l i s t s i n
various f i e l d s .

S e c r e t s o f Lunar S o i l
V. Shvarev
A Candidate o f T e c h n i c a l S c i e n c e s , S e c t o r Manager a t t h e Space Research I n s t i t u t e o f t h e Academy of S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR " S o t s i a l i s t i c h e s k i y a i n d u s t r i y a " , February 25, 1972.

Only s i x y e a r s have p a s s e d s i n c e a S o v i e t a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n made t h e f i r s t s o f t l a n d i n g on t h e moon.

is continuing successfully.

/91

Research i n t o t h e moon

G r e a t i n t e r e s t i s b e i n g shown i n

s t u d y i n g t h e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o f l u n a r r o c k and a l s o problems o f working w i t h i t w i t h machines and i n s t r u m e n t s . How s t r o n g i s l u n a r r o c k and s o i l ? These q u e s t i o n s must be

d e a l t w i t h b e f o r e moving on t h e moon o r d r i l l i n g i n t o i t . s o i l d u s t , s a n d o r h a r d rock?

Is t h e

What c a n we e x p e c t when machines and

w i l l they adhere o r ,

i n s t r u m e n t s come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s o i l :

on t h e o t h e r hand, s l i p , o r w i l l t h e r e even be e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n ? How w i l l t h e s u r f a c e r e a c t to drilling?

These and many o t h e r q u e s t i o n s a r e worrying s c i e n t i s t s and d e s i g n e r s c r e a t i n g l u n a r equipment.

W a l r e a d y know t h a t l u n a r s o i l i s s t r o n g enough f o r s p a c e e
c r a f t t o l a n d and f o r a Moon r e s e a r c h v e h i c l e t o c a r r y out

185

movement.

D e s p i t e t h e f e a r s of many s c i e n t i s t s and s p e c i a l i s t s ,

t h e r e was no n o t i c e a b l e s o i l a d h e s i o n t o i n s t r u m e n t s . However, something c l s e i s known: changes s i g n i f i c a n t l y . t h e s t r e n g t h of l u n a r s o i l

I n many c a s e s t h i s c a u s e s p u n c t u r i n g and

s u b s i d e n c e even when t h e r e are small l o a d s .

A t t h e same time, American a s t r o n a u t s c o u l d n o t s i n k a f l a g

s t a f f t o a d e p t h of more t h a n 1 5 cm, when t h e y met compact, h a r d

rock. D r i l l i n g by t h e S o v i e t Luna-16 showed a r e l a t i v e l y s o f t r o c k There are a l s o c a s e s when r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e

t o a d e p t h of 35 cm.

"stones" i n t h e p a t h o f t h e Lunokhod-1 d i s i n t i g r a t e d under i t s wheels. Therefore, it follows t h a t t h e l u n a r r e g o l i t h ( s o i l s u r f a c e l a y e r ) , c o n s i s t i n g of s m a l l p a r t i c l e s bound t o each o t h e r , i s v e r y porous and i s e a s i l y t r a n s f o r m e d t o f i n e d u s t even by s m a l l l o a d s , and t h i s d u s t c a n p e n e t r a t e a p e r t u r e s and gaps i n t e c h n i c a l i n s t r u ments. When t h e Lunokhod-1 was i n motion, s i d e by s i d e w i t h t h e

normal, c a l c u l a t e d c r o s s - c o u n t r y a b i l i t y t h e r e were c a s e s when i t s wheel s l i p p e d on r e l a t i v e l y g e n t l y s l o p i n g a r e a s . I t is obvious t h a t t h e l u n a r s o i l s t i l l h a s some s e c r e t s and surprises, Careful study of a l l i t s features w i l l allow s c i e n t i s t s

and d e s i g n e r s t o f i n d new, unexpected and i n a d m i s s i b l e e n g i n e e r i n g s o l u t i o n s f o r ground c o n d i t i o n s . Mainly, t h e d e s i g n e r must know t h e complex o f p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e s t r e n g t h and f r i c t i o n o f t h e s o i l . The f i r s t group of these

p a r a m e t e r s i s t h e a b i l i t y t o w i t h s t a n d s t a t i c and dynamic l o a d s , and a l s o i t s a f f i n i t y t o s t r a i n and compression. 186 The second

group is characterized by starting and friction coefficients when the soil comes into contact with different equipment, and its adhesiveness. We must remember that instruments on the moon operate in less gravity in a vacuum. Less gravitation means that the resistance force when starting up and also the frictional force when slipping, occurring during braking, is much more noticeable on the moon. These forces depend

on the weight of the moving body, which, on the moon, is approximately six times less than on earth.
As a resuit, with wheeled

and tracked chassis, contact with the surface is reduced and this means slipping and the braking distance must be increased.

In a superhigh vacuum, the contact of solid bodies can cause

adhesion, especially when the contact is accompanied by the relative slipping of bodies. This tendency is also seen on the ground,

/92 -.

whe? contacting surfaces are covered with fatty or oxide films. In fact, the interaction of bodies, in essence, takes place through a layer of "lubrication" which prevents agglutination and damage to the contact surface. In a vacuum this is much more complex. There is no normal

lubrication, and as a result, there is intense adhesion of different surfaces. The lunar soil samples brought back by Luna-16 were examined in order to study the above parameters. Simultaneously, experi-

ments were conducted on rock from earth which, according to scientists, had similar properties t o lunar samples.
187
.

On the ground there are standard instruments which, if one has several hundred grams of matter, can quickly and reliably determine the parameters which interest scientists. However, when conducting this research, one must house the equipment in conditions close to those on the moon. What is the

result of this? As soon as a ground instrument enters a high vacuum it stops operating. cams become jammed. In a vacuum all cogs, bearings and

The reason for this is the instantaneous

evaporation of lubrication. One can adopt extreme measures: do not use lubrication and operate the instrument "dry". will only work for a few hours. An original testing facility was developed for examining lunar soil. One could create actual lunar temperature conditions on all samples tested. This was done by using liquid nitrogen Then it

with a temperature of -196O, anda special heater.

The testing facility examined 14 materials: skin to hard alloys used in space technology. from rubber and

In each case, the

friction coefficients on lunar soil varied little from the friction coefficient on earth andesitic-basalt sand or crushed basalt. This similarity is very important since it will be possible to develop lunar equipment on earth. The study of lunar soil in natural-scale ground conditions is continuing successfully. We have just witnessed the most recent success in the discovery of distant worlds. The Soviet

Luna-20 station is successfully carrying out its work program on

188

t h e moon and w i l l b r i r \ g back t o e a r t h new s o i l s a m p l e s , t h i s

time from t h e a i m o s t i n a c c e s s i b l e h i g h l a n d r e g i o n near t h e Mare

Fecbnditatis.

Space Robots
G. P e t r o v , Academician

"Pravda"

February 26, 1972.

The S o v i e t Union h a s developed a u n i t i z e d a u t o m a t i c p l a t f o r m which c a n l a n d v a r i o u s t y p e s of equipment on t h e moon. T h i s u n i t i z e d p l a t f o r m was f i r s t used i n 1970, when t h e Luna-16 was s e n t t o t h e moon. The s t a t i o n had d r i l l i n g equipment

w i t h m a n i p u l a t o r s , c a p a b l e o f p l a c i n g a l u n a r s o i l sample i n t o t h e c o n t a i n e r o f t h e v e h i c l e which was a u t o m a t i c a l l y s e n t back t o e a r t h . This experiment was s u c c e s s f y l l y completed on September 2 4 , 1 9 7 0 . Two months l a t e r a new e x p e r i m e n t was conducted.
A platform,

/93

d i f f e r i n g from t h e f i r s t i n a number of d e t a i l s i n t h e t r a n p o r t a b l e equipment, s e t down on t h e moon t h e Lunokhod-1, a mobile a u t o m a t i c laboratory. T h i s mobile l a b o r a t o r y , weighing on e a r t h 7 0 0 kg, was v e r y mobile and s u c c e s s f u l l y climbed s l o p e s w i t h an i n c l i n a t i o n of more t h a n 30".
I t c o u l d o p e r a t e a c t i v e l y on t h e moon f o r many

months and c o n t a i n e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e number of i n s t r u m e n t s . methods o f n a v i g a t i o n were a l s o t e s t e d .

Various

The s u c c e s s of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s conducted w i l l p r o v i d e t h e base f o r s e t t i n g up o u t e r s p a c e r e s e a r c h programs. Among them w i l l

189

be experiments to study the origin of the solar system and its evolution. For example, bringing back to earth rock sanples from various points on the moon. Mainly; one must determine the age of rock and

the time it has been on the moon's surface. It is scientifically important to investigate the internal structure of the moon. This inclvdes prolonged study of the natu-

ral seismicity of the moon by using seismometers set up in different regions, and automatic, independent determination of coordinates (latitudes and longitudes) of a point on the moon's surface with a high degree of accuracy. One can study the motion of the moon's

axis of rotation in its body and determine anomalies of speed of the axial rotation for calculating the so-called Love numbers, characterizing the viscosity of the body o f the moon. Similar
I

experiments can be conducted by setting up a telescope with a special electronic unit near the equator. This instrument, designed

for observing the stars, will reach an automatic control unit on the moon. An important problem is the study of the moon's electrical conductivity at depthsof from 3-5 to 400-600 km.

To do this, one

must register in parallel the electrical and magnetic fields on the moon's surface,and at an altitude of 50-100 km above it, Research into the moon's internal electrical conductivity will allow us to determine the temperature and the approximate chemical composition to depths of several hundreds of kilometers.

190

l'he I;.,oonts s u r f a c e , u n p r o t e c t e d by atmosphere, i s c o n t i n u a l l y bombarded by m e t e o r i t e s o f a l l sizes. Consequently, t h e mechanical.

s t r u c t u r e o f t h e upper l a y e r ( r e g o l i t h ) is t h e r e s u l t of t h i s bombardment. Equipment of t h e Lunokhod-1 t y p e w i l l a l l o w s p e c i a l

e x p e r i m e n t s t o b e conducted f o r s t u d y i n g t h e f l u x of t h e h a r d component o f i n t e q l a n e t a r y m a t t e r i n a wide e n e r g y spectrum and o v e r time. A f t e r 6 - 7 months o f o p e r a t i o n , t h e s e l f - p r o p e l l e d

equipment can g i v e complete i n f o r m a t i o n on t t . e d i s t r i b u t i o n and sha2e

gf

c r a t e r s , m e a s u r i n g f-tom 1 0 c t o t e n s of m e t e r s o v e r a m P r e l i m i n a r y p r o c e s s i n g of d a t a , o b t a i n e d by

considerable area.

t h e Lunokhod-1, showed t h z t i n a number o f c a s e s one c o u l d d e t e r mine which s t o n e s belonged t o e j e c t a from a c e r t a i n c r a t e r .

w i l l e n a b l e u s t o e v a l u a t e t h e a b s o l u t e age o f a c r a t e r .

This

P e t e r m i n i n g t h e amount o f time which r o c k has been on t h e moon's s u r f a c e w i l l a l l o w us t o measure t h e a c t i v i t y o f cosmogonlr. i s o t o p e s d i r e c t l y m t h e moon's s u r f a c e . The s o l u t i o n of t h i s

problem has c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s , b u t i t i s worth t r y i n g t o o v e r come them. The comparison of even a few time c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h

t h e geometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of primarv c r a t e r s w i l l a l l o w u s t o determine t h e dependence o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on t i m e .

By

/94

s t u d y i n g c r a t e r s of d i f f e r e n t dimensions i n t h i s way, one can determine t h e change over time o f t h e t o t a l shower and n e t e o r i t e sFectrum i n t h o s e r e g i o n s of t h e s o l a r system v h e r e t h e moon i s , The s u c c e s s o f t h i s , t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , depends on knowledge of an impact w i t h g r e a t speed.

191

Av.other i m p o r t a n t factor I.?

t h e e x p e r i m e n t program on t h e The
Pim

moon i s r e s e a r c h by u s i n g automat.&, l l m a r sate:!ites.

of

t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s & s t h e d e t a i l e d s t u d y of t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e i d and t h e shape of t h e moon and v a r i a t i o n s of t h e m a g n e t i c ?.ieliA close t o it. Another i n t e r e s t i n g e x p e r i m e n t is o b s e r v i n g t h e

p r e s e n t m e t e o r i t e shower on t h e moons n i g h t s i d e . I n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d by automzitic v e h i c l e s on t h e moon i s very extensive. There i s no doubt t h a t d i s c o v e r i e s made by a u t o -

m a t i c c o n t r o l u n i t s w i l l be v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n v a r i o u s s p h e r e s o f studying t h e universe, e s p e c i a l l y i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e h i s t o r y of t h e development of o u r p l a n e t a r y system. t a i n l y confirms t h i s . The Luna-20 f l i g h t c a r -

A TASS Report:

An O u t s t a n d i n g Space Experiment Is Completed!

P r a v d a , February 2 7 , 1 9 7 2 . S o v i e t s p a c e s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y h a s a c h i e v e d a new v i c t o r y i n lunar research.

T h e f l i g h t program of t h e Luna-20 h a s been

s u c c e s s f u l l y completed. On February 2 5 , 1972 t h e r e - e n t r y v e h i c l e o f t h e Luna-20 l a n d e d i n t h e p r e d i c t e d a r e a o f t h e S o v i e t Union. Another t a s k

i n l u n a r s t u d y has been s u c c e s s f u l l y completed.

Samples o f l u n a r s o i l from t h z a l m o s t i n a c c e s s i b l e highlar? r e g i o n o f t h e moon were b r o u g h t back t o e a r t h . The complex s p a c e experiment t o o k p l a c e i n s c v e r a l s t - a g e s . The Luna-20 was launched Pn February 1 4 , 1 9 7 2 . A f t e r 1 0 5 hours o f

192

s p a c e f l i g h t , t h e s t a t i o n went i n t o s e l e n c c e i i t r i ; : o r b i t .

..'

corret-

t i o n was made on February 1 9 t o l a n d i t on r.ie p r e d i c t e d r e g i o n o f t h e moon.

On February 2 1 a t 2 2 h o u r s 1 9 m i n u t c s MOSCOW +ink;- t h e i: na-20

made a s o f t l a n d i n g i n t h e h i g h l a n d r w i o n between t l a c : Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s and t h e Mare Crisium.
1 The s c i e n t i f i c and rr?cI-:i( :

problem of l a n d i n g a n a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e i n all are.1 ;;.ith a rug:.:ed s u r f a c e was s o l v e d successfu1:y.

After l a n d t n g and chedcing t h e on-bLard systems t h e t e l e p h o t o -

metric equipment

\rdS

s w i t c 3 e d on.

P : = t u r e s of t l - ~ t moon's s u r f a c e ~

o b t a i n e d t y ichem a l l o w a s i t e t c be c h o s t n f o r s c i l sampling. The - h o l e s c i l s a n p l i n g o p e r a t i o n wa.- done b y commands from e a r t h . The s o i l c r , l l e s t i o n eqtiipment d r i l l e ; ana: s e l e c t e d l u n a r s o i l samples, znd a f t e r w a r d s t h e y were p l a c e d i n a c o n t a i n e r i n t h e r e - e n t r y v e h i c l z and s e a l e d . While \;he s t a t i o n was workiilg on t h e moon i t s c o o r d i n a t e s weye d t t e r m i n e d 2nd l a u n c h p r e p a r a t i o n s were made.
0;i Feb.:uary 33 a t 1 hour 58 minu';es MOSCOV t i m e , t h e s p a c c -

c r a ? t w i t h t h e r e - e n t r y v e h i c l e l e f t t h e mcon u s i v g t h e l a n d i n g stage a s a platform. During t h e f l i g h t from t h e moon t o e a r t h , g r o u i l d command and measurement s t a t i o n s , d u r i n z r a d i o communication s e s s i o n s , r e c e i v e d t e l e m e t e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and cal r i e d o u t t r a j e c t o r y measurement. This i n f o r m a t i o n was p r o c e s s e d i n t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g computation c e n t e r t o check t h e on-board systems and t h e a c t v - l f l i g h t p a t h .

,..

On February 25, the Luna-20 approached the earth with an escape velocity. The re-entry vehicle was separated from the After this, ground radar tracked

/95

spacecraft at the estimated time.

the flight of the re-entry vehicle until it landed on earth. Aerodynamic braking was begun when the re-entry vehicle entered the earth's dense atmospheric layers. During the final

stage, the parachute system was used, and at 22 hours 12 minutes Moscow time the re-entry vehicle landed accurately at the estimated area 4 0 km northwest o f the town of Dzezkazgan in the Kazakh SSR. The search team, in spite of the exceptionally unfavorable weather conditions: strong wind, snow storm and low cloud, brought

11

back the re-entry vehicle. All the phases of the complex space experiment - - the vehicle's
i

flight to the moor?. and selenocentric orbit, the soft landing on the surface, soil collection, the launch from the moon and the return to earth - - were carried out according to the program. Lunar soil samples brought back by the spacecraft from the highland region o f the moon will be sent to the Academy of Sc:'.ences
of the USSR for scientific research.

The study and analysis of a

soil sample from a new area o f the moot will widen our knowledge of the nature and evolution of the moon. Results of the examination of the lunar soil samples will be pub1ished. The flight of the Soviet Luna-20 once more showed the great possibilities for investigating the moon and the planets by using

194
1

containing the d r i l l i n g equipment,

d r i l l begins to bare I soil calumn.

A motor is switched on BR the

The first centimeters are

drilled quickly ani! easily but with depth the resistance t o

drilling increases. However, all this has been allowed for in the The operator switches on another The

drilling aachinels construction. mechanical drive

h i c h begins t o raise and lower the drill.

hard layer gives way to the instrument.

A h o l e is now drilled to A special

the required depth and drilling ceases (Figs, 19-20).

Fig. 19. A diagram of the Luna-20 automatic station's soil collection device. 1 - Re-entry vehicle; 2 - Initial position of rod and drilling machine; 3 Arm damper; 4 - Operational position of the rod and the boring machine; 5 - Re-entry vehicle ampule; 6 - S o i l ; i - Cap l o c k ; 8 - Ampule sealing cap; 9 - Ampule clamping spring; 10 - Body of drilling machine; 11 - Rotator; 12 Lead screw; 13 - Drill,

g l a s s is filled with lunar soil.

The steel l'arm" carefully r a i s e s

t h i s glass to the top of t h e moon-earth v e h i c l e which i s on the

200

Professor Yu. Surkov

lunar matter, i t s forma-

years later, scientific laboratories began studying lunar roc

arth by Apollo spacecraf

w stage of lunar

As is known, t h e f i r s t samples o f l u n a r r o c k were from t h e

maria r e g i o n s .

Here, t h e surface l a y e r o f l u n a r matter was d a r k -

gray f i n e - g r a i n e d l o o s e r o c k w i t h low d e n s i t y and s t r e n g t h called regolith.

--

so-

I t i s formed e a s i l y and b u i l d s a v e r t i c a l w a l l ,

s i m i l a r t o sea s a n d , a l t h o u g h i t is a b s o l u t e l y d r y . I n s t r u c t u r e , r e g o l i t h i s a f i n e - g r a i n e d c r u s h e d material, c o n s i s t i n g of p a r t i c l e s of s e v e r a l varieties.

I t s b a s i c compo-

n e n t s are s p l i n t e r s o f m a g n e t i c r o c k o f an a n g u l a r s h a p e and a f r e s h s u r f a c e , and s l a g g y p a r t i c l e s o f i n d e t e r m i n a t e s h a p e w i t h f u s e d edges and v i t r i f i e d p o r e s . Some o f them are o f s p h e r o i d a l

f o r m a t i o n and a r e c o n g e a l e d d r o p l e t s o f m e l t e d m a g n e t i c r o c k . According t o d e p t h , t h e s t r u c t u r e , c o m p o s i t i o n and p r o p e r t i e s of t h i s rock s l i g h t l y vary. The number o f p a r t i c l e s i n c r e a s e s , t h e

/lo2

amount o f m e l t e d ( v i t r i f i e d ) p a r t i c l e s i s r e d u c e d , t h e d e n s i t y and s t r e n g t h a r e i n c r e a s e d , t h e e l e m e n t a l and i s o t o p i c c o m p o s i t i o n a r e s l i g h t l y changed, a s a r e some p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . changes a r e caused by d i f f e r e n t cosmogonic f a c t o r s . The d e n s i t y o f t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r of t h i s r o c k i n i t s n a t u r a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e Luna-13,
A l l these

i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 g/cm3.
increases.

But, o b v i o u s l y , w i t h

depth

this

The b u l k weight o f t h i s r o c k , brought back from t h e Mare

F e c u n d i t a t i s by t h e Luna-16, i n l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s i s a p p r o x i mately 1 . 2 g/cm3, b u t a f t e r s e t t l i n g and ramming i t becomes a l m o s t

twice a s compact and i s h a r d l y a s dense a s g r a n i t e .

Scientists believe that the surface l a y e r of t h e moon was

formed as t h e r e s u l t o f t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e n o o n ' s bedrock by 203

.... .

REPRODUClBlLlTY OF THE ORIGINAL PAGE 15 P L T i S

I

s e v e r a l cosmogonic f a c t o r s

--

i m p a c t s from l a r g e and s m a l l meteo-

r i t e s , cosmic r a y s and s o l a r wind, a h i g h vacuum and s h a r p temperat u r e gradients. The l u n a r s u r f a c e also c o n t a i n s p i e c e s o f compact c r y s t a l r o c k , o b v i o u s l y , e j e c t e d from n e a r b y craters as t h e r e s u l t of volcanic eruptions o r t h e f a l l of l a r g e meteorites. T h e i r number

i n c r e a s e s when one l e a v e s t h e maria r e g i o n s and a p p r o s c h e s t h e highlands.

Near t h e F r F Mauro c r a t e r , where t h e Apollo-14 l a n d e d ,

a s a bus.
I t is

f o r example, t h e r e a r e b l o c k s o f s t o n e a s b i g obvious

t h a t t h i s i s u n d e s t r o y e d c r y s t a l bedrock.

Now t h i s i s

a l s o being studied.

I n c o m p o s i t i o n , s t r u c t u r e and p r o p e r t i e s t h i s

r o c k d i f f e r s s l i g h t l y i n v a r i o u s r e g i o n s of t h e moon's s u r f a c e . I n chemical c o m p o s i t i o n , moon r o c k i s b a s i c a l l y similar t o igneous b a s a l t r o c k s commonly found i n t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t .

A t the

same time, d i f f e r e n t b a s a l t r o c k s on e a r t h d i f f e r more from e a c h

o t h e r t h a n samples t a k e n from v a r i o u s r e g i o n s o f t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e . There i s a l s o a s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e i n c o m p o s i t i o n between t h e moon's c r y s t a l bedrock and t h e r e g o l i t h which c o v e r s i t s s u r f a c e . Rock

from t h e Oceanus P r o c e l l a r u m , on a n a v e r a g e , contains 2 - 3 times

less t i t a n i u m t h a n samples from t h e Mare S e r e n i t a t i s .

from t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s a r e more s i m i l a r

Samples

t o r o c k from t h e

Oceanus P r o c e l l a r u m and l e s s s i m i l a r t o r o c k s Zrom t h e Mare Serenitatis, But, t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s i s much c l o s e r t o t h e However, r o c k o f a l l maria have a s i m i l a r number

Mare S e r e n i t a t i s . of b a s i c elements.

204

,
I

..-. , . .".....
I

L.,

-..

REPRODUCIBILITY O THE-...ORIGINAL PAGE 15 F -,. - ---' '

' 1

As f o r t h e b a s i c m i n e r a l s making up l u n a r r o c k , t h e y a r e

p l a g i o c l a s e , p y r o c e n e , i l m e n i t e , a n o r t h i t e and o t h e r s .

The most

commonly found m i n e r a l of t h e l u n a r r e g o l i t h i s a n o r t h i t e and a f t e r t h i s , a u g i t e and i l m e n i t e .

A l l of t h i s shows t h a t moon r o c k

is o f a b a s a l t t y p e i n t h e w i d e s t s e n s e o f t h a t word,
S c i e n t i s t s have c a r e f u l l y s t u d i e d o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s of matter brought back from t h e moon, i n c l u d i n g i t s r e f l e c t i n g power, luminescence by c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s , X-ray and u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n s . The magnetism o f l u n a r s o i l h a s a l s o been s t u d i e d . Results of

t h i s r e s e a r c h showed t h a t l u n a r r o c k , p o s s i b l y , s o l i d i f i e d i n a s i g n i f i c a n t l y s t r o n g e r magnetic f i e l d . Measured on t h e moon's

s u r f a c e , i t i s now approximat,sly 0 . 1 % o f what i s o b s e r v e d on e a r t h . The s t u d y o f l u n a r samples shows t h a t t h e moon's m a g n e t i c f i e l d 3.5 b i l l i o n y e a r s ago was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 % o f t h e e a r t h ' s p r e s e n t f i e l d , t h a t i s , was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10,000 times s t r o n g e r . r e a s o n f o r t h i s remains u n c l e a r . Extremely i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d from r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e i s o t o p i c composition o f i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s . The age o f The

l u n a r r o c k was d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r a t i o o f s e v e r a l i s o t o p e s of p o t a s s i u m and a r g o n , rubidium and s t r o n t i u m , uranium and l e a d , and f o r v a r i o u s r e g i o n s was s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t , The formafor

/ 103 -

t i o n of r o c k ( c r y s t a l 1 i z a t i o n ) i n t h e Oceanus P r o c e l l a r u m ,

example, o c c u r r e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 . 3 b i l l i o n y e a r s a g o , and i n t h e Mare S e r e n i t a t i s 3 . 7 b i l l i o n y e a r s ago. The age o f t h e o l d e s t Consequently,

rock d i s c o v e r e d on t h e moon i s 4 . 6 b i l l i o n y e a r s .

it can be e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e moon was formed a t l e a s t no ! e s s than

205

'-.

REPRODUCIBILITY.OF THE ORIGINAL PAGE '3 P -I

4 . 6 b i l l i o n y e a r s ago.

T h i s shbws t h a t t h e moon, a f t e r i t s forma-

t i o n , underwent s e v e r a l p e r i o d s o f " l o c a l 1 ' f u s i o n , mainly i n t h e maria r e g i o n s . Fusions may have been caused by v o l c a n i c a c t i v i t y Although t h e age of t h e e a r t h , d e t e r m i n e d

o r large meteorites.

by r a d i o i s o t o p e s , i s a l s o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 . 6 b i l l i o n y e a r s , no one on e a r t h has found a r o c k sample which was c r y s t a l l i z e d more t h a n

3.5 b i l l i o n y e a r s ago.

T h i s i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

whole g e o l o g i c a l e f f o r t on e a r t h was " o b l i t e r a t e d " due t o e r o s i o n caused by wind and w a t e r .

In t h i s way, t h e s t u u y of l u n a r r o c k

g i v e s us i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e "vanished" b i l l i o n s of y e a r s of t h e earth's history.

It appeared t h a t an upFer l a y e r of m a t t e r s e v e r a l c e n t i m e t e r s
t h i c k h a s l a i n on t h e mooE's s u r f a c e f o r a t l e a s t no l e s s t h a n
1 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s , a r d a l a y e r 1 - 2 m t h i c k no l e s s t h a n 600 m i l l i o n

years.

I n t h i s way, one cpn s e e t h a t t h i s upper l a y e r was fqrmed This i s n o t s o on e a r t h . Due t o i n t e n s e t e c -

extremely s l o w l y . tonic

and a t m o s p h e r i c phenomena i t s appearance i s con-

s t a n t l y and q u i t e r a p i d l y changing.

Rocks on t h e moon's open s u r f a c e a r e a l s o s u b j e c t e d t o e r o s i o n and b e i n g c o n t i n u a l l y d e s t r o y e d . This erosion r a t e , deter-

mined by t r a c e s of cosmic p a r t i c l e s i n t h e m a t t e r , i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y one m i l l i o n t h p a r t o f m i l l i m e t e r p e r y e a r .

How many m i l l i o n y e a r s

must p a s s b e f o r e s p a c e c r a f t l e f t on t h e moon a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o
lunar dust ! I n s p i t e o f t h e enormom achievements i n l u n a r r e s e a r c h , t h e main problems o f i t s o r i g i n and e v o l u t i o n a r e by no means s o l v e d . 206

*. REPRODUClBlllTY O THE ORJGINAL PAGE 15 P I F -. ------ . ..- .i

"11.

U n t i l now, r o c k has been i n v e s t i g a t e d mainly from t h e s u r f a c e cf t h e l u n a r m a r i a , which a r e m o u t h and of r e l a t i v e l y uniform r e l i e f . What t - f p e

01

r o c k do l u n a r "continents" contain which occupy t h e What l i e s a few meters below

l a r g e r p a r t o f t h e moon's s u r f a t - e ? the surface? unanswered.

These and s e v e r a l o t h e r q u e s t i n n s have remained

Now, t h e f i r s t t a s k i s t o s t u d y t h e l u n a r " c o n t i n e n t s " .

Knowing t h e t y 2 e o f r o c k from which t h e y a r e forme4 w i l l a l l o w one t o answer one o f t h e main q u e s t i o n s : does t h e moo.1 have a compact,

b a s a l t c r u s t l i k e t h a t o f t h e e a r t h , o r d i d it o r l y unaergo p a r t i a l f u s i o n , a n J d i d t h e l a v a o n l y come t o t h e s u r f a c e i n t h e m a r i a region$? I f t h e r e i s a p o s i t i v e answer t o t h e s e c c n d p a r t o f i h e

q u e s t i c n , we may c o n c l u d e c h a t the mnin p a r t o f t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e must be primary u n d i f f e r c n t i a t e d m a + t e r , h a v i n g a c o m l ' x i t i o n

similar

t.0

stony meteorites.

ApparentTv, t h e moon, l i k e t h e e a r t h , d-wring i t s i n i t i a l e x i s t t n c e , 1 e a t e d 1.2 due t o t h c heaL given o f f when n a t u r a l r a d j o a c t i v e e l e m e n t s decayed. Llmar m a t t e r was d i f f e r e n t i a t e d , and These c o o l e d and

low-melting f i a c t i o i i s r o s e t o t h e s u r f a c e . formec! t h e l u n a r c i w s t .

When t h e l a v a c o o l e d , which w s a r a p i d
I t is possible

process, d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of matter a l s o took place.

t h a t l a y e r s of heavy f e r r o t i t a n i a n o x i d e s were formed on t h e b o t tom o f l a v a l a k e s , and a t a d e p t h o f s e v e r a l k i l o m e t e r s l a y e r s o f d i f f e r e n t m i n e r a l s o f l e s s e r d e n s i t y were formed. Would t h i s n o t

e x p l a i n t h e u n u s u a l s e i s m i c p r o p e r t i e s of t h e moon, which, f i g u r a t i v e l y s p e a k i n g , r i n g s l i k e a b e l l when s t u c k by f o r e i g n b o d i e s ?

207

" L-L ---.-

".

I
L

REPRODUCIBILITY O THE ORIGINAL PAGE IS P U i i ! F

I]

On t h e o t h e r hand, i t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s p r o c e s s i s l i n k e d
w i t h a n o t h e r phenomenon, t h e d i s c o v e r y on t h e moon of s o - c a l l e d mascons, t h a t i s , r e g i o n s w i t h i n c r e a s e d g r a v i t a t i o n , which f o r c e a r t i f i c i a l l u n a r s a t e l l i t e s t o change o r b i t . I n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d r e c e n t l y i s making s c i e n t i s t s form t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e moon was born i n s i d e t h e s o l a r system and, a p p a r e n t l y , developed i n t h e same way a s t h e p l a n e t s .

/lo4 -

But t h e s m a l l

s i z e o f t h e moon must have been r e f l e c t e d b o t h i n p r o c e s s e s d e t e r mining i t s i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e , and i n t h o s e t a k i n g p l a c e on t h e surface.

As a r e s u l t , t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e was c o n t i n u a l l y a f f e c t e d

by d i f f e r e n t s p a c e f a c t o r s which formed i t s appearance.

I t is

s c i e n t i f i c a l l y and p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t e v e n t s which t o c k p l a c e on t h e moon long ago l e f t t h e i r t r a c e s on i t s s u r f a c e . e a r t h t h e r e a r e h a r d l y any t r a c e s l e f t o f d i s t a n t g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y , s i n c e i t s whole s u r f a c e was covered by a l a y e r of s e d i mentary rock. T h i s e x p l a i n s t h e i n t e r e s t a s shown by modern
i

On

s c i e n c e t o t h e moon, a unique m i r r o r i n which a r e r e f l e c t e d e v e n t s which took p l a c e on o u r p l a n e t b i l l i o n s o f y e a r s ago.

By r e c o n -

s t r u c t i n g them, we can d e t e r m i n e what i s hidden below t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , and which n a t u r a l w e a l t h man w i l l be u s i n g i n t h e f u t u r e .

When t h e Drill Was Opened

...

V . Smirnov, a "Pravda" s p e c i a l c o r r e s p o n d e n t

"Pravda"

, February

2 8 , 1972.

Lunar m a t t e r ( F i g . 2 3 ) brought back t o e a r t h by t h e Luna-20 r e - e n t r y v e h i c l e , i s l y i n g on a m e t a l t r a y , v i s i b l e through t h e

208

s e v e r a l hundred

p a r t s of a m i l l i g r a m t o d e t e r m i n e , f o r example, Methods f o r

t h e a b s o l u t e age o f t h e r o c k t o which it belonged.

a n a l y z i n g s u c h a t i n y g r a i n w i l l a l l o w u s t o f i n d chemical

elements i n i t .
A.

P. Vinograt2ov c o n t i n u e d , as you saw, t h e s o i l now i n t h e

I t c o n t a i n s l i g h t e r e l e m e n t s and l a r g e r p a r -

chamber i s l i g h t e r .

t i c l e s t h a n t h e matter b r o u g h t back by Luna-16.

From t h e r o c k

p l a c e d on t h e t r a y one c o u l d a l s o see t h a t i n t h e upper l a y e r of t h e d r i l l t h e r e were f i n e p a r t i c l e s , a n d i n t h e lower one, whi-h had d r i l l e d d e e p e r i n t o t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , t h e y were l a r g e r . also individual r e l a t i v e l y large p a r t i c l e s . There a r e

I imagine t h a t some

o f them c o u l d b e a n o r t h o s i t e , one of t h e o l d e s t r o c k s i n t h e s o l a r system. The Luna-20 d r i l l e d f o r r o c k samples i n t h e h i g h l a n d r e g i o n n e a r t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s , where t h e Luna-16 l a n d e d . Therefore,

w e assume t h a t samples t a k e n from n e i g h b o r i n g r e g i o n s o f t h e moon

d i f f e r geologically.

S c i e n t i f i c a l l y , t h i s i s very important.

Research i n t o t h e s e samples w i l l g i v e tis an i d e a n o t o n l y o f a n a r e a , b u t of t h e whole g e o l o g i c a l p r o v i n c e . Automatic c o n t r o l u n i t s , b r i n g i n g back rock samples from v a r i o u s r e g i o n s on t h e moon, w i l l e n a b l e u s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o r i g i n o f t h e e a r t h and p l a n e t s , and t h e i r h i s t o r y . t h e o r i e s on t h e moon's o r i g i n .
T h e r e a r e now two
/lo6

One o f them i s t h a t t h e moon i s a

"foreign" body which approached a n d , a s i t were, a t t a c h e d i t s e l f

to earth.

The o t h e r i s t h a t t h e moon broke away from i t s n o t h e r , atellite. But t h e moon h a s

211

t h e e a r t h , and became i t s permanent

an almost circular orbit.

so.

In either case this would not have been

When it broke away from the earth or when it "attached itself

to it, the moon's orbit would unavoidably have become elongated. There is now a third theory: the earth and the moon were Research

formed simultaneously and develaped together side by side.

into lunar soil brocght back from different regions of the moon, undoubtedly, will help explain these questions, and this will have not only a scientific, but important practical value.

"Pravda", March 2, 1972. To scientists, designers, engineers, technicians, workers and all the teams and organizations who helped to create the Luna-20 automatic station which brought back to earth lunar soil samples. Dear Comrades! Another vivid page has been written in the history of space conquest

On February 14, 1972 the Soviet Luna-20 was launched to the moon; it made a soft landing in the designated highland region of the moon between the Mare Fecunditatis and the Mare Crisium. The

Luna-20 drilled and took samples of lunar soil, after which it was launched from the moon to earth. The re-entry vehicle with

lunar soil samples was separated from it during the flight to earth. After aerodynamic braking, the vehicle landed in the specified area

of the Soviet Union on February 25, 1972.

212

The , a i d down f l i g h t program of t h e Luna-20 h a s been completely c a r r i e d ou' a c c u r a t e l y and 411 t h e s t a t i o n ' s systems and ground f a c i l i t i e s worked ,ably. T h i s i s a new achievement f o r S o v i e t and o u t e r s p a c e r e s e a r c h

s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y i n resul'

--

the

?f t h e i n s p i r e d Kork of t h e working c l a s s , s c i e n t i s t s ,

t d e s i g n e r s , e n g i n e e r s h ~ de c h n i c i a n s of t h e S o v i e t Union p r e p a r i n g t o meet t h e 5 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e USSR. The C e n s r a l Lomuittee of t h e Communi:t Union, t h e P r e s i d i u m o f t h e Supreine P a r t y of t h e S o v i e t

S o v i e t o f t h e GSSR and t h e a l l teams

Council o f Ministers o f t h e USSR h e a r t i l y c o n g i a t - d a t e

and o r g a n i z a t i o n s and a l l t h o s e who h e l p e d b u i l d t h e Luna-20 and achieve t h i s f l i g h t . May t h e c r e a t i v e s p i r i t . o f t h e S o v i e t p e o p l e p r o s p e r ! Long l i v e t h e Communist P a r t y o f t h e S o v i e t Union which h a s i n s p i r e d and o r g a n i z e d o u r v i c t o r i e s f o r o u r c o u n t r y ' s good and f o r t h e triumph o f communism! The C e n t r a l Committee of t h e Communist P a r t y of t h e S o v i e t Union. The P r e s i d i u m of t h e Supreme S o v i e t of t h e USSR.

The Council o f M i n i s t e r s of t h e USSR.

To t h e C e n t r a l Committee of t h e Communist P a r t y o f t h e S o v i e t Union, t h e P r e s i d i u m of t h e Supreme S o v i e t of t h e USSR and t h e Council of M i n i s t e r s o f t h e USSR

"Pravda", March 2 , 1 9 7 2 .

We, s c i e n t i s t s , d e s i g n e r s , e n g i n e e r s , t e c h n i c i a n s and workers

who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , l a u n c h and f l i g h t of t h e 213

Luna-20 r e p o r t t o t h e C e n t r a l Committee o f t h e Communist P a r t y o f t h e S o v i e t Union, t h e P r e s i d i u m of t h e Supreme S o v i e t of t h e YSSR and t h e Council of Ministers of t h e USSR,that t h e complex s c i e n i i f i c and t e c h n i c a l problem o f l a n d i n g an a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e on t h e almost i n a c c e s s i b l e h i g h l a n d r e g i o n o f t h e moon, t h e d r i l l i n g f o r l u n a r

s o i l and b r i n g i n g samples o f it back t o t h e S o v i e t Union h a s been

successfully solved. During a l l t h e s t a g e s o f f l i g h t o f t h e Luna-20, from t h e e a r t h t o t h e moon, i n s e l e n o c e n t r i c o r b i t , t h e s o f t l a n d i n g on t h e planned a r e a o f t h e moon, t h e d r i l l i n g and c o l l e c t i o n o f l u n a r s o i l samples, t h e l a u n c h o f t h e v e h i c l e from t h e moon, i t s f l i g h t t o e a r t h and l a n d i n g o f t h e r e - e n t r y v e h i c l e on e a r t h , t h e s t a t i o n ' s equipment and systems, t h e command and measurement f a c i l i t i e s and s e a r c h groups o p e r a t e d a c c u r a t e l y and r e l i a b l y . The f l i g h t program o f t h e Luna 20 was successfully accomplished and once more demonstrated t h e g r e a t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r automatic

v e h i c l e s i n r e s e a r c h i n g o u t e r space and o b t a i n i n g s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r mation from t h e moon's s u r f a c e and p l a n e t s of t h e s o l a r system. W a s s u r e t h e C e n t r a l Committee o f t h e Communist P a r t y of e t h e S o v i e t Union, t h e P r e s i d i u m o f t h e Supreme S o v i e t of t h e USSR, t h e S o v i e t government and t h e e n t i r e S o v i e t n a t i o n t h a t we s h a l l devote a l l o u r e f f o r t s and s k i l l t o f u l f i l l t h e p a r t y ' s and government's t a s k of b c i l d i n g new t y p e s o f S o v i e t s p a c e equipment t o r e s e a r c h and develop o u t e r space f o r t h e b e n e f i t of o u r p e o p l e and t h e whole of mankind.

214

The Importance of Flights t o Far Worlds Scientific work in space and the continued research into the moon and planets of the solar system is one of the main tasks which the 24th Party Congress entrusted to Soviet science during the present Five-Year Plan. will play an important role. The recent successful flight of the Soviet Luna-20 once more showed the great possibilities for using automatic vehicles and wrote a vivid page in the annals of world astronautics. By systematically investigating the moon, Soviet scientists and designers used space vehicles for solving various problems: scientific research from near-moon orbit, the flight around the moon, taking photographs of its surface and bringing them back to earth, research of the moon in the landing area, and finally, bringing back lunar soil to earth. Scientists of the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR tell of the way in which Luna and Zond flights have enriched science, and the new information which these Automatic space stations and equipment /lo8 -

space flights have provided on the enigmatic, extraterrestrial world. The Moon from the Outside Professor B. Rodionov

...

We know that the surface of planets are not exact spherzs. Let us take the earth. towards the polar axis.
It is slightly flattened and compres-ed

This compression is the result of

215

r o t a t i o n , and i s l i n k e d w i t h t h e v i s c o s i t y o f p l a n e t a r y m a t t e r ,

i t s s t r u c t u r a l l a y e r s , t h e s t r u c t u r e o f i t s n u c l e u s and a l s o i t s
gravitational field. T h i s i s why d e t e r m i n i n g p l a n e t a r y e l l i p s o i d s

and compression p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n cosmogony and n a t u r e o f t h e u n i v e r s e .

- - t h e science

Together w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n on p l a n e t s , o b t a i n e d by a n a l y z i n g t h e i r motion, and s p e c t r o s c o p i c r e s e a r c h i n t o v a r i o u s r a d i a t i o n

D ~ G ~ Si n f o r m a t i o n ,

on p l a n e t a r y e l l i p s o i d s a l l o w s u s , by comparison,

t o o b t a i n some i d e a of t h e s i m i l a r i t y o r d i f f e r e n c e i n i n t e r n a l planetary structure. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t f o r com-

p i l i n g a system o f g e o d e t i c c o o r d i n a t e s which a r e t h e b a s i s f o r cartography. What has been s a i d i s a l s o t r u e of t h e moon. Photographs of

t h e moon t a k e n by a u t o m a t i c s t a t i c n s brought us n e a r e r t o s o l v i n g t h i s problem which, w i t h t h e advent of s e l f - p r o p e l l e d l u n a r r o b o t s ,

i s becoming more i m p o r t a n t .
Lunpr a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l u n i t s have t a k e n photographs n o t o n l y

o f t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e l u n a r d i s c , b u t o f i t s whole v i s i b l e
edge o r , as astronomers s a y , t h e limb which i s c l e a r l y s e e n on t.he background o f o u t e r s p a c e . What has t h i s meant t o s c i e n t i s t s ? Before a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s , we o n l y had a concept of t h e moon's shape from o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e hemisphere v i s i b l e from e a r t h . N a t u r a l l y , t h i s was n o t complete, s i n c e a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t of t h e moon c o u l d n o t be observed.

216

Scientists have different theories about the moon's shape. Some believe that it is almost a triaxial ellipsoid, the main axis
of which is pointed towards earth.

Others believe that the moon

is shaped like a pear with the bulge in the southern hemisphere.

In other words, it is geometrically asymmetric.

In this case,

planet matter would be distributed asymmetriczlly, and as a result, a mechanical system would have been developed which, in a freak state, would try to occupy a specific position towards the center

of gravity, which is earth.

Apparently, photographs taken from space showed that those scientists were correct who believed that the moon was almost spherical. Consequently, the reason for the moon's unilateral 1109 -

orientation must be ioolied for not in its global geometric asymmetry, but in its irregular distribution of masses of matter. Probably, these masses cause anomalies in the gravitational field. The analysis of photographed limbs showed previously unknown formations. For example, an extensive depression was observed, arbitrarily called the South-Western Sea, in the southern part

of the moon's hemisphere invisible from earth.

In our opinion, another discovery, no less impressive, are the four salient local protrusions on the limb profile near the area
o f the South Pole.
The largest of these rises almost 8 km above

the surrounding low-lying area. Theories on the existence of such differences of altitude

on the moon were expressed earlier by scientists based on indirect

science. Now, this has been confirmed by direct measurement.

I L is possible that this protrusion mentioned earlier is the

highest point on the moon. If this is so, the honor for its

discovery belongs to our lunar automatic control units. One must have a network of points on the moon's surface, the position of which is known in the selenographic coordinate system, for compiling accurate maps, studying the gravitational field, navigating space vehicles and for other scientific and practical tasks.
A network of this type was compiled from observations from

earth on the moon's visible side. the far side of the moon.

Naturally, they cannot include

The first network of reference points

was set up over the hemisphere not visible by using photographs transmitted by Soviet Luna-3, Zond-3 and Zond-6 space vehicles. Photographic experiments from automatic space vehicles provide extensive material for studying the moon. Inside Professor K. Florenskiy "Krasnaya Zvezda", March 3, 1972. Successes in space research have shown that the moon has a complex geological structure: finely-crushed lunar soil, regolith,

... and

is a mixture, the basis of which is local crystal rock. At the same time, there is a certain amount o f matter which i s presumably connected with meteorites hitting the moon's surface. As a result of determining the absolute age (crystallization time) of lunar rock, it was found that present-day maria are extremely old. According t o information obtained by the Luna-16,

218

t h e d e p r e s s i o n o f t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s was c c v e r e d by l a v a more t h a n 3.5 b i l l i o n y e a r s ago. I t is interesting that the absolute

age o f r e g o l i t h , which c o v e r s t h i s l a v a , i s even g r e a t e r . I t i s known t h a t t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e i s d i v i d e d i n t o two t y p e s

of r e g i o n s which must a l s o d i f f e r i n i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e .

The The

l u n a r h i g h l a n d r e g i o n s a r e o l d e r t h a n t h e l u n a r maria p l a i n s .

maria were formed by massive e f f u s i o s s o f b a s a l t l a v a which i s t h e low-melting p a r t o f lunar matter and p r o b a b l y , c o u l d have been formed as t h e r e s u l t o f z o n a l f u s i o n . On e a r t h t h e r e i s a s o l i d b a s a l t e n v e l o p e on whose s u r f a c e l i g h t g r a n i t e c o n t i n e n t s , a s i t were, " f l o a t " . Many s c i e n t i s t s

b e l i e v e t h a t rock on e a r t h underwent wind e r o s i o n an6 d e s t r u c t i o n by water and microorganisms t o form g r a n i t e . Only r e p e a t e d

r e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n of s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s i n k i n g i n t o t h e e a r t h c a n form g r a n i t e . I n c i d e n t a l l y , t h i s problem i s one o f t h e most inipor-

t a n t i n modern geology.
As y e t , t h e r e i s no d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of

1110 -

rock forming t h e l u n a r y h i g h l a n d s .

Some s c i e n t i s t s b e l i e v e t h e y

were formed s i m i l a r l y t o t h o s e on e a r t h , even i f t h e y a r e n o t t r u e g r a n i t e s , but c o n s i s t of a n o r t h o s i t e rock r i c h i n f e l d s p a r s . O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s , p o i n t i n g o u t t h e low r a d i o a c t i v i t y o f l u n a r m a t e r i a l s and t h e i r s m a l l s i z e , b e l i e v e t h a t b a s a l t s a r e o n l y t y p i c a l o f mare r e g i o n s . I n t h e i r o p i n i o n , h i g h l a n d s have a l e s s

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d primary m a t t e r and a s i m p l e r i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e . I n any c a s e , t h e h i g h l a n d s were formed a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e moon's e x i s t e n c e .

I t i s extremely important f o r s c i e n t i s t s

219

t o know how much r o c k can be i s o l a t e d d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d s

of a p l a n e t ' s e x i s t e n c e when t h e main f e a t u r e s o f

a r e determined. B a s i c a l l y , t h c moon i s a s o l i d heaverily body. improbable t h a t it has a l i q u i d c o r e .

i.

structure

I t is highly

Unlike t h e e a r t h , t h e r e a r e

no t e c t o n i c d i s l o c a t i o n s and l a r g e l i n e a l - f a u l t s c.f t h e c r u s t . There were no s i g n s of w a t e r i n samples brough t h e moon. oack e a r l i e r from

A t t h e same t i m e , volcanism must have been accompanied

by t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f w a t e r .

T h i s i s cjne of maay l u n a r p a r a d o x e s .

There i s no doubt t h a t t h e main c h a p t e r i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e moon w i l l r e s u l t from s e a r c h i n t o s t u d y i n g samples from t h e l u n a r h i g h l a n d s brought back by t h e S o v i e t Luna-20.

D i s c o v e r i n g t h c S e c r e t s of t h e Universe B. Konovalov ' ' I z v e s t i y a " , March 4 , l 9 7 2 .

A C o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h t h e P r o d u c e r s of t h e Luna-20

T h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n s t a r t e d i n t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g computation
c e n t e r when i t was ].earned t h a t t h e r e - e n t r y v e h i c l e had s u c c e s s f u l l y landed and t h e t e n s i o n was o v e r . Leading s D e L i a l i s t s and

p r o d u c e r s of t h e Luna-20 drew up a r m c h a i r s and were s i t t i n g around a s m a l l , low t a b l e . table talk". This c o n - e r s a t i o n had t h e a i r o f a "round

Everyone s a i d what he thought was most i m p o r t a n t and The c o n v e r s a t i o n was c o n t i n u e d i n t h e

each complemented t h e o t h e r , enterprise.

I spoke t o many p e o p l e and t h e " c o l l e c t i v e answers",

220
..
,"

i f t h e y can be c a l l e d s u c h , t o q u e s t i o n s which I asked a r e shown here. The f i r s t q u e s t i o n a f t e r i m p o r t a n t work h a s been completed, a s always, i s t r a d i t i o n a l :
Q:
A:

How do you r a t e t h e Luna-20 f l i g h t ? The whole f l i g h t was e x c e l l e n t . I n s t e a d o f two r e g u l a r ,

a s we a r e u s e d t o s a y i n g , t r a j e c t o r y c o r r e c t i o n s d u r i n g t h e moon f l i g h t , o n l y one was r e q u i r e d . The r e s u l t s o f t r a j e c t o r y measure-

ment showed t h a t t h e v e h i c l e was a c c u r a t e l y s e n t i n t o t h e a r e a o f n e a r - l u n a r s p a c e where t h e e n g i n e s were c u t - i n and d e c e l e r a t i o n was done t o s e n d it i n t o s e l e n o c e n t r i c o r b i t . The f o r e c a s t o f t h e calculations,

h e i g h t above t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , based on b a l l i s t i c had an e r r o r o f o n l y 1 km.

The l a n d i n g on a s m a l l p l a t e a u - s h a p e d a r e a among t h e l u n a r h i l l s , and t h e r e t u r n t o t h e c a l c u l a t e d a r e a of t h e S o v i e t Union was accomplished a c c u r a t e l y , a l t h o u g h no c o r r e c t i o n was p l a n n e d on the return flight. The c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e l a n d i n g s i t e , c a l c u l a t e d

according t o b a l l i s t i c p r e d i c t i o n information, almost coincided w i t h t h e a c t u a l ones. Of c o u r s e , t h i s made t h e s e a r c h work

e a s i e r , a l t h o u g h t h i s was done a t n i g h t and d u r i n g bad w e a t h e r .

A l l t h e f l i g h t f a c i l i t i e s operated accurately.

Ye have no It

/111 -

c o m p l a i n t s about t h e o p e r a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s t a t i o n s y s t e m s . behaved m a g n i f i c e n t l y b o t h i n f l i g h t and on t h e moon.

Q:

However, were t h e r e times d u r i n g t h e e x i s r i m e n t when you

were a n x i o u s ?

221

A:

Both l a n d i n g s , on t h e moon and on e a r t h .

A moon l a n d i n g

i n t h e highland region i s very complicated.

final stage,
j t

Although, d u r i n g t h e

i s done a u x o m a t i c a l l y a c c o r d i n g t o r a d i o a l t i m e t e r

i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e o v e r a l l s t a t i o n o p e r a t i o n system i s d e t e r m i n e d earlier.
A l o t depends on t h e work o f t h e c o n t r o l group which

makes t h e program of commands from e a r t h more a c c u r a t e . During t h e r e t u r n t o e a r t h , t h e s t a g e which i s c o m p l e t e l y automatic l a s t s longer. anxieties. T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r e p r o b a b l y more

Perhaps one a l r e a d y knows t h a t t h e v e h i c l e c o n t a i n s

s o i l from l u n a r h i g h l a n d s , and i t o n l y r e n a i n s t o c a r r y o u t f i n a l testing. Although t h i s was a n o t h e r w o r l d when t h e c r a f t l a n d e d on

t h e moon and i s now r e t u r n i n g t o e a r t h , i t s t a s k i s n o t made easier. When t h e r e - e n t r y v e h i c l e i s s e p a r a t e d from t h e r o c k e t

i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e on-board a u t o m a t i c e q u i p ment.
Q:

I t is impossible t o help. To what e x t e n t d i d p a s t f l i g h t s h e l p t h e s u c c e s s of t h e

p r e s e n t one?
A:

T h i s i s t h e 20th Luna v e h i c l e .

A l l o f them, b e g i n n i n g

from t h e f i r s t which was launched on J a n u a r y 2 , 1959, have c a r r i e d o u t t h e i r t a s k s , many o f which were done f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n man's h i s t o r y .
A s a t e l l i t e from e a r t h took a pennant and made a

s o f t l a n d i n g on t h e moon.

The f a r s i d e o f t h e moon was p h o t o -

graphed f o r t h e f i r s t time and a p i c t u r e was s e n t back by t h e v e h i c l e which had l a n d e d t h e r e . S o i l was i n v e s t i g a t e d a t t h e

l a n d i n g s i t e and a s a t e l l i t e was s e n t i n t o s e l e n o c e n t r i c o r b i t .

222
"

," _-.

A self-propelled laboratory moved about on the moon for the first

time, and rock samples from the lunar maria and highlands were sent back to earth by automatic means. Technical successes are linked with scientific ones and depend on each other. We owe thein to many teams and many people. Technical solutions and scientific research have progressed for the general good of mankind and the discovery of the universe. Each stage of lunar discovery, in some way, resulted froin another one. For example, the Lunokhod was built as the result

of the Luna-9 and the Luna-13 which made soft landings and carried out direct research into lunar soil. During the Luna-20 flight, experience was used which was obtained when launching its predecessor. For example, the Luna-19

is still researching the moon's gravitational field. As opposed to that on earth, it is non-uniform, and must be carefully studied when making moon landings, especially in highland regions. Over different regions of the moon there are "gravitational depressions", sharp changes in the gravitational field and these must be known and taken into account when making a soft landing. Of course, the main "base" of success of the Luna-20 and the Luna-16 was bringing back soil to earth.
Q:
A:

How do the Luna-20 and Luna-16 differ? Their basic construction is the same. In essence, these

are "systems".

The Luna-20 is simply a technical improvement. By

taking into account that it must make a moon landing in the highland region, we decreased the landing speed so that the landing of the 223

Luna-20 was the scftest of all. Much new equipment give the vehicle increased reliability.

As opposed to the Luna-16, the Luna-20 landed on the moon in

daytime and not at night. Telephotometers at the control point /112 -

saw the surrounding area, chose a drilling site,and followed the operation for placing the samples and sealing them in the re-entry vehicle. Apart from this, steroscopic phctography of the area and

obtaining panoramz- with the earth's image gave us additional information on the landing region.

Q:

How did experience acquired when building the Luna problems?

vehicles affect design and engineering A:

We have a well-developed system of unitization not only

o f individual assemblies and systems, but of whole automatic

station units. Although they carry out different scientific tasks, where possible we try to use identical construction units. If one takes into account that for different problems not one st.ation is built by several "twins" for tests, this method is extremely economical. New generaticn automatic lunar stations use a unitized flight and landing stage. For example, this was used when the Luna-16

landed 3n the moon's surface and the Luna-17 set dcwn the Lunokhod-1, and now the Luna-20 which brought back rock samples from the lunar hilihlands.
It is said that it is difficult to gaia a victory, but more

difficult to consolidate it.

The producers of Luna-20 did this.

224

No d o u b t , t h e y w i l l s u c c e s s f u l l y e x p l o i t t h e i r success i n uncovering
n a t u r e ' s secrets.

F u t u r e Lunar Automatic C o n t r o l U n i t s
V. Denisov, a C a n d i d a t e o f T e c h n i c a l S c i e n c e s and V. Alimov, Engineer

"Sotsialisticheskaya industriya",

March 2 2 , 1972.

A p p r o x i n a t e l y 60 v e h i c l e s have a l r e a d y been launched t o t h e moon and are on t h e moon; of t h e s e , 85% Yere a u t o m a t i c and o n l y
a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e were manned.

Undoubtedly, a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l u n i t s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r f l i g h t s i n t o t h e s c a n t i l y e x p l o r e d , a l m o s t i n a c c e s s i b l e r e g i o n s o f s?ace. The f l i g h t s o f s o v i e t a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e s haveshowri t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n moon r e s e a r c h . W are s t i l l t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e l a s t e frcm t h e s h o r e s of t h e Mare

achievement - - a p r e c i o u s "parcel" Fecunditatis.

P s a r e s u l t of t h e s e f l i g h t s , o u r knowledge o f t h e

moon h a s been e n r i c h e d w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n which c o u l d n o t have been o b t a i n e d i n a c e n t u r y by d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n s from e a r t h . s a y t h a t l u n a r s p a c e r e s e a r c h i s one o f man's c a n t achievements . Sending a p a y l o a d t o t h e moon i s s t i l l a l a b o r i o u s p r o c e s s , however, t h e r e a r e a number o f r e s e a r c h e s which i t was b e t t e r t o conduct d i r e c t l y on i t s s u r f a c e t h a n c r e a t i n g a whole system o f a r t i f i c i a l earth satellites. For example, m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l They c o l l e c t
iilOSt

One c a n

recent s i g n i f i -

l i e t s a r e widely used f o r world weather f o r e c a s t i n g .

i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e atmosphere o v e r t h e whole world and p r o c e s s e s

225

which a r e t a k i n g p l a c e i n i t .

This information i s a g r e a t h e l p

f o r m e t e o r o l o g i s t s when e v a l u a t i n g t h e weather and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , f o r f o r e c a s t i n g i t f o r a c e r t a i n time. However, i t i s u n r e a l i s t i c This

t o check t h e weather o v e r l a r g e aq-nas from one s a t e l l i t e .

o b s e r v a t i o n a l d i s a d v a n t a g e can be overcome by s e t t i n g up s u i t a b l e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l equipment on t h e mcon. The p i c t u r e of a i r c i r c u l a t i o n i n t h e atmosphere i s e x t r e m e l y complex and d e f i e s a n a l y s i s . Automatic m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s t a t i o n s

on t h e moon, i n t h e hemisphere v i s i b l e from e a r t h , w i l l h e l p t o f i n d laws f o r many p r o c e s s e s , a c c u r a t e l y f o r e c a s t t h e movemefit o f

w a r m and c o l d a i r masses,and s u g g e s t e d changes i n t h e w e a t h e r .

Let u s examine t h e second " p r o f e s s i o n " c a r r i e d o u t by a l u n a r

automatic c o n t r o l u n i t .
I t i s known t h a t r a d i o communication i n

/113 -

u l t r a s h o r t r a d i o waves, used f o r t e l e v i s i o n t r a n s m i s s i o n s , i s l i m i t e d by d i r e c t v i s i b i l i t y . The range f o r r e l i a b l e r e c e p t i o n o f

t e l e v i s i o n s i g n a l s depends on t h e h e i g h t of t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g and receiving antennas.

But t h e t e l e v i s i o n b r o a d c a s t i n g r a d i u s o f t h e

Ostaniko tower, one of t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e w o r l d , i s no more t h a n 130 km. A r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s arid groand s t a t i o n s 02 t h e O r b i t a t y p e s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e t h e "geography" of t e l e v i s i o n . I t w i l l also

be p o s s i b l e t o p l a c e r a d i o t e l e v i s i o n equipment on t h e moon i t s e l f .
J . t h i s c a s e , programs t r a n s m i t t 9 d from t h e p l a n e t w i l l br r e c e i v e d
by l u n a r equipment, and t h e n a f t e r a m p l i f i c a t i o n , t r a n s m i t t e d back.

Ground r a d i o - and t z l e v i s l o n r e c e i v e r s w i l l p i c k up t h e s e t r a n s m i s s i o n s and make them a v a i l a b l e f o r m i l l i o n s of p e o p l e .

226

In the near future, the third "profession" o f the lunar automatic control unit will be as follows. The earth's atmosphere hinders astronomers, astrophysicists and radio physicists who are studying surrounding space. The atmosphere, at first glance, is

transparent, but in actual fact is an unsurmountable barrier for the majority of radiations coming from space. Only a luminous

flux and a small spectrum of radio waves with a length of several millimeters to 30 m pass freely through it. The remaining regions o f the spectrum, including a vast range

of radiations (with wavelengths of 0.01 millionth of a centimeter

to hundreds of thousands of kilometers), are completely or partially absorbed by our atmosphere.
It is known that primary cosmic

rays, generated deep in the universe, "develop" when meeting the atmosphere and are converted into fluxes of secondary cosmic particles. Scientists, by indirect science alone, built up a

primordial picture. The air also prevents the penetration of some solar corona radia+.ion. These and other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum ,lot reaching earth carry valuable information on many questions o f the universe linked with the appearance of stars and stellar systems and with the nature of our and other galaxies. On the moon it is possiblc to research different radiations in their whole rich spectrum. Consequently, in the future, the moon will be a suitable base for astronomical instruments and even for setting up an automatic observatory. We shall. be able

to study cosmic rays, solar wind and corpuscular beams.

227

The resolving power of radio telescopes is very important when one studies distant corners of the universe, containing numerous stars and their clusters, pulsars, quasars and "neutron stars".
It is characterized by the ratio of the radiation wave-

length to the radio telescope diameter.

The greater its diameter,

the higher is its "vigilance" and the farther it can "see". The size of radio telescopes can only be increased to a certain amount. Incidentally, this is almost impossible for Therefore, astronomers and astrophysicists Research

existing ground means.

are looking for possible "evasion maneuvers" on earth.

into heavenly bodies is often done simultaneously by two radio telescopes at a considerable distance from each other. signals synchronously recorded from the depth of the universe.
OD.

Radio

magnetic tapes are received

Later, after processing, the

recordings cre compared and analyzed. Practice and calculation have shown that the greater the distance between the radio telescopes, the more vigilant is the "duet". itself. Radio telescopes on the moon can be coupled with those on sarth, and the distance between them is now in the order of
400,000

But there are limitations to this:

the size of the earth

/114 -

km.

As a result, the resolving power of a space telescope

significantly increases, and it will determine more accurately the structure of small heavenly bodies which are far from the solar systern.

228

One i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r o f t h e moon must n o t be f o r g o t t e n : t h e r e i s no r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e . T h i s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t when one On e a r t h any e l e c t r i -

r e c e i v e s weak r a d i o s i g n a l s from f a r s p a c e .

cal spark causes noise.

M i l l i o n s o f i n d u s t r i a l p i e c e s o f equipment Therefore, radio tele-

constantly i n t e r f e r e with radio reception.

s c o p e s s h o u l d be s i t e d f a r from towns and i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s . One must remember t h a t t h e e a r t h i t s e l f c o n t i n u o u s l y r a d i a t e s r a d i o waves i n t o s p a c e c a u s e d by t h e r m a l movement o f c h a r g e d particles.

I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t sometimes a u s e f u l s i g n a l

from d i s t a n t heavenly b o d i e s i s simply " d i s s o l v e d " a l l t h i s noise. Things are s i m p l e r on t h e moon.

i n t h e chaos o f

Equipment h e r e c a n be comI t must be

p l e t e l y s c r e e n e d from a l l t e r r e s t r i a l i n t e r f e r e n c e . s i t e d on t h e Lemisphere n o t s e e n from e a r t h . scope h a s a n o t h e r advantage o v e r one on e a r t h .

A lunar radio t e l e As i s known, t h e

moon r o t a t e s v e r y s l o w l y ( i n comparison w i t h e a r t h ) around i t s axis. Hence, i t i s q u i t e f e a s i b l e t o c a r r y o u t l o n g e r c o n t i n u o u s Naturally,

observations of a given area of t h e c e l e s t i a l sphere.

a l l t h e s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v e d w i l l be t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e r a d i o t e l e s c o p e ' s s p e c i a l a u t o m a t i c equipment t o a n a r t i f i c i a l l u n a r s a t e l l i t e , and a f t e r w a r d s r e l a y e d t o e a r t h .

W have o n l y spoken o f some " p r o f e s s i o n s " of f u t u r e l u n a r e

automatic c o n t r o l u n i t s . D o u b t l e s s l y , a s s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y Each

d e v e l o p s , t h e number o f t a s k s w i l l i n c r e a s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y .

new f l i g h t t o t h e moon w i l l i n c r e a s e o u r knowledge and b r i n g back new i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e u n i v e r s e .

229

Lunar Highland S o i l
A. Vinogradov, Academician

"Pravda",

May 4 , 1 9 7 2

Whereas t h e Luna-16 r e s e a r c h e d t h e mare r e g i o n of t h e moon (the northeast p a r t of t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s ) , t h e Luna-20 brought Scientists

back a s o i l sample from t h e t y p i c a l h i g h l a n d r e g i o n .

b e l i e v e d t h e y would f i n d h e r e s u r f a c e r o c k w i t h o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s -

tics.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e l a n d i n g s i t e of t h e Luna-20 was chosen 120km The boundary of t h e mare and

i

d i r e c t l y n o r t h of t h a t o f Luna-16.

h i g h l a n d i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f way between t h e s e two p o i n t s . The Luna-20 landed i n t h e a r e a of t h e c r a t e r o f A p o l l o n i u s C,

a t a p o i n t w i t h c o o r d i n a t e s 3'32"

n o r t h l a t i t u d e and 56'33"

east

l o n g i t u d e , i n t h e h i g h l a n d s e p a r a t i n g t h e Mare Crisium i n t h e n o r t h from t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s i n t h e s o u t h . There a r e no l a r g e The

I

young c r a t e r s i n t h e d i r e c t v i c i n i t y o f t h e l a n d i n g s i t e .

t e r r a i n i s h i l l y and broken,and t h e r e are some h i g h l a n d s w i t h r e l a t i v e h e i g h t s of up t o 1 km. G e o l o g i c a l l y , t h i s a r e a i s one of t h e

o l d e s t h i g h l a n d r e g i o n s of t h e moon formed, p r o b a b l y , b e f o r e t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s . The sample brought back by Luna-16 i s a h i a t a l d a r k , almost b l a c k powder. b a s a l t type. I t s component p a r t i c l e s belong mbinly t o r o c k of t h e The m a j o r i t y of p a r t i c l e s bore obvious t r a c e s o f
/115 -

p a r t i a l m e l t i n g , b o t h g l a s s y and v i t r e o u s from t h e s u r f a c e , and many f u s e d f o r m a t i o n s l i k e congealed d r o p l e t s of g l a s s y and m e t a l -

l i c appearance.

230

As a whole, soil brought back by the Luna-20 is incoherent hiatal material, but of a light gray color and much lighter than the sample from the Mare Fecunditatis.

In comparison with soil

brought back by Luna-16, there are considerably fewer fused particles, which in the sample from the Mare Fecunditatis had a strong "mirror effect". As with the Mare Fecunditatis, the soil

from the highland region of the moon is capable of electrification.

Its bulk weight, like the sample obtained by Luna-16, is

1.1-1.2 g/cm3. They are easily compacted to 1.7-1.8 g/cm3.

According to granulometric analysis, the average size of particles

is approximately 70-80 pm.

There are more large particles, bigger

than 1 mm, than in the sample brought back bv Luna-16. The lighter color of the soil was confirmed by albedo research (the reflection coefficient of light). The value of albedo was

greater than in samples brought back by the Luna-16 and by the Apollo-11 and Apolio-12. For a fine fraction of regolith in ultraviolet it was 0.145, in the visible region - - 0.22, and in the near infrared - - 0.260. The maximum reflection is for a wave0.370 (in the case of Luna-16 in the

length of 4 pm and equals same conditions was 0.280).

Microscopic study showed a sharp difference in the soil from samples taken from the Mare Fecunditatis. Here, there were many

fragments of crystalline rock and minerals with well-preserved edges and chip surfaces; there were practically hardly any slag breccia and spheroids,characteristic of soil brought back by Luna-16. The overall mass of particles is anorthosite rock, 231

consisting, to a considerable degree, of feldspar (plagioclase), Among them were full crystalline, belonging to anorthosites, and particles of rock of the same composition, but o f effusive

appearance, that is, outwardly similar to volcanic rock on earth. Among these were individual grains of plagioclase which are seen in all granulometric types of soil. Apparently, the largest of these is crushed coarse-crystalline anorthosite. It is interesting

that in anorthosite rock one constantly meets various sizes of metallic iron inclusion.

It is important to note that there is

rock consisting o f plagioclase and olivine. As opposed to soil brought back by Luna-16, basalt t>*perock was normally represented by numerous particles of mare basalt, similar to that from the Mare Fecunditatis and other lunar maria. There was a certain

number of particles of gabbro and peridot rock.

In this way, it appears that soil from the Mare Fecunditatis

(as

from other lunar maria) consists mainly of basalt type rock,

and the sample from the highland region, brought back by Luna-20, consists mainly of anorthosite. In maria soil there was approxi-

mately 1-2% of anorthosite, and in highland soil approximately

SO-60%.

Among ferriferous minerals in a thin fraction of soil

36% of olivine, 57% o f

brought back by the Luna-20 there was

pyroxene,and only approximately 1% o f ilmenite, while in the maria sample from the Luna-16 o f this titanium-bearing mineral there was
1 0 % and in soil from the Mare Serenitatis (Apollo-11) more than 25%.

Finely atomized metallic iron, concentrated in the surface layers, was observed in particles of lunar soil. There is an even 232

/116 -

greater amount of it in the surface layer of soil particles brought back by Luna-20. This metallic irondoes not oxidize in air. It

was experimentally shown that iron, having the same properties, is sublimated in a vacuum from basalts heated to a high temperature.

In soil brought back by Luna-20 there were often pieces o f

metallic iron linked with silicates. This often consists of two polymorphic forms, typical of metallic iron of meteorites kamacite and taenite rich in nickel. Apart from this, there is

also metallic iron in particles o f soil with a very small nickel content or completely without it. this iron is still to be solved. The soil was subjected to detailed physical and chemical research. It significantly differs in chemical context from maria The question on the nature of

soil brought back by Luna-16 and by the ~lpollo vehicles. What is the first information we have on the content of the main components of the matter brcught back by Luna-20? This is shown in the table.
~~ ~

Components

Crystalline rock Basalt - - Anorthosite Luna-16 type with olivine - Luna-20 42.95 13.88 20.17 10.80 6.05 5.50 0.23 0.16 42.4 20.2 6.4 18.6 12.0 0.38 0.40 0.52

Soil (regolith) Luna-16 Luna-20

Silicon oxide Aluminum oxide Iron oxide Calcium oxide Magnesium oxide Titanium oxide Sodium oxide Potassium oxide

41.50 15.33 16.66

iL.53

44.40
22.90

'

8.78 3.36
0.34

0.10

7.03 15.20 9.70 0.56 0.55 0.10

233

The first thing one notices is the high content o f aluminum oxide and especially calcium oxide in crystalline rock, and in soil (regolith) of the Luna-20 plagioclase (anorthite).

--

as the result of the high content.of

Samples of regolith with such a high

content of these oxides had previously not been obtained from the moon. The content o f iron oxide is considerably less in highland

regolith. There is only a small amount of titanium oxide in it, part of a percent, in comparison with mare soil. There are more

alkalis in soil from the Luna-20, although the difference is small. There is a characteristically high content of nickel and platinoids in hiatal highland and mare soils. meteorite matter striking the material. This is a sign of

In this way, one can say

that micxumeteorites fell onto the moon's surface uniformly - both on its visible and the highland side which we cannot see. The small amount of chromium is rather surprising. NOW, the content of more than 7 0 chemical elements in the soil brought back by Luna-20 can be determined by the massspectral method. This gives a rough idea of processes causing

the formation o f anorthosite in highland regions. From examples shown above, one can see that there is a considerable difference

in the nature of surface rock of lunar mare and hir,hland regions.

As for mare regolith, i t can be confirmed that it was formed from

local crystalline basalt rock, the composition of . little in different maria.

: varies h
/117 -

However, the problem of the origin cf

234

mare regolith is still not solved. As for highlmd soil, its origin is a mystery. The boundaries of the extent of different soils on the moon are quite clearly defined. For example, this can be seen by the

boundary between the Mare Fecunditatis and its northern margin, where the Luna-20 took the sample. Strictly speaking, we know little of the origin of anorthosites. The discovery of this rock in the highland region of the moon revived old geological ideas of a primary anorthositic crust of the earth and, consequently, of the moon. It is known that anorthosites are seen on earth, especially

in old Archaean and Proterozoic formations with an absolute geological age of up to 3 - 3 . 5 billion years. All anorthosites, including lunar ones, contain small amounts of so-called mafic elements - iron, vanadium, manganese and titanium. As we saw, the high content of these elements is characteristic of mare lunar basalts, a large amount of aluminum and calcium has also been seen in anorthosites. In the example of the extent o f anorthosites in highland regions, the importance is seen for investigating the moon and planets to understand terrestrial processes, mainly durin,.the early life period of our planet. The discovery of the method .n which anorthosites were formed on the moon would make it easier to understand geological processes on earth.
It can be said that the

formation of anorthosites, apparently, takes place during the crystallization differentiation process of basic gabbro-basalt magma. Anorthosite is differentiated during the extremely rapid

235

d i s c h a r g e o f magma i n h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s and a h i g h vacuum c h a r a c -

t e r i s t i c o f t h e moon.

I t i s t r u e t h a t one r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n amount

of w a t e r i n magma f o r t h i s .

However, t h e r e a r e s i g n s t h a t l u n a r

magma had a h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e and t h e r e were a few v o l a t i l e compo n e n t s i n i t , similar t o w a t e r , g a s e s and c a r b o n i c a c i d . On t h e

f o r such v o l a t i l e compounds t o l e a v e t h e moon f o r o u t e r s p a c e . B r i e f l y , t h e problem o f t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n o r t h o s i t e s w i l l t e t h e f o c a l p o i n t of a t t e n t i o n .

I

Thc comprehensive s t u d y o f samples b r o u g h t t a c k by Luna-2) continues. There i s no doubt t h a t s c i e n t i s t s w i l l d i s c o v e r new

f a c t s o f g r e a t i n t e r e s t f o r cosmogony, geology, and geochemistry o f t h e e a r t h and o t h e r p l a n e t s . back m a t e r i a l o f extreme v a l u e .

The f l i g h t o f t h e Luna-20 b r o u g h t
I

A Window i n t o t h e Moon's Depth -

"Nedelya",

No. 2 0 , May 1 5 - 2 1 , 1 9 7 0 .

Seismometers on t h e moon r e g i s t e r e d t h e f a l l of a m e t e o r i t e w i t h a d i a m e t e r of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 m . There was an e x p l o s i o n and

a 1 0 0 a ( i n d i a m e t e r ) c r a t e r was formed on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e planet.

M. Lazarev, a c o r r e s 2 o n d e n t o f "Nedelya",

c o n t a c t e d t h e head

of t h e l a b o r a t o r y a t t h e Space Research I n s t i t u t e a t t h e Academy

of S c i e n c e s of t h e USSR, K . P . F l o r e n s k i y , a n d asked f o r i n f o r m a t i c n . " T h i s i s a remark;ble under o u r v e r y e y e s .

236
I

event, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e it took place

The f a l l of s u c h a l a r g e m e t e o r i t e i s a

r e l a t i v e l y r a r e occurrence.

Not l e s s t h a n a m i l l i o n y e a r s w i l l U n t i l now, r e s e a r c h e r s The

p a s s b e f o r e t h e new c r a t e r b e g i n s t o age.

i n t o t h e moon's s u r f a c e o n l y d e a l t w i t h e x i s t i n g c r a t e r s ,

s t u d y o f a new f o r m a t i o n w i l l h e l p uncover t h e h i s t o r y o f o l d

craters.
S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , s e v e r a l complex q u e s t i o n s must be s o l v e d . In

p a r t i c u l a r , why s u c h a l a r g e m e t e o r i t e formed a c r a t e r o n l v 1 0 0 m across? The f a c t i s t h a t when a m e t e o r i t e f a l l s a t normal speed /118 -

( s e v e r a l t e n s o f k i l o m e t e r s p e r second) t h e c r a t e r formed i s normally a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 , 0 0 0 o r , a t l e a s t , SO@ times g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s i z e o f t h e f a l l i n g body. I n o t h e r words, a 1 0 0 m c r a t e r c a n The

o c c u r when a m e t e o r i t e f a l l s whose d i a m e t e r i s o n l y 3 0 - 4 0 cm. newcomer

from s p a c e i n q u e s t i o n e i t h e r f e l l s l o w l y o r t h e r e a r e

o t h e r reasons. When t h e m e t e o r i t e s t r u c k t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e moon t h e r e was an e x p l o s i o n e q u a l t o 1 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f TNT.

If t h e r e a l f o r c e o f

t h e b l a s t wave had been r e c o r d e d t h e new c r a t e r must be 2 0 - 2 5 m deep. This i s a n o t h e r window i n t o t h e moon. When t h e c r a t e r i s

s e e n on t h e s u r f a c e , by s t u d y i n g t h e new p r o f i l e , we s h a l l o b t a i n f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e moon's upper l a y e r . o f t h i s were o b t a i n e d by t h e Lunokhod-1. The f i r s t d e t a i l s

I t found t h a t t h e moon's

upper l a y e r i s r e g o l i t h and i s from 2 - 5 m t h i c k ; below t h i s i s bedded rock. These new f a c t s were s u b s e q u e n t l y confirmed by

American r e s e a r c h e r s . However, i n f o r m a t i o n can be o b t a i n e d on t h e moon's general. s t r u c t u r e t o a d e p t h of t e n s and hundreds o f k i l o m e t e r s by t h e

237

nature of earth wave propagation caused by the explosion. This, possibly, will be scientifically very important. The fact that this powerfui explosion was registered by instruments on the moon is very valuable."

"Lunite" Is Being Made on Earth B. Gerasimov (Our special correspondent) "Sotsialisticheskaya industriya", October 13, 1972.

In one of the laboratories at the Space Research Institute cf

the Academy of Sciences of the USSR I witnessed a rare experimen'. ..

A transparent plate lightly covered by ordinary looking gray pcwder ,

was taken from a safe. It was placed under
a

microscope arid I wiis

invited to look at the powder more closely.

It was an unforgettable expe-ience. As if some mysterioL

sculptor had worked with specks of dust and given each one

b
i e

mysterious shape. Various globules, small dumbbells and "lit L

cucumbers", flowing with all colors of the rainbow, and foning a remarkable, unearthly decorative pattern.

"You are not mistaken," laboratory workers explained to me.

'This mysterious powder is, i d e ! ne., of unejrthl? rigin. Until

recently it was on the moon's surface."

I am invited to a second picroscope.

The same plate, the same

It appeared that there

gray powder and the same shape of crystals.

was another sample under the microscope which had been brought back from the moon.

231)

"From the moon?

You are wrong," and the person to whom I was

talking smiled. "By the way, even an experienced jeweler would have difficulty in spotting the imitation." Yes, this time there was a sample of "our" earth soil under the microscope. useless. ditions.
Do not rush to find it in the earth, this will be

The "lunite" is obtained artificially in laboratory conIts similarity to natural ones in a chemical composition

and physical and mechanical properties is amazing. But why do we on earth need this "lunite". when &e have real lunar soil at our disposal? This is not an easy questicn to answer

- - the experiment program includes a wide range of problems.

Our conversation in the laboratory continues. M. D. Nusinov and A. I . Kosolopov, cpndidates o f science and senior scientific workers, name the bzsic stages of study of the noon and near-lunar space. "Probably,each new lunar experiment poses more n l i questions er than it gives answers. Everything becDmes a subject of argument:
o r , the reverse, extremely

/119

when the moon was formed was it cold

h>t; was it "born" together with the earth or at a great distance from it - - at one of the crossroads of the solar system? Hundreds of "oddities" on the moon are disturbing space researchers more and more. Synthes-tzing lunar soil in o u r laboratory, is only one of the scientific problems studied at the Space Research Institute. But

what is icteresting in that our experiment, probably, is one of the

2 39

few i n which s c i e n t i s t s a r e i n t e r e s t e d n o t i n t h e f i n a l b u t i n t h e

initial result.
Judge f o r y o u r s e l f . In order t o obtain "lunite" i n t h e

l a b o r a t o r y , one must u n d e r s t a n d and s i m u l a t e p r o c e s s e s which t o o k p l a c e i n its " b i r t h " i n natural, lunar conditions.

Here t h e

c r i t e r i o n i s t h e f i n a l product.

I t i s s i m i l a r t o matter b r o u g h t

back from t h e moon, which means t h a t s c i e n t i s t s u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r o c e s s which c r e a t e d i t .

Is i t n o t t e m p t i n g t o know what hapFurther-

pened x i t h t h e moon m i l l i o n s and b i l l i o n - . o f y e a r s ago? ;lore,

i t s p l a i n r e g i o n s a r e n o t o n l y c o v e r e d by a l a y e r o f r e g o l i t h

--

t h i s i s a l s o s e e n , a c t h e Lcna-20 showed, i n t h e h i g h l a n d region. Indeed, when s o i l samples began a r r i v i n g from t h e mGon many

p r e v i o u s h y p o t h e s e s were d e s t r o y 5 d .

For example, t h a t o f

Thomas Gold on ";.unar d u s t " which ;aould s w a l l o h up anyone iiho dared t o l a n d on t h e moon's s u r f a c e . What i n f a c t d o e s i t s s u r f a c e look l i k e ? Co-Jered by r e g o l i t h ,

i t m a i n t a i n s i t s same p r i n o r d i a l form o f a b i l l i c j n y e a r s ago and

r e t a i n s a l l t h e "scars" ( m e t e o r i t e i m p & c t s , e t c . ) which o c c u r r e d when i t was formed, and a t a l a t e r s t a k e o f i t s s p a c e m a t u r i t y . Much can be e x p l a i n e d by t h i s p r i m o r d i a l p i c t u r e , g u a r a n t e e d by

i t s v e r y n a t u r e , which h a s no a g e - l o n g e l e m e n t s which d e s t r o y i t s

calm

--

h u r r i c a n e s and winds.

The h i g h vacuum h e r e means t h e r e i s

no atmosDhere an2 no a t m o s p h e r i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n . The r e g o l i t h i t s e l f i s a f a i r l y l o o s e material, c o n s i s t i n g o f d u s t , sand and p a r t i c l e s o f bedrock. I n g r e d i e n t s have a l s o been

I t also ccntains

found c o n t a i n i n g s p l i n t e r s o f f a l l e n n e t e o r i t e s .

240

various glassy and vitreous particles - - globules, "little cucumbers" and prisms with which we are familiar. These particles are the reason why, to man, the light side o f the moon did not appear s3herical but flat (the r'cat'slfeye effect). The moon's secrets are being revealed gradually. But one of

the main mysteries still unsolved is the origin o f regolith. American researchers believe that regolith is formed by the impact of micrometeorites. These space newcomers crash into the moon's

surface layer at great speed (up to 7 2 km/sec).

The impacts are

accompanied by microexplc,sions and these, in their turn, cause evaporation of the micrometeL:-ite and partial evaporation of the soil itself. And so a new explosion crater appears on the moon's surface, around which molten particles were cooling a moment ago." According to Soviet geochemists headed by Academician A. P. Vinogradov, not only space micrometeorites help to form regolith. One must also take into account so-called endogenous processes, mainly lunar volcanism. Who is right? The only judge in this argument can be an experiment making it pcssible to check various points o f view. The equipment used is justifiably called lunar. Impressive low-pressure chambers with all types of mechanisms, instruments and sensors. Here, man-made lunar processes take place, sometimes

taking place in a millionth part of a second, bgt reaching a temperature o f several thousand degrees, or as slowly as festive salutes illuminating the face of the moon.

241

The equipment can simulate much which happens on the moon's surface. orites. Scientists use a laser beam for the effect of micrometeThe length o f this can be varied widely - - to
a

millionth

part o f a second. The beam strikes the basalt target in a vacuum causing "primordial" evaporation and spattering of material. One

already has the space particle's autograph - - through a microscope one can see the "lunar" crater which has just been formed.

I am invited to examine a simulated eruption of a lunar

volcano, possibily, that which occurred billions of years ago. Through a solid illuminator I examine a crucible made of tempered, tungsten wire, called here a "little boat". of earth basalt. One can scarcely hear the withdrawal pumps and instruments calculating the last molecules of earth air in the chamber.
is now a space vacuum behind the glass.
An

It contains grains

There

electrical current

passes through the crucible and the temperature in it rises to 1,200-1,800". Since this takes place in a vacuum, the basalt yields much earlier than in normal conditions. melted and is beginning to boil. given. Gaseous helium is pumped through an aperture in the bottom
o f the "little boat".
I t s role is purely mechanical:

It has already

The order for the eruption is

the jet of

gas hurls the boiling basalt upwards.

This firey fountain is a

miniature copy of an actual erupting volcano. But what was waiting on the moon for a column of lava erupting from its depths? This has also been studied by researchers. In
242

t h e upper p a r t of t h e chamber, t h e f o u n t a i n o f f i r e s t r i k e s t h e c o l d , g l a s s p l a t e , s i m u l a t i a g s p a c e c o l d predominant on t h e moon's s u r f ace. "Out of t h e f r y i n g pan i n t o t h e f i r e " i: t h e b e s t way t o d e s c r i b e t h e s e l u n a r metamorphoses. With s u c h r a p i d c o o l i n g a

b a s a l t d e p o s i t i s formed accompanied by g l a s s y p a r t i c l e s and dumbbells

- - globules

....

T h i s new matter i s d a r k g r a y i n c o l o r , l o o s e
I t i s almost a 1 0 0 % t w i n of t h e n a t u r a l

and e a s i l y a d h e r e n t .

r e g o l i t h from l u n a r mare r e g i o n s . M i n t e r e s t i n g s t a y i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y e n d s and M. D. Nusinov y s a y s , "AS you see, e x p e r i m e n t s a r e b r i n g i n g t o l i f e t h e o r i e s f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n of l u n a r ' s o i l ' s u g g e s t e d by o u r s c i e n t i s t s . " Undoubtedly, f u t u r e r e s e a r c h w i l l s o l v e many problems of t h e moon's o r i g i n , t h a t of t h e e a r t h and, p e r h a p s , o f t h e whole s o l a r system. For example, why n o t (knowing, o f c o u r s e , t h e i n i t i a l

i n f o r m a t i o n ) s i m u l a t e m y s t e r i o u s m a r t i a n p r o c e s s e s on e a r t h ? Much u s e f u l work can b e done by s c i e n t i s t s i n s p a c e s i m u l a tion. But a t t h e p r e s e n t it is i m p o s s i b l e t o j u d g e t h e b e n e f i t o f Undoubtedly, "lunite", s i d e by s i d e with

s y n t h e s i z e d matter.

n a t u r a l r e g o l i t h , i s a g r e a t h e l p f o r t h o s e producing l u n a r e q u i p ment.
As i s known, t h i s equipment i s developed on e a r t h .

243

Man's SDace Hands

A. Mikhaylov, Academician

"Pravda", February 29, 1972. When planning space research the question often arises: adtomatic control unit or astronaut? The answer to this depends on the stage of research, on one hand, and the object of research, on the other. Undoubtedly, automatic control units first explored Near-lunar space was studied when the first

/ 121 ,

and worked in space.

artificial earth satellites were launched - - first in the USSR and afterwards in the USA. They obtained information on the dangers Man could only accomplish space

o f radiation and meteorites.

flights later, and the first man in space was Yuri Gagarin, a citizen of the USSR. Information on the structure and physical conditions on the moon, obtained from ground observatory observations, were supplemented by more detailed research using space rockets and automatic stations. the moon. Luna-3 and Zond-3 first photographed the far side o f The American Ranger vehicles showed parts of the moon The Soviet Luna-9 first made
A ~ S surface

at close range and in great detail.

a soft landing on the moon and transmitted a picture of

with amazing detail, and supplied important information on the strength o f lunar soil. This was o f exceptional value since In

opinions on the nature o f the soil were quite contradictory.

addition, these properties were investigated both by Soviet and American vehicles.

244

Artificial lunar satellites established the mass, gravitational and magnetic field, the reflectance and radiation characteristics of the lunar surface. Extremely detailed pictures of

practically its whole surface were obtained which could not be determined from earth even with the largest astronomical instruments. Now, automatic control units are allowing scientists to

carry out effective, com,prehensive research in the most difficult conditions of outer space. The Luna-16 made a soft landing on the moon in the northeast part of the Mare Fecunditatis, drilled the lunar soil to a depth of 35 cm and brought back to earth a column of regolith for laboratory research. In November 1970, the Luna-17 landed in the

region o f the Mare Imbrium, and the Lunokhod-1 self-propelled vehicle, equipped with various instruments, emerged from it.
It

was supplied mainly by solar batteries and, therefore, the active periodsof the "moon research vehicle" were during lunar days. In

10.5 months, or 11 lunar days, the moon research vehicle traveled 10, 540 m, examined approximately 80,000 m2 of lunar surface, transmitted more than 200 panoramas of the surrounding area and took more than 20,000 photographs.
It studied the physical and mechani-

cal properties of the soil and determined its chemical composition. The French angle reflector in the moon research vehicles was used for lunar laser location. One extremely important fact must be mentioned: the equipment sent to the moon did not work independently. In other words, it

did not only carry out a program fed into it earlier, which, by 245

necessity, would have had limitations, restricted its maneuverability and capability of operating independently of factors which occurred. The equipment continually worked in close communication with earth and followed out the ground center's instructions, which traced each movement of the research vehicle and the functioning

of its equipment. For example, when the moon research vehicle met
a steep crater or large stone, the operator on earth guided it around the obstruction. This was as if a person on earth had hands

/122

which reached the moon and controlled instruments there. The moon research vehicle successfully worked on the moon in a high vacuum, great temperature gradients, etc.
An

automatic con-

trol unit is more easily protected from the harmful effects of the surrounding medium, and the energy required for operating the equipment can be supplied by solar batteries.
a wide selection of tasks.

Briefly, it can carry out

In our first steps into space,knowledge is more important than perception, but in the future controlled automatic control
4

units will probably transmit not only what the brain can accept, but can influence our five senses. A man, remaining on earth, but linked by electromagnetic waves with an automatic control unit in space or on another planet, will have the impression that he himself is in the place o f :be automatic control unit in completely unusual conditions. Of course, he will be in no danger whatsoever. In this way, it is quite feasible to have an automatic observatory on the moon carrying out different astronomical, physical and geological observations and research controlled from earth and
246

transmitting information using radio and light.

Undoubtedly, the

organization and especially the use of this observatory will be much cheaper and less complex than a manned observatory on the moon. The present conditions and rate of development of science

and technology will make this possible in the very near fature. What has been said is true of Venus, Mars and other planets. Great efforts and resources are required for an astronaut to remain active during the many months o f flight to these planets.
d I

It is even more difficult to land there and wcrk there, for example,
on Venus with its extremely high temperaturk?s and atmospheric pressure, or on other planets, the atmosphere of which contain poisonous gas.
No, success here for a long time will be in the

"hands" of automatic control units.

b
I

I believe that with the further development of automation and

telemechanics, manned expeditions and flights to planets entail great risk and expense, and shouid be put into the background and only in an extreme case may be used during auxiliary but not main tasks. Of course, this does not apply to orbital stations which

must be manned. The accurate light of the Soviet Luna-20 confirms the above. The Luna-20 brought back to earth new samples o f lunar rock from the highland region. This considerably increases our knowledge

of the mineralogy and geology of the moon, since, until now, we only had information from the so-called mare regions.
It is

difficult to overestimate the scientific value of the new

247

achievement of space automatic control units allowing Soviet science to make one more important step in studying bodies of the solar system.

248

IV. RESE.ARCH INTO DISTANT PLANETS A. RESEARCH INTO VENUS

A

New Success of Soviet Astronautics "Pravda", August 17, 1S72.

vivid new page has been written in the annals o f Soviet and The Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station

/123 -

world astronautics.

reached Venus after four months of flight, and its descent vehicle made a smooth descent in the atmosphere on the illuminated side of the "Morning Star", and made a soft landing on its surface. Valuable scientific information of the unknown properties o f the atmosphere on the diurnal side o f Venus,and the nature o f rock on its surface layer was transmitted back to earth for 50 min. The Central Committee o f the Communist Party o f the Soviet Union, the Presidium o f the Supreme Soviet o f the USSR and the Council of Ministers of the USSR heartily congratulated scientists, designers, engineers, technicians, workers and all teams and 0rgki.izations participating in producing, launching and controlling the flight and landing the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station. "This outstanding achievement o f Soviet Science and technology was made possible due to the inspired work of the Soviet nation, greeting the 50th anniversary of the formation o f the USSR with new feats o f labor."

249

This remarkable -cientific experiment is another clear demonstration of the possibilities of automatic vehicles for researching outer space and planets of the solar system. The Venera-8 successfully carried on the work of other automatic vehicles giving much important information on the universe and consolidating the USSR as the true authority on initial space flight, Scarcely 15 years have passed since the whole world was astounded by the call signs of the first Soviet artificial earth satellite. The "beep-beep-beep" signal was of the man-made device, arrived from orbit and showed the genius, technical skill and economic might of the USSR. Since then, mankind has passed

through real "space" universitles". There have been outstanding manned flights beyond the earth, the first of which was that by Yu. A. Gagarin. Man has been into open space and landed on the moon. The Snlyut manned orbital

station has been produced - - the forerunner of space laboratories of the future for prolonged research of the earth and interplanetary space. Space automatic control units have served science well in this field. They showed their worth in near-space and continued Twenty-five Soviet "lunar probes" have given

far from our planet.

valuable information. Progressive, international public opinion has recognized the importance of the work ofthe Lmokhod-1 s e l f -

/124

propelled vehicle over many months, and has recognized it as the prototype o f planetary research vehicles of the future; flights from earth-moon-earth by the Luna-16 and Luna-20 which brought
250

back lunar rock samples. The crowning achievement was the flight of Soviet Mars-2 and Mars-3 stations which became artificial satellites of the "red" planet, sent down an instrument capsule to its surface,and discovered much new information about I:ars. Soviet automatic control units gave much important information towards our knowledge o f Venus. They are determining the level o f Soviet

our scientific corlcepts of the mysterious "Morning Star".

Venera stations conseqQently sqlved a number of complex scientific and technical problems: one of the stations reached the planet for the first time; others descended smoothly in its atmosphere and gave us valuable information of its composition. Now there is a new remarkable success; the vehicle, notwithstanding the intense heat and hjgh pressure, "sensed" Venus itself, measured
i

s illu-

mination for the first time and other characteristics ofthediurnal side of the planet. The earth clearly heard the station's voice

transmitting unique information from a distance o f tens o f millions

of kilometers, the huge raclio bridge operated perfectly.

The

accuracy of ballistic calculation was remar: Able:

it was calcu-

lated that the space "snipers" had hit a target as bit as a ten kopek coin moving at a range of 80 m. One sometimes hears it said that the triumphs of astronaLtics have ceased to amaze people. Perhaps the opposite is true; astro-

nautics has amazed and continued t o amaze the human intellect, and the daring and limitlessness of human resources. The Soviet nation is indeed proud that it was the first to bring about these

251

achievements and t h r o u g h o u t t h e whole s p a c e age l e a d s t h e c o n q u e s t of space f o r f r i e n d l y purposes. Ahead a r e new l a u n c h e s i n t o s p a c e . They w i l l p r o v i d e know-

l e d g e of o u r p l a n e t and s p a c e , develop s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y and s o l v e v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l economic problems. T h i s was determined by

t h e Directi..res o f t h e 24th Congress o f t h e Communist P a r t y of t h e S o v i e t Union, which e n v i s a g e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c work i n s p a c e t o develop l o n g - r a n g e t e l e p h o n e and t e l e g r a p h comm u n i c a t i o n , t e l e v i s i o r i , w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t i n g and t h e s t u d y of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , g e o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h and s o l v i n g o t h e r n a t i o n a l economic problems by u s i n g s a t e l l i t e s , a u t o m a t i c and manned v e h i c l e s , and a l s o c o n t i n u i n g r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e moon and p l a n e t s . I n s e t t i n g s u c h wide t a s k s , t h e p a r t y and government w i l l f o c u s i t s a t t e n t i o r t o t h e development o f t h e whole of S o v i e t s c i e n c e , i n c l u d i n g one o f t h e main d i r e c t i c n s o f s c i e n t i f i c and technical progress - - astronautics. The S o v i e t n a t i o n t h i n k s

h i g h l y o f t h e achievements of a l l t h o s e who t o o k p a r t i n p r e p a r i n g and c o n d u c t i n g s p a c e e x p e r i m e n t s , w i l l c r e a t e c o n d i t i o n s f o r f r u i t f u l work,and h e a r t i l y w i s h t h a t new s u c c e s s e s w i l l be a c h i e v e d i n conquering s p a c e . To t h e s e w i s h e s may ':e add t h o s e of o u r f r i e n c l s p e o p l e o f good w i l l t h r m g h -

of o t h e r s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s , and o u t t h e whole world.

They c l e a r l y s e e i n t h e s z achievements t h e

c r e a t i v e power o f s o c i a l i s m . The enormous s u c c e s s i n r e s e a r c h of Venm i s an i m p o r t a n t page i n t h e r e p o r t on t h e f e a t s of l a b o r i n honor o f t h e 5 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y of t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e USSR. I n t h e f u t u r e , may t h i s t o o k o f

252

n a t i o n a l achievements, b o t h on e a r t h and i n s p a c e , o f t h e b u i l d e i s
o f communism b e f i l l e d w i t h i m p o r t a n t e n t r i e s !

A TASS Report:

The Venera-8 on Route March 28, 1972. /125 -

"Pravda",

I n accordance u i t h a r e s e a r c h program o f o u t e r s p a c e and p l a n e t s of t h e s o l t r system, on March 2 7 , 1 9 7 2 a t 7 h o u r s 1 5 minutes

Moscow t i m e , t h e Venera-8 a u t o i n a t i c s t a t i o n was launched i n t h e

So1-i e t Un i on

.
Scien-

The main aim o f t h i s ne\i s p a c e experiment i s t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n

of r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e p l a n e t Venus u s i n g a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s . t i f i c equipment i n t h e Venera-8 about t h e p l a n e t .

K i l l

obtain additiortal information

During t h e f l i g h t from e a r t h t c Venus i t i s

planned t c conduct r e s e a r c h from t h e s t a t i o n on t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s p a c e , e s p e c i a l l y measurement of t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f n e u t r a l hydrogen and s c l a r plasma f l u x e s . The Venera-8 c o n t a i n s p e n n a n t s w i t h t h e b a s - r e l i e f o f Vladimir I l ' i c h Lenin and a pict:*re of the S t a t e Emblem of t h e
USSR.
'ihc iieight of t h e

s t a t i o n i s 1,180 kg.

I t was launched towards

Venus from i n t e r m e d i c l t L . i r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e o r b i t s t 8 h o u r s
4 5 minutes b l o s c o ~t i n i p .

The e n g i n e s of t h e ' i n a l s t a g e o f t h e
. PI-

launch v e h i c l e fLnctione.-

2 4 3 sec an6 gave t h e s t a t i o n a

speed of 1 1 . 5 km/sec - - s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r t h a n the e s c a p e v e l o c i t y . According t c b a l l i s t i c m e a s u r t n e n t , t h e t r a j e c t o r y p a r a m e t e r s a r e

c l o s e t o t h e calcul3tcci ones.
253

In July 1972, after flying 312 million kilometers, the Venera-8 should reach the vicinity of the planet. According to the prggram, the descent vehicle should separate from the station and descend smoothly in the atmosphere of Venus and carry out scientifh measurement. According
to

telemetering information, the on-board systems

of the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station are working normally. Radio communicbtion with the station and receipt of
B

scientific information will be carried out on

928.4

frequency of

megahertz.

At 12 hours Moscow time on March 27, 1 9 7 2 , the

&

station was at a distance of 65,000 km from earth above the earth's surface with coordinates: 78O25" east longitude.

point on

OO33" north latitude,

The fligSt of the Venera-8 is being controlled from the longrange space communication center. The coordinating computation center is processing the incoming information.

The Amazing World of Venus M. Marov, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences "Izvestiya", March 28, 1972. We are living through an exciting time, when science is "fiercely" attacking" planets near earth. Space vehicles, con-

taining daring, scientific projects and the latest achievements of engil.eering, have brought us nearer to our objects of research which are at a distance of tens and hundreds and millions o f

254

kilometers.

The Mars-2 and Mars-' have been " r e p o r t i n g "

from near-

Mars o r b i t .

Now, a new S o v i e t Venera-8 a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n h a s been

I t w i l l continue research success-

launched on i t s l o n g j o u r n e y .

f u l l y b e g i n by i t s p r e d e c e s s o r s . Over t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s , so f r u i t f u l f o r s t u d y i n g t h o s e regions o f o u t e r s p a c e and t h e heavenly b o d i e s c l c s e t o e a r t h , s c i e n t i s t s began t o r e a l i z e t h a t Venus i s a s i g n i f i c a n t l y s p e c i a l , wonderful world, f u l l of mystery and s u r p r i s e s . Imagine t h e c o n d i t i o n s on Venus from t h e v i e w p o i n t o f a n o b s e r v e r on i t s s u r f a c e . Khat would he see and t r a n s m i t t o e a r t h ? /126 -

There i s no q u e s t i o n t h a t t h e f a n t a s t i c n a t u r e o f s u c h a s i t u a t i o n

is n o t only l i n k e d K i t h t h e complexity o f t h e f l i g h t , but t h e

unusual h a r s h climate on Venus. Measurements made by t h e

Venera-4, - 5 , - 6 and - 7 showed t h a t Venus i s s u r r o u n d e d by a powerfu1,hot c a r b o n d i o x i d e atmosphere.

I t s s u r f a c e temperature

on t h e n i g h t s i d e where t h e Venera-7 l a n d e d i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
500 C (almost t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f r e d h e a t ! ) , t h e p r e s s u r e i s

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 atmospheres - - a l m o s t 1 0 0 times g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t on e a r t h , o r t h a t of t h e ocean a t a d e p t h c f 1 km. The

d e n s i t y s f t h e atmosphere i s 6 0 t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of a i r on the e a r t h ' s surface. an o b s e r v e r . I n d a y t i m e , he would h a r d l y s e e t h e s u n o r t h e s t a r s a t n i g h t T h i s c r e a t e s many f e a t u r e s o f i n t e r e s t t o

- - Venus i s s u r r o u n d e d by t h i c k dense c l o u d s which, d u r i n g t h e

c e n t u r i e s , have hidden t h e p l a n e t from a s t r o n o m e r s .
It is true,

t h e c l o u d s a r e t r a n s p a r e n t f o r r a d i o waves i n t h e c e n t i m e t e r band. 255

Therefore, these features of Venus's own radiation have been carefully studied by radio astronomers. However, they could not confirm confidently that they cauld "see" the surface, and, consequently, determine the conditions on the planet. The cloud and dense atmosphere greatly attenuate solar light. Therefore, it can be expected that the illumination on the surface of Venus is small. Kost probably, it corresponds to our twilight on a dull day. There is little visibility - - the strong light

scattering by molecules of such a dense gas must produce conditions close to those on earth during fog. Hovever, if the visibility conditions in the atmosphere of Venus were favorable, the observer on its surface would see the astonishing optical effects due to the vzry strong refraction
or

I
;
i

.ght beams in the atmosphere. The

hoz-izon in all directions would aypear elevated, and one would nave the sensation of being on the bottom of a giant bowl. The discovery o f the planet's dense carbon dioxide atmosphere, and measurement of its parameters have made it possible to l o c k for physical and geochemical mechanisms which cailse these features, mainly its distinctive thermal conditions. These mechanisms must

be directly linked with the interaction of the lithosphere with the atmosphere, the nature o f the clouds and the planetls evolution.
Nhy did these high temperatures and pressure occur and remain

on Venus? Apparently, the main reason is that Venus is approximately m e third closer to the Sun than is the earth. Among

suggested theories, the most worthy o f mention are the so-called greenhouse model and the deep circulation model. The greenhouse

256

e f f e c t i s well-known. hothouses:

For example, i t i s w i d e l y used on e a r t h i n

t h e g l a s s frames l e t i n s u n l i g h t which h e a t s t h e s o i l , On Venus, t h e

and t h e same frames p r e v e n t warmth from l e a v i n g . atmosphere p r o v i d e s t h e "frames".

The c r e a t i o n o f t h e greenhouse

e f f e c t i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r t h a n i n t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere. C a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t even i f a small amount o f s o l a r r a d i a t i o n reaches t h e s u r f a c e , t h e carbon d i o x i d e , w i t h a v e r y small

a d m i x t u r e o f water vapor ( a l s o o b s e r v e d i n t h e atmosphere by d i r e c t measurement from t h e Venera s t a t i o n s ) , s h o u l d hold back t h e o u t going t h e r m a l r a d i a t i o n . t h i s effect i s increased.
A s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e r i s e ,

A p p a r e n t l y , e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s on t h e

p l a n e t a r e t h e r e s u l t o f g r a d u a l s e l f - h e a t i n g and now have some equilibrium

state.

Obviously, t h i s b a l a n c e Is n o t o n l y a temperr.-

/127

t u r e one, b u t a geochemical o n e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e measurcd c o n t e n t o f c a r b o n d i o x i d e and a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . t h e e a r t h w i t h a moderate t e m p e r a t u r e , where

A s opposed t o

approximately

t h e same amount o f c a r b o n d i o x i d e a s i n t h e atmosphere i n Venus

was

linked

in

c a r b o n a t e s o f s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k , on Venus, which

i s h o t , t h e c a r b o n monoxide moved from t h e l i t h o s p h e r e t o t h e

atmosphere and c r e a t e d t h e h i g h p r e s s u r e o f t h e p l a n e t ' s gaseous envelope. Another mechanism o f h e a t exchange - - t h e deep c i r c u l a t i o n model - - stems from t h e assumption t h a t s o l a r r a y s do n o t r e a c h the s u r f a c e , and a r e c o m p l e t e l y h e l d back by t h e atmosphere and c l o u d s .
I n t h i s c a s e , t h e warming-up o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g atmosphere c o u l d

o c c u r as t h e r e s u l t o f t h e a d i a b a t i c compression o f g a s when i t
257

i s r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e lower l a y e r s o f t h e atmosphere.

The f a c t

t h a t t h e h i g h - a l t i t u d e t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e i s c l o s e t o t h e adiabatic one down t o t h e s u r f a c e , was o b s e r v e d as a r e s u l t o f measurement by t h e Venera s t a t i o n s . o f t h e greenhouse model. However, t h i s f a c t i s c o n f i n e d t o c o n c e p t s T h e r e f o r e , i n o r d e r t o choose between the

two models, one must know how t h e a t t e n u a t i o n o f s u n l i g h t takes p l a c e below t h e c l o u d l e v e l which i s v i s i b l e from e a r t h .
O f c o u r s e , one must a l l o w f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l

h e a t of t h e p l a n e t p l a y s a c e r t a i n r o l e i n i t s thermal c o n d i t i o n s . I n b o t h models one must assume t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e o f c i r c u l a t i o n on Venus which e v e n s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e between t h e day and n i g h t s i d e s , and t h e e q u a t o r s and p o l e s . T h i s i s i n d i c a t e d by

r a d i o a s t r o n o m i c a l measurement showing t h e aDsence of n o t i c e a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e changes o f t h e s u r f a c e and t h e lower atmosphere a l o n g t h e p l a n e t ' s d i s c , depsnding b o t h on t h e phase and on calculations.
A most i n t e r e s t i n g problem i s t h e n a t u r e o f c l o u d s on Venus.

S o l a r r a d i a t i o n i s s t r o n g l y r e f l e c t e d from t h e upper boundary o f t h e c l o u d l a y e r v i s i b l e from e a r t h . T h i s makes Venus such a b r i g h t In

" s t a r " i n t h e heavens, and o n l y t h e Sun and moon a r e b r i g h t e r .

e s s e n c e , t h e problem o f c l o u d s on Venus h a s many forms, and u n t i l now o n l y g u e s s e s have been made o f t h e i r f o r m a t i o n , c o m p o s i t i o n and e x t e n t .
I t would a p p e a r t h a t t h e most a t t r a c t i v e h y p o t h e s i s

i s t h a t of w a t e r - i c e c l o u d s , s i m i l a r t o t h o s e on e a r t h .
with c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s .

T h i s meets

However, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e

t h a t a s opposed t o t h e e a r t h , where t h e c l o u d s r a r e l y r i s e above

258

10-12 km, on Venus similar clouds must begin at altitudes of almost 60 km, and their thickness (if one assumes the measured concentration of water vapor) must exceed 10 km. Serious attention is being paid to other possibilities - - the abundance of dust in the atmosphere, and also the stratified cloud formation on Venus. The latter is a unique feature of this planet, The

and is a direct resu?: of specific conditions existing there.

temperature on its surface is higher than the fusing or bciling temperatures o f many elements and compounds existing in oir natural conditions in the solid phase. For example, apart from water, sulfur, bromine, iodine and mercury could have entered the atmosphere of Venus, and alkaline metals, tin and lead could be found on the surface in liquid form. But with altitude the temperature falls, and the vapors of impurities in the atmosphere aust be condensated at different levels, similar to that which occurs when the temperature is reduced with water vapor. Therefore, there is the possibility of an extremely

curious picture of a stratified cloud formation on Venus with an extremely unusual chemical composition of condensates o f individual layers. During observation from earth in ultraviolet rays, one can detect individual contrast details, not discernible in the visible region of the spectrum, in the structure of clouds of Venus. It

was found that the displacement of these details along the planet's disc, called "ultraviolet clouds", takes place approximately
60 times faster than the

/128

proper rotation o f the planet itself.

259

On earth, the leading rotation of the atmosphere, no more than 1.2-1.4 times greater, is only found at relatively high altitudes

- - 150-400 km. The nature of this interesting phenomenon is still

not clear. @n Venus, it is mainly linked with features of heat exchange and planetary circulation at the level of the cloud layer. Measurements made by the Venera stations put an end to many years of argument on the predominant chemical composition and Ptmospheric parameters of the planet, and at the same time posed scientists a number of extremely complex questions.
it is not clear why there is so little water.

In particular,

It would appear that

in the planet's evolution process water would have been precipitated from below due to volcanic activity, as took place on earth. However, the water content in the atmosphere of Venus (of

course, this is impossible on the surface in the liquid phase) is at least 1,000 times less than on earth. One o f the possible explanations is that the temperature of the cold region itself in the upper atmosphere of Venus (in the mesopause) is 10-20' higher, and sufficiently hard ultraviolet radiation can penetrate deeper than on earth. The result would be a more intense separation (photodissociatisnj of water into oxygen and hydrogen and an intenser "runaway" of light hydrogen from the atmosphere into outer space. The oxygen would not bond with the solid matter of the planet's surface. The hydrogen corona o f Venus was actually detected by measurement from space vehicles.
hzs a hydrogen corona),and

However, this is small (the earth also

in order to judge definitely on the

260

possibility cf its interest, in particular, one must know the ratio of hydrogen with its heavier isotope deuterium in the upper atmosphere of Venus. This short list shown by no means exhausts the problems of Venus which exist, in spite of the enormous success achieved in studying it, and its title of "planet of riddles" is justified. Venus and Mars are close planets, a i they are interesting rd since scientists not only hope to find here the explanation for many zstonishing natural phenomena, but also "read" the pages of history of the origin and development of the solar system, which have been erased over billions of years on earth. Of course, to answer these questions one requires years of intense work, many complex experiments from space vehicles and intensive ground observations. This new flight of the Venera-8 automatic station will bring u s closer to solving these jnterestifig and complex problems.

A TASS

Report: lTnnera-8on Venus!

"Pravda", i u l v 2 3 , 1972. Soviet science and technology have achieved new successes in the research of planets of the solar system. On July 2 2 , 1972, the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station, having covered in 117 days a flight distance of more than
300 million kilometers, reached the vicir,ity of Venus.

When it entered the planet's atmosphere, the descent vehicle containing scientific equipment was separated from the station.
261

A f t e r aerodynamic b r a k i n g , t h e d e s c e n t v e h i c l e made a smooth descent by p a r a c h u t e , a n d a t 1 2 h o u r s 29 m i n u t e s Moscow time on J u l y 2 2

/129

made a s o f t l a n d i n g on t h e s u r F - c e o f Venus. T h i s was t h e f i r s t l a n d i n g o f a s p a c e v e h i c l e on t h e p l a n e t ' s illuminated side.

A

b a s - r e l i e f o f t h e founder o f t h e USSR,

Vladimir I l ' i c h Lenin and a p i c t u r e o f t h e S t a t e Emblem o f t h e USSR was s e t down on t h e p l a n e t . During t h e v e h i c l e ' s p a r a c h u t e d e s c e n t and 50 min a f t e r l a n d i n g , s c i e n t i f i c equipment c a r r i e d o u t r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e atrnosp h e r e and t h e p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e l a y e r a t t h e l a n d i n g s i t e . i n f o r m a t i o n was s e n t back t o e a r t h . During t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y f l i g h t 86 communication s e s s i o n s were h e l d w i t h t h e V e n e r a - 8 , d u r i n g which t h e s t a t i o n was c o n t r o l l e d and t h e o n - b o a r d systems were checked, t h e t r a j e c t o r y p a r a m e t e r s This

were measured,and s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h was made i n t o t h e p h y s i c a l

processes taking place i n outer space. According t o t e l e m e t e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t , t h e s t a t i o n ' s systems and s c i e n t i f i c equipment worked p e r f e c t l y .
A

s t a t i o n t r a j e c t o r y c o r r e c t i o n was made on A p r i l 6 , 1972 t o b r i n g t h e s t a t i o n towards Venus a t t h e e s t i m a t e d t i m e and l a n d t h e d e s c e n t vehicle i n t h e appointed area. T r a j e c t o r y measurement made l a t e r

showed t h a t t h e maneuver was done v e r y a c c u r a t e l y , and as a r e s u l t , a second f l i g h t c o r r e c t i o n program was c a n c e l e d . During t h e f l i g h t i n n e a r - p l a n e t a r y o u t e r s p a c e and t h e upper atmosphere of Venus, measurements o f t h e r a d i a t i o n l e v e l , and t h e d e n s i t y of hydrogen and d e u t e r i u m were made.

262

The descent vehicle was separated from Venera-8 at 10 hours

40

minutes Moscow time. During aerodynamic braking in the planet's atmosphere, accom-

panied by a sharp increase of g-force

and a considerable

rise of temperature on the vehicle's exterior surface, its speed was reduced from 11.6 km/sec to 250 m/sec, after which the parachute system came into operation. During the parachute descent the first research into Venus was done and experiments were carried out to determine the illumination, pressure and temperature in the atmosphere and on the planet's surface on its day side. Information was obtained on the nature of rock of the planet's surface layer. The results of scientific measurement are being processed. The Soviet research program for outer space, the moon and planets o f the solar system i s being successfully carried out by automatic space vehicles. This new success of Soviet astronautics, achieved on the eve
of the 50th anniversary o f the formation of the USSR, is remark-

able proof of scientific and technical progress and the creative enthusiasm of all nations of the Soviet State.

263

The E a r t h and Venus

--

D'ssimilar

Sisters

P r o f e s s o r V. :4o.rc., Doctor o f P h y s i c a l and M a t h c r s t i c a l S c i e n c e s "Izvestiya", J u l y 2 5 , 1972.

The s t u d y of Venus by d e s c e n t v e h i c l e s i s one of t h e most important d i r e c t i o n s i n Soviet space r e s e a r c h . The Venera-8 i s

t h e f i f t h s p a c e v e h i c l e t o have s u c c e s s f u l l y descended i n t o t h e atmosphere o f t h i s m y s t e r i o u s p l a n e t and t r a n s m i t t e d new informat i o n about i t , o b t a i n e d by d i r e c t measurement. f i r s t experiment o f t h i s k i n d f o r 1 9 7 5 . What do we know of Venus t o d a y and what would we l i k e t o know i n the future? circular orbit. Venus, l i k e t h e e a r t h , moves i n an a p p r o x i m a t e l y
I t s a v e r a g e d i s t a n c e from t h e Sun i s 108 m i l l i o n
-/130 .

The USA p l a n s t h e

k i l o m e t e r e ; i t i s 1 . 4 times c l o s e r t o it t h a n e a r t h , and r e c e i v e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w i c e a s much e n e r g y from i t on one u n i t o f z r e a . However, Venus i s a b e t t e r r e f l e c t o r of s o l a r r a d i a t i o n t h a n e a r t h . The m a j o r i t y of r a d i a t i o n a r r i v i n g a t t h e boundary of i t s atm.osphere r e t u r n s
t.0

s p a c z , and a s

a r e s u l t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same

amount of s o l a r energy h e a t s b o t h p l a n e t s . Apart from which, Venus and t h e e a r t h a r e a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l i n s i z e and mass, and have t h e same a v e r a g e d a n s i t y and a c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i t y on t h e s u i l a c e . These two p l a n e t s a r e r e a l sisters.

But i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e s e s i s t e r s a r e n o t s i m i l a r t o e a c h o t h e r . According t o measurements made by t h e Venera-8 on t h e s u r f a c e , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i s 475-500 C . The atmosphere c o n s i s t s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y t h e p r e s s u r e on t h e p l a n e t ' s

of a g r e a t amount o f carbon d i o x i d e : 264

s u r f a c e i s 90-100 atmospheres.

One o t h e r f e a t u r e i s t h e s m a l l What would happen t o

amount of w a t e r compared w i t h t h e e a r t h .

oceans on e a r t h i f o u r p l a n e t was h e a t e d t o such a t e m p e r a t u r e ? They would e v a p o r a t e ; t h e p r e s s u r e o f w a t e r vapor would be approximately 300 atmospheres, and t h e w a t e r vapor would become t h e main componerit of t h e atmosphere.

In e s s e n c e , Venus i s w a t e r l e s s .

The r e l a t i v e c o n t e n t of

w a t e r vapor was e s t i m a t e d s p e c t r o s c o p i c z l l y by ground o p t i c a l t e l e s c o p e s and by r a d i o a s t r o n o m i c a l methods, and f i n a l l y , was measured d i r e c t l y and - 6 .

i;i

t h e p l a n e t ' s atmosphere by t h e Venera-4, - 5

According t c t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e r e l a t i v e c o n t e n t of

water vapor i n t h e atmosphere of Venus does n o t exceed 1%.

According t o p r e s e n t - d a y t h e o r i e s , p l a n e t s were formed a s

t h e r e s u l t o f t h e cohesion o f s o l i d p a r t i c l e s i n a c o l d p r o t o p l a n e t a r y cloud which s a r r o u n d e d t h e Sun d u r i n g i t s f o r m a t i o n . The e a r t h could or.ly m a i n t a i n i t s o r i g i n a l atmosphere, s i m i l a r i n composition t o t h a t o f t h e Sun (hydrogen, helium, i n e r t g a s e s , e s p e c i a l l y neon) f o r a s h o r t time. Then, t h e i n i t i a l atmosphere

was almost c o m p l e t e l y l o s t ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of heavy i n e r t g a s e s ) , and was r e p l a c e d by a secondary one c o n s i s t i n g of t h e products af volcanic a c t i v i t y . Water was t h e main one o f t h e s e p r o d u c t s . There was 1 0 times Molecular oxygen

l e s s carbon monoxide and 300 times less n i t r o g e n .

appeared r e l a t i v e l y l a t e r when v e g e t a t i o n appeared on t h e e a r t h

- - t h i s g a s was s p e c i f i c a l l y t e r r e s t r i a l .

Had t h e r e been no Life The

on e a r t h , t h e r e would have been h a r d l y any o f t h i s g a s .

265

b i o s p h e r e was a l s o i m p o r t a n t since i t e x t r a c t e d from t h e atmosp h e r e t h e m a j o r i t y of carbon d i o x i d e which formed s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k such as l i m e s t o n e . With t h e a r r i v a l of w a t e r , of which t h e r e was

an a3undance on e a r t h , n o n - b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s a l s o took p l a c e which bound up c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n r o c k ( c o n v 2 r t i n g s i l i c a t e s i n t o carbonates). The s i m i l a r i t y between e a r t h and Venos i n s i z e and mass i n d i c a t e s t h e similar i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f b o t h p l a n e t s . Therefore,

one c o u l d e x p e c t t h a t a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l v o l c a n i c p r o c e s s e s t o o k p l a c e i n b o t h o f them.
I n some a s p e c t s t h e r e i s a r e a l s i m i l a r i t y :

f o r example, t h e

amount o f c a r b o n d i o x i d e p r e c i p ; ' - a t e d

i n t o t h e atmosphere of b o t h Howevex, on

p l a n e t s d u r i n g t h e i r evolut'-on i s almost i d e n t i c a l . e a r t h i t d i d n o t remain i n t h e atmosp.:re, q u i t e r a p i d l y i n sedimentary rock. i n t h e amount of water v a p o r . Wy d i d t h i s occur? h a r e two b a s i c t h e o r i e s .

bil+ became bound up

There i s a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e

T h i s i s one o f t h e main r i d d l e s .

There

The f i r s t i s t h a t Venus was immediately

fornied "without water" s i n c e t h e r e were no i c e p a r t i c l e s i n t h i s p a r t of t h e i n i t i a l p r o t o p l a n e t a r y c l o u d owing t o i t s p r o x i m i t y t o t h e Sun (and h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e ) . Venusian The second t h e o r y i s t h a t t h e 1~31

l i t h o s p h e r e produced t h e same amount o f w a t e r a s e a r t h ,

b u t almost a l l t h e w a t e r molecules were d e s t r o y e d by s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n and c o n v e r t e d i n t o hydrogen and oxygen. Later,

hydrogen went ir.to i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s p a c e , and oxygen r e a c t e d w i t h other gases.

266

T h e c h o i c e between t h e s e t h e o r i e s iiiust be made i n t h e f u t u r e .

One of t h e p o s s i b l e means of s e l e c t i o n i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i v e c o n t e n t o f deuterium a r d hydrogen i n t h e water vapor and o t h e r hydrogenous g z s e s o f which t h e r e a r e small anlounts i n t h e atmosphere of Venus.
The r e s e a r c h done by Venera-8 i n t o t h e d e n s i t y o f

deuterium and hydrogen i n t h e upper atmo.;phere i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t . Atoms of deuterium a r e heavy, t h e r e f o r e , t h e y l e a v e t h e p1ane:'s atmosphere slower t h a n atoms o f hydrogen, e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e r e i s w a t e r and
; i

larg-: amount of carbon d i o x i d e i n t h e atmosphere.

i)f c c u r s e , t h e r e i s no l i f e on Veilus i n s u c h severe c l i m a t i c

conditions.

I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e absence of w a t e r , t h e

l a r p e amount of f r e e c z r b o n d i o x i d e i n t h e atmosphere, t h e h i g h temperature, and t h e absence o f a b i o s p h e r e a r e mutually r e l a t e d

phenmena whereby t h e l a c k of water i s t h e mair! f a c t o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e remainder.

A b i o s p h e r e c o u l d n o t be formed w i t h o u t water and

p r o c e s s e s l i n k e d w i t h carbon dioxic;e c o u l d n o t e f f e c t i v e l y t a k e place. Accumulation took p l a c e and an a t m o s p h e r i c p r o t e c t i o n was

famed ihiezb. i n c r e a s e d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e , and t h c atmosphere g r a d u a l l y acquired i t s present L h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; .

I t is possible that i C

t i l ? e a r t h was i e p r i \ - e C o f w a t e r i n t h e same Kay a s Ver s , t h e same

ti. i n s ~ o ud l o c c u r .
lie have onl::
\c:ii.+
.-!:i:ii

Fcritic>::cLi
,>:-i-.:i:;
,

,e o f t h e problems o f r e s e a r c n i n t o

ere

7.

sclcIii..ists

- - t h e problem of t h e e v o l u t i o n
Ke do n o t com-

o f i t s z t m o s ~ h c r ~ .T h S s i s n o t t h e orily mystery.

p ? c C e l y u.idersrand t h e p h y s i c a l meclr.;t:;sm which h e a t s up i t s sur-

iacr., a l t

:!- i t i s c l c a r T;: .: i t i s l i n k e d w i t h tlie o p a c i t y of

267

i t s atmosphere i n t h e i n f r a r e d r e g i o n of t h c spectrum.

The compo-

s i t i o n anL f o r m a t i o n of t h e p l a n e t ' s -*oud l a y e r h a s not been d e t e r m i n e d , n e i t h e r h a s i t s role i n t h e h e a t i n g up of t h e atmosphere. However, one c a n be a s s u r e d t h a t t h e r e will soon be a n s h e r s

t o these questions.
I would l i k e t o s t r e s s t h a t t h e problem o f e v o l u t i o n of

p l a n e t a r y atmospheres i s n o t an a b s t r a c t one.

Even a s m a l l change

i n t h e a t m o s p h e r i c c o m p o s i t i o n and c l i m a t e on e a r t h i s e x t r e m e l y
dangerous, and t h e r e f o r e , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d how t h e composition o f p l a n e t a r y atmosphere t o o k p l a c e , a n d how t h e climate

i s determined by e v o l u t i o n f a c t o r s .
planets of t h e s o l a r

D e t a i l e d s t u d y of o t h e r

system c a n g i v e a c l u e t o s o l v i n g t h i s p r o b -

lem s o iniportant f o r a l l mankind.

Tcwards Venus f o r t h e Sake o f E a r t h P r c f e s s o r A . Monin, t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e I n s t i t u t e of OceanologY of t h e Academy of S c i e n c e s of t h e USSR, S . Z i l i t i n k e v i c k , Doctor o f P h y s i c a l and Mathematical S c i e n c e s "Izvestiya", July 27, 1972.

The d i s c o v e r y of t h e p l a n e t P l u t o by mathematical c a l c u l a t i o n

became a t e x t b o o k example of s c i e n t i f i c f o r e s i g h t .

Powever, methods

and i n s t r u m e n t s a t t h e d i s p o s a l of s c i e n t i s t s t c d a y a l l o w g r e a t e r and more complex problems t o be s o l v e d .

O n l y r e c e n t l y , due t o t h e work of r a d i o a s t r o n o m e r s and f l i g h t s
o f a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s , h a s i n f o r m a t i o n been o b t a i n e d on t h e p r o p e r -

t i e s of t h . q+rllosphere o f Venus a:id t h e p l a n e t ' s r o t a t i o n .

However,

268

until now ne had no experimental information on the winds blowing there. The information acxmulated has already allsued t h e problem 1132 -

to be set 3n the theoretical calculation of the wind system and

temperature distribution, that is, the general circulation of the planet's atmosphere. Calculations of the %eather"
of Venus were

carried out during 1969-1972 at the Institute of Oceanology of the Acadeny of Sciences of the U S R . Let me explain that this is a numerical experiment. At first, it was accepted that there was no bL,;d in the atmosphere
of Venus, the temperature on the surface was identical and dropped

in altitude according to the so-called adi-llatic law (which corresponds to complete agitation). Later, the solar source of heat

was "included" and changes in atmospheric conditions were calculated with the passing of time. In this way, the numerical experi-

ment reproduced the imagined behavior of the atmosphere as it would be if the temperature was evened out. and circulation was "stopped"; we gave it, as it were, the chance to begin to develop again. There were reasons to suppose thaL after a more or less prolonged period o f adaption, the model of the atmosphere would assume dynamic equilibrium with ambient conditions. Calculations showed that equilibrium is attained after approximately one earth month, and as a result o f the whole experiment, information was obtained on changes, over time, of the speed and direction of the k-nd, the temperature, atmospheric pressure, the vertical movement of gas, heat fluxes, and gas friction on the

269

s u r f a c e d u r i n g t h e whole Venusian d i u r n a l c y c l e - - a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1 1 7 e a r t h days.

R e s u l t s o f t h e experiment showed t h a t t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e atmosphere o f Venus i s p r a c t i c a l l y symmetrical r e l a t i v e t o t h e equator,and develops a s a r e s u l t o f t h e temperature d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e day and n i g h t hemispheres. These d i f f e r e n c e s a r e con-

s t a n t l y m a i n t a i n e d s i n c e t h e day s i d e o f t h e p l a n e t i s warmed by t h e Sun, and t h e n i g h t s i d e c o o l e d from above by n a t u r a l r a d i a t i o ? . The c i r c u l a t i o n i s n o t symr:. : r i c a l r e l a t i v e t o t h e axis of r o t a t i o n n o r r e l a t i v e t o t h e l i n e from t h e Sun t o Venus: the

region of g r e a t e s t h e a t i n g is c l o s e t o t h e evening t e r m i n a t o r , and t h e c o l d e s t a r e a i s n e a r t h e morning t e r m i n a t o r (a t e r m i n a t o r

- - i s t h e l i n e d i v i d i n g t h e day and n i g h t h e m i s p h e r e s ) .

The

t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e p l a n e t a r e v e r y

small - - o n l y 1 - 2 ' .
The wind system i s a s f o l l o w s : i n t h e lower l a y e r s , g a s e s

forming t h e Venusian atmosphere, converge towards t h e most h e a t e d r e g i o n , a ~ ? dt h e r e r i s e upwards and s p r e a d i n t h e upper l a y e r s , forming t h e "cold" region, and a g a i n descend. T h i s movement spreads

o v e r t h e whole p l a n e t ; t h e r e a r e no l a r g e - s c a l e v o r t i c e s such as c y c l o n e s and a n t i c y c l o n e s . s v e r 5 - 6 m/sec. The s t a n d a r d wind speed i s a l i t t l e

F o r comparison, a t y p i c a l wind s p e e d on e a r t h i s

almost 1 0 m/sec, b u t on Venus t h e d e n s i t y of t h e atmosphere i s

1 0 times g r e a t e r and normal wind p r e s s u r e s a r e 1 0 - 1 5 times g r e a t e r

t h a n on e a r t h , - - t h e y c o r r e s p o n d t o o u r h u r r i c a n e s .

270

Friction on the surface of Venus is 10-15 times greater thar, on earth. relief. Therefore, one can expect that the planet has a smooth It is interesting that, according to calculations, verti-

cal speeds reach several centimeters per second (on earth they are measured in several millimeters per second). The whole lower atmos-

phere of Venus (troposphere) Is in a state of convective mixing:

on the day siJe this is caused by the heating from below, on the

night side by cooling from above due to natural radiation.

Of course, all this information must be made more precise.

The mathematical model needs t o be improved, and one must introZuce into it a detailed description of the vertical structure, and allow for new information,based o n calculations o f the observed properties of
tilt;

Venusian atmosphere. We hope that new information trans-

mitted to earth by the Venera-8 will provide material for making more precise the initial parameters of the calculation and for comparing theoretical re;ults with actual ones.
T h i s article on the circulation of the Venusian atmosphere

1133

could end here.

However, the reader has a right to ask: Why is

this research necessary; why do we need to kno.. about th.j circulation on another planet; and what practical use can be gained from
t h i s knowledge? These questions deserve a detailed answer.

We

shall limit ourselves to showing a few conceptions from the point

of view o f .!eophysics, a science which studies our planet.

One oE

t h e most important tasks of geophysics is to learn to forecast

theoretically what the "dynamic

equilibrium conditions" will become

271

on our planet ( a term already known) as a result of the conscious or involuntary effects caused by man's economic activity. The practical in1r;rest in this is obvious. Technology is

develcping so quickly that even now the question arises - - what is the further fate of the abmdancc o f carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere from fuel combustioR, and c a m o t this accumulation of carbon dioxide, by increasing the "greenhouse effect", lead to
a

catastrophically warncr cli-ate. Another example - - are the polar ice

(.:IPS

stable; wou1.d relatively warmer theraal conditions cause

or, on the other hand, catastrophically

them tz d'sappear incre as e S

Many sirnilax , ; u e s t i o n s arise.

tc ;ive

Probabiy, the only method. is numerical

them sc' ntifically based acswers by conducti:%

i,.l.-

experirrents sir:iuli
!yr.::s 3

our atmosphere in changed coqditions. One

universal physical ~ - nathenaticai model cf atmospheric i

circulatio.1 w h i c h would acciirately describe not only conditions existing o n earth at .-esent, b u t o t k r p,.>sible conditions. Can
one test -uch

model b . h ,t

SUCI-xaterial?

1 k l . s is where planea
t ~

;ary zi-mospLeres are : ; > e f u l . By ?tudying them we acqLire know: .dge of prc c e s s e s
A .
tch:Ii-.q
. _

piace cn earth.

Scrsret i s Revealed ----','.khn)rlov [Pulkovo Observatory)

Academiciar,

'i.

"Pravdcl", July 2 9 , 1 0 7 2 .

Of c l l planets i n + ! & e solai- system +.he most enigmatic

Venus, whose atmosphere ha::. Giscovcred
ir;

!..

is

1761 by M. 1'. L o r n c . , ~ ~ ~ ~ : - .

272

It was always shrouded in a thick layer o f clouds of unknown com-

position; it attracted the attention of many scientists and aroused the imagination. There were many theories on the "Morning Star". There was even contradictory information on its rotation around its axis. In size, mass, density and gravity, Venus is more simiHowever, owing to its prox-

lar to earth than all other planets.

imity to the Sun,more than twice as much solar heat falls on one unit of its surface than that o f earth, and this creates a high temperature in deep regions of the extremely dense atmosphere and, consequently, its surface is hidden from us by cloud. Some information on the atmosphere of Venus was obtained from spectroscopic observations in the infrared region.
It was

shown that there was a predominance of carbon dioxide with a very small admixture of free oxygen. Beginning 15 years ago, radio

observations gave more reliable information on the temperature and rotation of Venus.
As

one penetrates the planet's atmosphere,

the temperature greatly increases and reaches hundreds of degrees centigrade in the nearest surface layers. Amazingly, it does not rotate very slowly, one revolution approximately every 2 4 3 earth days, but in a direction opposite to that of planets around the Sun and the axial rotation of the majority of them.
A

/ 134

new phase o f research into this mysterious planet has been

DY

made possible

the launch o f Soviet interplanetary automatic

st.itions. The first two (Venera-1 and Venera-2) passed close to it, and the Venera-3 reached the planet and penetrated its atmosphere,which was dense and hot. Later, the Venera-4 made the first

273

smooth descent in the atmosphere of another planet and provided details of its features. During these flights it was sometimes necessary to operate blindly, but nothing is conquered easily, most of all in science.

In May 1969,vehicles which separated from the Venera-5 and

Venera-6,penetrated the atmosphere of Venus and determined its temperature, chemical composition and density. This was a great

achievement for Soviet science. The information obtained allowed a vehicle to be built to withstand high temperatures and pressure.

It was launched towards Venus by the Venera-7,and provided valuable

information. Apart from information on the atmosphere and temperature conditions, interplanetary stations have shown that Venus has no radiation belts, and its magnetic field is very weak. However,

the intensity of cosmic rays due, probably, to its proximity to the Sun is noticeably greater than in near space. The high temperature and great pressure deep inside its powerful atmosphere have set scientists and designers of automatic interplanetary stations, and especially their descent vehicles, an zxtremely difficult task: to produce instruments which would

work perfectly at temperatures reaching 400-500 C, and at a pressure of up t o 100 kg/cm2, capable of withstanding g-force which occur when entering the atmosphere of Venus with a speed exceeding the escape velocity,and for Venus equalling 10.2 km/sec. -411 these difficulties were overcome as the outstanding flight of the Venera-8 showed. The descent vehicle reached the surface 274

on the illuminated side o i Venus and made a soft Landing, f o r

50 min transmitted interesting information not only on the atmos-

phere, but on the surface itself which, was "sensed" in this way for the first time. The new experiment nGt only shows the high degree of development of Soviet science and technology, but once more confirms that the future is behind space work, and an important rol, can be played by them when investigating outer space, One is amazed by the accuracy when correcting the station's orbit and landing it on the prescribed point of the planet. On

the day of the landing Venus itself was visible from earth like a 10-kopek piece at a distance of 80 m.
It would be difficult to

find a sniper who could not only hit a moving coin at such a distance, but also choose a certain point on it beforehand.

It is difficult to overestimate the scientific and cognitive

value of the new experiment.

Some time is required to completely But one can already safely say

rs-ocess the information obtained.

that our knowledge of the nature and properties of planets has been increased. Venus, the earth and Mars, belonging to the s o callcd earth group of planets, do not differ significantly in mass, size, density and distance from the Sun and motion around it. their p4iysical conditions, -.hemica1atmospheric composition, and surface structure are widely different! The enormous difference in tktir nature has once mor- Seen shown. But

275

The Birth of Mineralogy on Venus Leningraci "Moskovskaya pravda", July 2 8 , 1972. Professor D. P. Grigor'yev, a well-known scientist and the president of the International Commission on Space Mineralogy, described one of the experiments conducted by the Soviet Venera-8 as the first blow by the geclogical hammer on the hot rock of Venus. At the request of N. Konstantinov, a TASS correspondent, he showed the scientific value of "testing" soil on Venus and the prospects of such research for discovering the geological nature

/ 135 -

and evolution o f our space neighbor. As mineralogists,we are extremely interested in the first information on the atmospheric composition and physical conditions on Venus. The fact is that the atmosphere of planets is the result Therefore,

of the separation of gases by solid planetary matter.

analysis o f the atmosphere allows conclusions to be made on the composition, condition and other properties of rock and minerals on Venus. one. This planet, as opposed to the moon and Mars, is a rich

For example, whereas the moon does not have an air envelope

and is, as it were, a hardened model o f the earth's distant past, Venus, apparently, is undergoing an active geological evolution. After detailed stady we rit phenomena, wiiicl; :ire taking place on lz earth much s l o w e r , and p.ssibly, this will happen to our planet in the future.

276

The h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e and abundance of c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n t h e Venusian atmosphere c a u s e s e v e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s t o be made on t h e p l a n e t ' s geological n-ture. Experiments i n l a b o r a t o r i e s showed

t h a t i t was p o s s i b l e t o i s o l a t e m i n e r a l s c o n t a i n i n g c a r b o n i c a c i d

salts.
calcite world.

On e a r t h , one of t h e most w i d e - s p r e a d o f t h e s e m i n e r a l s i s

- - t h e b a s i s of l i m e s t o n e , c o v e r i n g l a r g e areas o f t h e
By h e a t i n g c a l c i t e and q u a r t z s c i e n t i s t s observed t h e
A t h e o r y on t h i s mechan-

a c t i v e f o r m a t i o n o f f r e e carbon d i o x i d e .

i s m forming t h e atmosphere o f Venus h a s been s u g g e s t e d by t h e wellknown S o v i e t s c i e n t i s t and g e o c h e m i s t , Academician A. P. Vinogrndov.

H s a y s t h a t when t h i s o c c u r s e

a new m i n e r a l , w o l l a s t o n i t e , i s

formed, which p r o b a b l y c o n s t i t u t e s t h e s u r f a c e o f Venus.

A . P. Vinogradov e s t i m a t e d , f o r example, t h a t i f t h i s hap-

pened on e a r t h d u r i n g i t s h i s t o r y s o much c a r b o n d i o x i d e would have been i s o l a t e d , a n d i f i t had n o t been r e q u i r e d by v e g e t a t i o n , t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere would have been 4 0 t i m e s g r e a t e r than i t i s today. Carbon d i o x i d e c a n a l s o be produced when h e a t i n g d o l o m i t e s ,

and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f i r o n o r e , a s i d e r i t e w i t h a number o f o t h e r minerals. on Venus. There i s m x h t o be s a i d f o r t h e t h e o r y o f t h e u n u s u a l a c t i v e volcanism on Venus which h e a t s i t s s u r f a c e and h u r l s i n t o t h e atmosp h e r e a huge amount g f c a r b o n d i o x i d e . " c o l d e r " t h a n t h o s e on Venus. o f t o n s o f & a s and a l a r g e Volcanoes
OIL

Both t h e s e m i n e r a l s known on e a r t h mey be e n c o u n t e r e d

earth are

But when t h e y e r u p t , many thousands

0 :

amount

h e a t a r e produced.
277

W are witnesses o f t h e b i r t h of a new science e

on Venus.

--

mineralogy

The l a n d i n g o f t h e Venera-8 i s h e l p i n g t o d e v e l o p t h i s S u f f i c e i t t o s a y t h a t c n l y i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e d e n s i t y

science.

o f s o i l c a n s e t t l e s c i e n t i f i c q u a r r e l s on t h e f o r m a t i o n o f Venus.
I n i t s t u r n , t h i s w i l l a f f e c t o u r c o n c e p t s of t h e g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y o f t h e e a r t h , which, i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , w i l l h e l p t o throw l i g h t on laws governing t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m i n e r a l s . Venera-8 Was Born Here V. Sn;irnov (A "Pravda" s p e c i a l c o r r e s p t , n d e n t )

"Pravda",

August 5 , 1 9 7 2 .

A Report from t h e Design Bureau .

The f s m i l i a r roomy o f f i c e of t h e head of t h e d e s i g n bureau. Nothing h a s c l a n g e d s i n c e I was h e r e l a s t . p h o t o g r a p h s on t h e w a l l a r e new: Probably, only t h e

/ 136 -

t h e damaged d i s c of Mars s u r -

rounded by h a z e , r e c o r d e d by t h e S o v i e t a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n when o r b i t i n g t h e p l a n e t , and a p i c t u r e o f a t r a y w i t h l u n a r m a t t e r brought back by Luna-20

....

A t t h e t a o l e a r e d e s i g n e r s and workers o f t h e p l a n t ' s assem-

bly department.

They a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e Venera-8, which t h e y

d e s i g n e d and Froduced, i n s h o r t , which was born h e r e . The deputy c h i e f d e s i g n e r s a y s , "NOW, when t h e experiment h a s been s u c c e s s f u l l y c o n c l u d e d , t h a t s t a g e f o r us i s o v e r . now s o l v i n g o t h e r complex problems and l o o k i n g ahead. t a l k of t h e Venera-8. W are e

But we can

I t c o m p l e t e l y accomplished i t s program and

278

gave much valuable information on the mysterious planet.

This

information has helped science to discover the nature of Venus. However, the value of the experiment has not been exhausted.

For designers, its success is the realization of everything they

had conceived and planned. pr'zciples,

It was shown that our decisions and

which went into the design of the vehicle, were correct,

as was the selection of material from which it was constiucted and the xethods o f testing its subassembly units on earth. Valu-

able engineering experience was gained which will be useful when I1 producing further autumatic vehicles for investigating Venus

...

Those taking part in the conversation returned to the days when the Venera-8 did not exist, an3 its descent vehicle could only be seen on drawings or in the plant workshop. The leading designer continues the conversation.. "The Venera-8 was a logical continuation of the previous Venera-7. However, the building o f the descent vehicle was almost completely new. How were these important problems solved? The vehicle was designed for prolonged work on the planet's surface. Therefore, there was a great need for thermal protection.

This had tc! b e maintained during all stages of the experiment,

di'rlng t h e flight in outer s p a c e , after 9-erodynamicbraking in the
dense atmos2hez.e owing to great g-force, and planet's surface.
011

impact with the

Thermal insu!ation material must have a very low

coekficient of heat conducticn. After landing, it assumes the functicna o f thermal protection from the hot atmosphere. This is

279

also done by an effective refrigerant used in the descent vehicle. All this is to delay the vehicle's "thermal death". New devices and additional scientific instruments were installed

in the descent vehicle. Therefore, one had to reduce the weight,

mainly by lightening the body of the vehicle.
An

experiment with

the Venera-7 showed that there were reserves for economy. However, it was necessary to conduct research in calculating the strength of the load carrying shell. Thd theory for calculating the resistance to external pressure was also investigated. khy external?

In engineering there were no examples for producing large diameter

shells which "operate" in 1 arge external pressures and temperatures. The body o f the vehicle is a sphere, or "globule" as it is sometimes called. in If external pressure acts upon it as, for example,

balloons launched into the earth's atmosphere, then any inclina-

tion from the geometrical sphere could be corrected independently. But when there are great external pressures not even the slightest error is permissible in the spherical shape of the shell; it must
be perfect.

1137 -

Even a small deviation would cause the body of tha

vehicie to dis.i.ntegrate. The prol-ccili is complicated since several tens of "holes" for feeding external sensors, antennas, etc. must be made in the load carrying, part of the descent vehicle. Each one of these apertures

weakens the construction and this must be compensated for. Kevertheless, the weight of the vehicle's body was considerably reduced.

All the sensors and sensing eleDents during the descent stage
by parachute come into contact with the tnviro.mer.t, but the
280

measurement equipment and radio transmitter are inside the "globule". ment module. The most compiex problem is the sealing of the instruI f the hot atmosphere of Venus entcrs it the instru-

ments will die.

Normally, various types o f rubber are used when Obviously, these are not suitable for a

sealing ground vehicles. hot planet.

Sealing assemblies for sealed conductors had to be Prolonged operation

made from high-temperature strength material.

of the vehicle on the surf:ic.: -?f Venus shows that this has been

successfully solved. Those who test space vehicles are not boastir,g tihen they say that their work cannot be written a5 a newspaper report,but as a long novel. At first, individual parts of the space station are

developed and tested, later they are assemblec i r l t o subassembly units,tnd only after th;s wholc carried out. is complex testing of the vehicle as a

Here are a few examples of this complex cyc1.e.

In the Venera-8 descent vehicle a new system foi separating

the parachute compartment and improving the parachute system was used.

The parachutes were tested on a special test bench.

This

is a type of wind tunnel through which a gas flow heated to 500'

i s passed.

Car5on dioxide, the main cornponent cf the Venusian In this way, sensors and

atmosphere, is fed into the tunnel.

film cameras were able to observe the behavior o f the garachute system in conditions close tc the actual ones. The "globule" itself was tested repeatedly in a high-pressure chamber. Here, physical conditions were simulated where it falls onto the surface o f the hot planet which has a pressure of more 281

1j .

than 100 atmospheres, and a temperature greater than 500".

When

the vehicle lands there will be an impact when it meets the planet. Therefore, o m nust test its capability to "withstand" this impact. The landing of the vehicle was also simulated in this chamber by using special shock absorbers. The testers carefully studied how

the equipment worked during such impacts. But now it is time to assemble not a flight model of the vehicle, but one which is to be sent to Venus. This is a tense On

~ o m e n tfor engineers, foremen, technicians and plant workers." one of the test benches set up on a factory street planted with trees, I saw the sign "Comrades!

The success of the whole team

These words are true. Ihit

depends on the quality of your work." is confirmed by m e of the managers

of the enterprise:

"The design of a space vehicle includes technical problems, and strict requirements for accuracy in producing components and assemblying subassembly units. The quality o f the work is

decided by the accuracy of lathe operators, welders, adjusters, assemblers,and their responsible attitude to their work. Space

has no time for those who are indifferent. Without exaggeration

I will say that our workers have performed miracles.

This is

because each one understands that he is responsible for how the vehicle works in space and the contribution it makes to Soviet science

...

It

282

To Scientists, Designers, Engineers, Technicians, Workers and All -*i!i,-= Organizations- Participating in the C o- -. - - :tion, Launch, - 2nd r 2. ,,ornatic Interplanetary Flight Control and Landing of the Vener:, Station
"

/138 -

"Pravda" , August 1b , 1972 . Dear comrades! Soviet science and technology has achieved a new outstanding success. ' h e laid-down flight program of the Venera-8 automatic inter-

planetary station has been completely fulfilled. On July 2 2 , 1972, after a four-month spxce flight, the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station reached the planet Venus. The station's descent vehicle investigated Venus for the first time, descended smoothly in the armosphere on the illuminated side of the planet m d made a soft 1-~i,iLng its surface. on During the launch of ti:*; vehicle in the atmosphere and for a period o f back
tc-1

i;j

min it worked on the surface of Venus and transmitted

&a t h

much valuable scientific information on the properties

of the atmqy'ere on the day si6e of the planet,and the nature of

rock on its surface layer. This new space experiment once more clearly demonstrated the great possibilities of automatic vehicles for investigating outer space and plmets of the solar system. This outstanding achievement of Soviet science and technology
sas

only possible due to the inspired work of the Soviet people,

greeting the Sot?. anniversary of the formation of the USSR with new feats of labor. The Central Committee o f the Communist Party
283

of the Soviet Union, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet o f the

USSR and the Council of Ministers of the 'JSSR warmly congratulate scientists, designers, engineers, technicians, workers, and all teams and organizations participating in the production, launch, flight control and landing of the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station. Long live the Soviet people

--

the builders of communism!

Long live the Communist Party of the Soviet Union!

The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

The Presidium a f the Supreme Soviet o f the USSR. The Council of Ministers of the USSR.

"Pravda", August 16, 1972. We, scientists, designers, engineers, technicians and workers participating in the construction, launch, flight control and landing of the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station,report to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the Presidium o f the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Council of Ministers of the USSR on the successful completion o f a new space experiment. In this jubilee year of the Soviet State a primary task o f the party and government has been carried o u t .

284

On July 2 2 , 1972, the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station, launched on March 2 7 , 1972, after covering a distance of more than 300 million kilometers, set down on Venus a descent vehicle containing scientific equipment. During the parachute

descent stage, investigation of Venus was carried out ,o the first 'r time, and measurements were made to determine the illumination, pressure and temperature in the atmosphere on the surface of the planet on its day side. Information was obtained on the nature

of rock on the planet's surface layer. The Venera-8 station's descent vehicle left on the planet pennants with the bas-relief of the founder of the Soviet State,

Vladimir Il'ich Lenin, and the State Emblem of the USSR. New information on the atmospheric properties on the illuminated side o f the planet and measurement results on its surface will significantly broaden our knowledge of Venus and be a valuable contribution to the science of planets of the solar system. We assure the Central Committee of the Party, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Soviet government that we shall strive for new successes in the conquest of outer space for the benefit of Soviet science and technology, our people and the whole o f mankind. Venera-8: The Results of the Spa-e Flight TASS "Pravda", September 10, 1972. The 50th anniversary of the formation of the USSR has been marked by a new outstanding achievement of Soviet astronautics: 285

surface layer obtained during the descent and work on the surface is o f basic scientific value. The Soviet program for studying the solar system by using automatic vehicles is being successfully accomplished. The Venera-8

flight is an important contribution to science and a new step towards our understanding o f nature. The launch date and length of the flight were determined basically bj t h f favorable, mutu=ll positions of the earth and Venus. The station had to reach Venus at a
tili!>

-?henthe planet

was qiiite

' o e to The sarth - - -pproxi,.,ately60 million kilometers. .s

Since Venus's orbit is inside that o f the earth, when the planets are approaching each other,the greater part of Venus turned towards

us, between the Sun and the earth, is not illuminated.

A choice o f landing site on a narrow crescent of the illumi-

nated part of the planet visible from earth was limited by the descent vehicle's phere. prez-ribed entry corridor in the planet's zcmos-

If the entry was too steep the vehicle could be destroyed

by g-force, and if the entry was not steep enough it would pass

the planet.

Apart from this, the earth had to maintain reliable

radio communication with the descent vehicle. All these factors significantly limited the vehicle's landing area on
thL

planet, its maximum diameter was less than 500 km. / 140 -

This called for increased accuracy of flight control. Forecasting the station's movement and flight control was done by ground command and measurement facilities.

287

Determining che s t a t i o n ' s t r a j e c t o r y p a r a m e t e r s was accomp a n i e d by r a d a r measurement o f t h e d i s t a n c e f r o ? e a r t h t o Venus. T r a j e c t o r y measurement d a t a and r a d i o l o c a t i o n o f t h e p l a n e t r e l i a b l y d e t e r m i n e d and f o r e c a s t e d t h e approach p a r a m e t e r s of t h e s t a t i o n towards Venus.
A s t a t i o n t r a j e c t o r y c o r r e c t i o n was c a r r i e d o u t on A p r i l 6 ,

1972.

F u r t h e r measurement and c a l c u l a t i o n showed t h a t t h e d e s c e n t a r e a o f Venus w i t h s u f f i c i e n t

v e h i c l e would l a n d i n t h e c ; l c u l a t e d accuracy -

t h e r e f o r e , a second c o r r e c t i c n e n v i s a g e d by t h e program

was n o t Fade.
During t h e whole f l i g h t , t h e s t a t i o n h a s o r i e n t e d towards t h e SUR by p a n e l s of s o l a r b a t t e r i e s ( a p a r t frcin t h e c o r r e c t i o n s e s s i o n snd soine communication s e s s i o n s ) . and t h e I n t h i s way, t h e s o l a r b a t t e r i e s

t h e r m o r e g u l a t i n g system .iorked well.

A f e w days b e f o r e t h e s ? a t i o n r e a c h e d t h e boundary o t t. .?

atmosphere of Venus, t h e d e s c e n t v e h i c l e ' s i n s t r u m e n t c o n t a i r , e r was c o o l e d t a i n c r e a s e t h e l e n g t h o f r e s e a r c h i n +.le p i a n e t ' s h o t at7,tosphere. A f t e r 1 1 7 f'.;ys o f f l i g h t , on J m e 2'2, 1 9 7 2 immediately b e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e a t n o s p h e r e o f Venus,a n e a r - p l a n e t communication s e s s i o n was h e l d w j t h t h e s t a t i o n , d u r i n g .c:hich s c i e n t i f i c d a t a and i n f o r niatLdn on e h e s t a t e o f o n - b o a r d systems was t r a n s m i t t e d , p r e p a r a t i o n s were made f o r s e p a r a t i n g t h e d e s c e n t v e h i c l e from t h e o r b i t a l n;odu!e, t r a j e c t o r y measurement was c a r r i e d o u t . During t h i s ,

t3e c o o r d i n a t i n g c c m p t a t i o n c e n t e r p r o c e s s e d t r a j e c t o r y measure-

ment i n f o r m a t i o n t o c a l c u l a t e t h e moment when t h e v e h i c l e e n t e r e d

288

the planet's atmosphere,and correct the work of ground tracking facilities.

A t 10 hours 4 0 minutes the descent vehicle was separated and

1141

spent 53 min in the planet's atmosphere. During the aerodynamic braking phase, the speed of the descent vehicle was reduced from 11.6 km/sec to 250 m/sec; the maximum g-forcewas 335 units and the gas temperature in the shock wave in front of thc vehicle's body was more than 12,000. However, the

casing of the descent vehicle was well-shielded from high temperatures by its therT.al protection. When the g-forceand the speed of the descent vehicle was reduced to the calculated amount, an on-board device was activated and gave a command for the parachute system to be used. After the parachute opened,information was received from the descent vehicle on the parameters of the atmosphere of Venus and the condition of the on-board systems. The parachute descent and transmission of information lasted approximately one hour, and at 12 hours 29 minutes,the descent vehicle made a s o f t landing on the side oi the planet illuminated by the Sun. The descent vehicle's on-board systems and scientific instruments continued working on the surface of Venus f o r 50 min; during this period measurement information on the parameters of the atmosphere and characteristics of the soil on Venus, and also information on the condition of on-board systems was transmitted to earth.

289

Thz vernier engine installation is fixed to the bo;tom of the

module and the descent vehicle to the top. contains optical instruments and The orbital module elements for the servo

astroorientation system, solar battery panels, semi-directional helical and high-directional parabolic antennas. Communication with earth is done mainly via the semi-directional antennas; special radio communication sessions,using the high-directional parabolic antenna,are held with the station when it is at great distance or when there is a large amount of information to be transmitted. Here, the station is positioned so that the parabolic antenna is directed towards the earth. The equipment is supplied by chemical sources of current and the solar batteries charge these up during the flight between communication sessions. The astroorientation system which controls the position o f the station consists of optical and electronic instruments for solar, solar-earth and solar-stellar orientation, and automatic equipment and servoelements - - microjet engines, The optimum thermal conditions of instrument containers of the orbital module and the descent vehicle were maintained by an active thermoregulating system, based on the circulation of gas carrying heat from the containers to the external emitting radiator. The thermal conditions of the remaining equipment thermal insulation,

and elements were maintained by passive means: special optical coatings, etc.

After the descent vehicle was separated, the orbital station was destroyed when it entered the dense atmospheric layers. 291

The Venera-8 descent vehicle underwent significant modification. As a result of the investigatiop of the atmospheric parameters by the Venera-7,the estimated values of the fully-factored load on the descent vehicle and the maximum temperature of the environment were reduced.

In this liay, this lightened the construction of the Venera-8

station's descent vehicle. The reduced weight allowed for additional scientific instruments to be installed,and measures were taken t o increase the operational time o f the equipment on the surface of Venus. The descent vehicle consists of an instrument module and parachute module. The parachute module, contained in the upper section,

includes a parachute system, a radio altimeter, scientific equipment sensors and an on-board radio system antenna. The descent vehicle's instrument module contains a radio technical and telemetry system, electrical supply sources, fans znd other units o f the thermoregulating system, automatic equipment and scientific instruments.
To create the required temperat.ure conditions in the descent

vehicle's instrument module,the efficiency of the external thermal insulation envelope was increased and heat absorbers, made of material with a high heat capacity, were installed inside the modii.Le. When the vehicle is heated they remove
a

considerable part

of the thermal energy entering the instrument container, and by the

292

The faultless operation of all the systems and sci.enL_ific instruments of the Venera-8 and its descent vehicle was ti restlt !e of careful ground development in conditions almost identical to those in outer space, and in the atmosphere and on the planet's surface. Scientific Results The Venera-8 was equipped with scientific instruments allowing a wide range of research to be made into the atPosphere and the surface of the planet's day side, and into the interplanetary medium during the flight. The main aim when selecting scientific experiments for the descent vehicle was to obtain answers to a number of basically new questions on the physical and chemical characteristics of Yenus's atmosphere and surface. The descent vehicle's scientific equipment was designed for carrying out the following tasks:

- - research into the atmosphere (temperature and pressure

measurement) on Venus's day side;

- - measuring the illumination in the atmosphere and near the

planet's surface;

- - determining the wind speed at different levels in the

atmosphere;

- - determining the ammonia content in the atmosphere; - - measuring the g-loads occurring during aerodynamic braking; - - dztermining the physical characteristics of the surface
layer and the nature of surface rock where the descent vehicle landed:

2 94

Information obtained from this coulplex experiment is being processed, therefore, the results shoiJn are preliminary. The Venera-4, - 5 , - 6 and - 7 stations,which made a descent on the night side of the planet,measured quite accurately the temperature and pressure of the atmosphere at an altitude and d o m t o the surface. A model of Venus's atmosphere was made as a result of this measurement and, as has already been said, was used when producing the Venera-8. Although days or, Venus last approximately four earth months, on the basis of theoretical calculations and result of radio astronomical observations, it can be expected that the daily measurement of temperature near the planet's surface are small, however, this must be checked experimentally. The Venera-8 station carried out direct measurement of temperature and pressure by using a sensor system during the descent from an altitude of approximately 55 km to the planet's surface and after landing. Altitude measurement above the surface usin2 the on-board radio altimeter was carried out during the whole of the descent time. The altitude above the surface was a l s o determined from the hydrostatic equilibrium of the atmosphere by using measurement

data of temperature ni,.d pressure,and by the equation of motion of the vehicle using a pi. .achute with known aerodynamic characteristics. Additional information
GP.

:I:-.

z'titude

above the surface can be

obtained by calculating

ti!?.

i.ehicle's descent speed during the

parachute phase which, in its turn, is determined from earth according to the radio measurement data of the vehicle's speed.
295

No noticeable differences in altitude profiles of temperature

and pressure on the day and night sides of Venus were observed, which confirms the theoretical calculations of these characteristics. At the Venera-8 station's landing site the atmospheric temperature was 47r;
2.5'

C, the pressure

90

21.5 kg/cm2, which is

very close to values obtained as the result o f an experiment by the Venera-7 when it landti\?on the planet's night side. When the des,..crlt-vehicle entered the atmosphere during the aerodvnamic b r d i . : , ?h,.i.
Df

Venus

, the g-forceacting on the

vehicle was measured depending on time.

g-force is determined by thc c!ic:;i-%, -: ;I!

Since measurement of the

t . i

Ltnospheric density

a c c c i - d i c g tr, altitude, this measurement data determines the values

o f the atmospheric parameters higher than the level in the atmos-

;;here at which direct measurement was begun.

A

key question when the b'eptra-8 landed was that c:' whether
*'

sunlight reachz. the planet's surface or is almost completely held back by t h e atln2sphere and clouds. In other word;, is it light on

Venus in daytime or is there continual darkness? The illuminat;,n

in the atmosphere and on the planet's surface had to be z~ssured.

Th.nrc?
- 0

a special instrument, a photometer, was installed in The instrument was designed for measuring the

the descent ve'.icle.

illumination in a wide r::.oc' of liqfit f u ; values, which could be l: expected .In Venus, and 'lad
to

remain serviceable in very diffictit Informa1145 -

conditions which c x - i s t in Venus's hot, dense atmosphere.

tion on the strength of illumination was obtained during the whole desccnt stage and down to the surface.
296

This unique information

..

proves that a certain a m o u t o f sunlight in the visible region of the spectrum arrives on the planet's surface,and there are noticeable differences between day and night. Preliminary evaluations

of the nature c r change of illumination according to altitude show that the atmosphere
v,t'

'Jenus significantly attenuates sunlight.

Quantitative analysis o f these results is being carried out at present,and this will allow us to calculate a number of important parameters determining +ha optical characteristics of Venus's atmosphere.
As

is known, the flight of the Venera-4 first determined the

basic chemical composition of tl;e atmosphere of Venus, which was subsequently made more exact by the Venera-5 and Venera-6.
It was

found that the planet's atmosphere consists of 97% carbon dioxide. The nitrogen content is no more than 2 % , oxygen less than 0.1%, and water vapor near the cloud 1a)c: less than 1%.

At the same time, in spite of compiling some information on the composition and structure of the atmosphere, the problem of Venus's cloud layer is still unsolved The lack of actual material

gives rise to variuu theories which need to be checked experirnentdlly.

In particular, there are theories that compourds, con-

taining a r n ~ ~ n t (ammonium salts) could form the c1o1x?5. In this a case, at altitudes lower than 4 8 krn,one could expect large amount of free ammonia in the atmosphere. Therefore, an
i-

rciatively

3t.rument for determining ammonia was instLLled

in the Venera-8. I t was based on a method for recordiiig the chanLc'

of color o f a s ~ . : c - . ~ i chosen chemical reagent ly

hen ammoniz 297

interacts with it.

A fine-grained yellow powder was used as a

reagent which becomes blue when contacting ammonia. of color was recorded by photoresistors.

The change

The first measurement was made in the atmosphere of Venus at an altitude of 46 km, the second at an altitude o f 33 km. of the experiment give basis to suppose that there was
r,

Results >mall

amount o f ammonia in the atmosphere where the measurements were made. Its volumetric content was estimated at being 0.01-0.1%. The influence of wind on the descent vehicle during its slow descent in the atmLsphere by parachute was indicated when it drifted horizontally. Therefore, knowing the vehicle's radial

velocity in relation to the earth, determined according to the Doppler shift of frequency and the vehicle's descent spcci relative to the surface o f Venus, which was determined independently, one can estimate the wind speed in the atmosphere. The Vecera 5, in

descent, measured the horizontal velocity component. A t altitudes greater than 45 km this was more than 50 m/sec, 3ecreasir.g to less than 2 m/sec at altitudes lower than 10-12 km. This measure-

ment shows there is zonal (latitudinal) wind directed from the terminator to the day side, that is, towards the planet's proper rotation, and this is very important for understanding the dynamics of Venus's atmosphere. :.tuch attention was paid to studying the physical and chemical properties of the planet's surface by the Venera-8 in rhe Venus r e s e 5 . A program.

298

The dielectric permeability and soil density were determined by analyzing the level of radio waves emitted by the vehicle during descent, and reflected by the surface. ment!: ,-ve basis t o assume that Results of these measure-

in the descent area the planet's

surface area waa quite loose, with a soil density rather less than 1.5 g - ' /m. The results of measuring the content of natural radioactive elements in the surface laysr of Venus where the are very important. The nature o f rock can either be determined by its full chemical or mineralogical composition. Apart from this, one can detervehicle landed

/1461

mine the nature o f rock acccirding to a number of separate chemical elements which are characteristic of a certain type of rock, for example, by the content of natural radiation elements in rock: uranium, -horium and potassium. Therefore, Venera-8 was equipped

with a gamma-specLrometer which determined the content of radioactive elerents according to gammc radiation in the surface layer of Venus. The gamma-spectrometer was installed inside the station

and registered in the 0 . 3 - 3 megaelectron volt range gamma irratiation emitted by radioactive elements of the surface layer which passed througb the statiqn's shell nto the spectrometer's detector. The gamma-spec+rometer also measured the sum intensity o f gamma radiation i ' i t h energy greater thar. 0 . 3 megaelectron volts recorded by the spectrometer's seni,ar. In Iccordance with the station's work program,the Vencra-3
was

equipped with an instrument

for measuring the sum inteiisity aria carried out measc dment both

299

during the descent stage in the planet's atmosphere, and after landing on its surface. Measurement of the whole s2ectrum of gamma radjati-n was only done on the planet's surface.
A number

of measurements of the yields o f rock with a known

content of uranium, thorium and potassium was carried out on the g r o u d for calibrating the inztrument. The instrument was installed inside an analog of the Venera-8 station to simulate measurement conditions which w0d.I exist on the planet. on granite, basalt and other rock. Measurement was made

Apart from this, the station's

own background was measured above the powerful cover of rock which
has an extremely low content of natural radio elements (dunite).

This background is caused by gamma radiation of natural radioactive elements in the form of trace impurities in the construction material for the station and the instrument. Three measurements were made o f the sum intensity of gamma radiation when the vehicle descended in the atmosphere of Venus, and one measurement after it landed on the surface. The intensity recorded during the descent did not change significantly, and this shows the practical absence of radiations causeo by short-lived isotopes formed as the result o f cosmic rays when the station was

in outer space flight.

After the descent vehicle landed on the planet's surface an increase in the sum intensity o f gamma radiation was recorded, and this is linked with the addition of the effect from decay o i ral radioactive elements present in Venus's surface layer.
.il+-i~.-

300

The gamma radiation spectrum was measured while the station was on the surface of Venus. trometer was read out twice. All this information from the specMeasurement of gamma radiation spec-

tra determined the amount of uranium, thorium and potassium content in the surface layer. According to preliminary information, material on the surface near the landing sltz contained 4 % of potassium, 0 . 0 0 0 2 % of uranium and 0.00065% of thorium,similar in content and in composition to the radioactive elements of granite rock. In this way, the

Venera-8 detected rock which was relatively rich in potassium, uranium and thorium.

In ground conditions this ratio of elements,

/147

mainly relatively rich in potassium, is characteristic of rock which has undergone a secondary change when affected b, different factors of the environment after primary melting from deep inside the planet. This information is extremely useful when one studies For the present, it has been obtained from

the geology of Venus.

a snall area of the planet; further research will include other areas and conclusions will be made on processes taking place in the hard envelope of Venus, and the nature o f its evolution. Radiometric eq!.iipment in ?he station is designed for studying dynamic processes in interplanetary space, linked with solar activity, by systematic measurement of the composition, energy spectrum and 1.ariations of intensity of cosmic rays. During the Venera-8 flight there was an anomalous increase of solar activity which greatly influences the level of intensity of cosmic rays in different energy intervals. Four powerful solar 301

fi:res, hrinp whic5 the solar intensity of protons with energies grea er t h m
O L ~ million

electron volts and 30 million electron

volts was significantly increased, were registered on a background

of solar actisity increase. There was also a significant reduction

in the intensity o f galactic cosmic rays arriving from distant regions of space. Similar anomalous increases o f solar activity

were recorded earlier, especially by instruments in the Venera-7, the Lunokhod-1, and the Mars-2 and - 3 . Both during the flight and the approach to Venus measuiements were made of ultraviolet radiation caused by neutral, atomic hydrogen scattered in outer space. In some regions of interplanetary space the intensity of this radiation increased by 2 - 3 times. The

intensity of radiation, caused .nainly by the background of bright blue stars, was measured in the narrow interval of the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. The successful flight of the Venera-8 confirmed the correct choice of technical :.elutions adopted when designing this automatic interplanetary vehicle f o r working in the extremely complex conditions of the Venusian surface. Scientific results obtained by the Venera-8 have made an important contribution to our knowledge of Venus, and have been most important to broaden our concepts of its nature.
T h i s new achievement in space on the eve of the 50th anniver-

sary of the formation of the USSR is

wonderful gift from Soviet

scientists, engineers, technicians and workers.

302

Riddles o f the Planets "Izvestiya", October 18, 1972. October 18 was the fifth anniversarv of the day when the Venera-4 made its legendary finish and opened up a new era of direct research in the skies of other planets. Many readers of

"Izvestiya" want to hear how our concepts of Venus have changed during this time. The editor asked Professor Yu. Surkov, a Doctor

o f Physical and Mathematical Sciences, to answer this request.

Research into Venus by Soviet space vehicles has significantly changed our notions previously held of its resemblance to earth. It was found that the atmosphere of Venus contains 97% carbon dioxide, not more than 2 % nitrogen, not more than 0.1% water. The tempera/148 -

oxygen and, on an average, approximately 0.05%

+ * : and pressure near the surface of Venus, first measured by the l:e Venera-7, were 475' C and 90 atm, respectively. Having all this data, scientists directed their efforts mainly
tc

detemine the mechanism for the formation of the planet's atmos-

phere which is so different from that o f the earth. The majority o f them now believe that during the period of formation o f planets from a protoplanetary gas and dust cloud they had other primary atmospheres. The basic components of these primary atn,ospheres were the lightest and most wide-spread gases in the solar system, hydrogen and helium. However, with time the decay of natural radioactive Flements took place; heat was formed and the interior of the planets was

303
,

fused.

A s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of m a t t e r t o o k p l a c e on t h e s u r f a c e s which

were t h e most f u s i b l e p a r t s , which t h e n c o o l e d and formed t h e crust

of p l a n e t s .
S i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e emergence of molten magma to

t h e s u r f a c e w a t e r v a p o r s , c a r b o n d i o x i d e , ammonia, ammonium chloride, s u l f u r g a s , hydrogen c h l o r i d e , hydrogen f l u o r i d e and o t h e r g a s e s formed and c r e a t e d a secondary atmosphere. The f u r t h e r e v o l u t i o n o f p l a n e t a r y atmospheres was determined by a number o f f a c t o r s . The l i g h t e s t g a s e s g r a d u a l l y d r i f t e d i n t o Solar radi-

o u t e r s p a c e , and t h e most a c t i v e i n t e r a c t e d w i t h r o c k .

a t i o n a l s o p l a y e d a g r e a t p a r t i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e atmosphere. Apart from t h i s , t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e atmosphere on e a r t h was a f f e c t e d by animal and p l a n t l i f e .

The o r i g i n of t h e dense atmosphere of Venus was determined by

i t s c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o t h e Sun.

A t some s t a g e of i t s development
I

even s m a l l amounts o f w a t e r and c a r b o n d i o x i d e , p r o b a b l y , caused t h e "greenhouse e f f e c t " t o develop ( t h a t i s , c o n d i t i o n s when s o l a r h e a t p e n e t r a t e s t h e atmosphere and warms t h e s u r f a c e , and t n e h e a t f l u x , e m i t t e d by t h e s o i l , t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t , i s absorbed by t h i s atmosphere).
As a r e s u l t , t h e s u r f a c e g r a d u a l l y became

warm, and t h i s , i n i t s t u r n , was accompanied by t h e f u r t h e r release of w a t e r and carbon d i o x i d e i n t o t h e atmosphere. T h i s caused t h e

"greenhouse e f f e c t " and, i n t h i s way, s e l f - h e a t i n g of t h e s u r f a c e took p l a c e and a heavy carbon d i o x i d e atmosphere was formed.

Obviously, h e a t r i s i n g from t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e p l a n e t h e l p e d t o develop t h i s p r o c e s s .

304
c

The present-day atmosphere of Venus is in dynamic equilibrium with surface rock and is determined by temperature conditions existing on the planet. Of course, in spite of the fact that much has been explained of the concepts we had of the atmcsphere cf Venus, many mysteries remain. The main one of these is the cloud layer o f Venus. The lack

of sufficient information on the composition and formation of Venusian clouds gave rise to various theories and fantastic speculation. Among the enormous amount of volatile compounds which could be resent in a cloud layer, the most often met are: water droplets and ice crystals, hydrates of iron chloride, haloid compounds of mercury, carbon monoxide and dust. Until now, only the presence o f water in the atmosphere of Venus has been reliably determined, which, at cloud level can be in the form of droplets or ice crystals,depending on the altitude above the surface. Apparently, clouds of Venus are formed not only from water but have other components. Since in the planet's atmosphere (especially in the cloud layer) there must be some vertical movement of "air" masses, naturally, there will also be transition zones where either the ice crystals melt or rain falls when the /149 cloud layer descends. Of course, the arca where rain falls does not extend to the surface itself, but only to a level where pressure reaches 5 atm - - below this, water will again become vapo,. There are serious arguments in favor o f the possible existence of ammonium clouds. Ammonia, like other gases, is formed as a

30 5

r e s u l t of volcanic a c t i v i t y .

When it i n t e r a c t s w i t h c a r b o n d i o x i d e

and w a t e r ammonia forms compounds which a r e w h i t e , crystal substances, and e a s i l y decompose when h e a t e d . The d e n s i t y o f ammonium c l o u d s

must be s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n aqueous o n e s . Other c l o u d models a r e b e i n g examined. Another problem which we have s t a r t e d t o s o l v e i s t h e o r i g i n , e v o l u t i o n , p r e s e n t - d a y c o m p o s i t i o n and f o r m a t i o n and p r o p e r t i e s of Venusian r o c k . I n p a r t i c u l a r , s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i s being p a i d t o

t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether a s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s of m a t t e r on t h e s u r f a c e t o o k p l a c e on Venus a n d , a s a consequence, is t h e c r u s t s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e e a r t h . The answer t o t h i s i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n

can o n l y be g i v e n by d i r e c t r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n , s t r u c t u r e and p r o p e r t i e s of t h e Venusian r o c k i t s e l f by u s i n g a u t o m a t i c s t a tions. N a t u r a l l y , t h i s r e s e a r c h r e q u i r e s much time and e f f o r t .

The problem i s made more complex due t o t h e f a c t t h a t on Venus, owing t o t h e s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s on t h e s u r f a c e , r o c k s c a n s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r from t h o s e on e a r t h , i n s p i t e o f t h e s i m i l a r processes t a k i n g p l a c e when t h e y were formed. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s a r e s u b s t a n t i a t e d by r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d o u t i n t o l u n a r m a t t e r b r o u g h t back t o e a r t h . According t o

i d e a s now b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d by s c i e n t i s t s , a p p a r e n t l y , t h e same p r o c e s s e s o f " i n t e r n a l development" which o c c u r r e d on e a r t h o c c u r r e d a l s o on t h e moon i n i t s d i s t a n t p a s t . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e r e a r e

a number of f e a t u r e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l e r s i z e of t h e moon, which had t o be r e f l e c t e d i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f s u r f a c e l u n a r rock.

306
A s a consequence, as r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e s o i l brought

back by Luna-20 showed, apparently, the najority of the lunar surface is covered by anorthosite rock, of which there Is relatively little on the earth's crust. As is known, the main component of the earth's crust is basalt rock, which is only found on the moon in the mare regions, occupying about one-fifth of its surface. Analysis of information transmitted by Venera-8 showed that the planet has a rock relatively rich in natural radioactive eleaents - - potassium, uranium aad thorium. This amount of radio

elements on earth is contained in granite which covers continents on our planet, but this rock has a density of approximately 1.5 g/cm3, which is significantly lower than that of our granite, which is 2 . 4 g/cm3. The fact that the surface of Venus is made

from leaky ar.d, probably, loose rock, relatively rich in radioactive elements, indicates the existence of a process of deep re-shaping. The future will tell whether this rock is characteristic of the whole surface of the planet and how it originated and evolved. Finally, in the future much attention vi11 be paid to the study

of the internal structure o f Venus.

The great interest

&:-

this

problem is also caused by the fact that we know little of the internal structure of our own plar,et. As for Venus, at the present time we have hardly any reliable information of its structure. Apart from this, flights of the first automatic stations to Vsnus showed that there were no noticeable radiation belts or magnetic field. Therefore, apparently, Venus does not have a ccre like the earth. This makes the problem even more interesting.

In fact, the moon,

307
8

Venus and Mars do not have only seen on earth.

noticeable magnetic field; this is

/1so -

What is its origin and how did it change For example, the

during the whole course of thz earth's history?

magnetic field on the moon, in its distant past, was 10,000 times greater. At what stage of development is each one of the planets of the solar system in this respect? Finally, what caused the appearance of a biosphere on our planet? When we know all these things we shall understand our own planet better, its past, its present and future.

B.

RESEARCH INTO MARS

The Planet Tells Its Story "Pravda", January 9, 1972. The Soviet Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic stations have been working for two months in orbits around Mars. Scientific instru-

ments in the orbital stations are investigating the planet and the space surroundj.ng it. Scientists are accumulating the first results

and compiling programs for further experiments. We invited a group

of workers from the Space Research Institute of the Academy of

Sciences of the USSR into the editorial office and asked them to tell us o f the work of scientific instruments in the interplanetary stations, and some results which have been obtained At our "round table" are:
SD

far.

Yu. K. Khodarev, a Doctor of

Tezhnical Sciences and the deputy d'rector of the institute;

308

Professor V. I. Morfz, a laboratory head; V. G. Kurt, a Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences and a laboratory head. Yu. K. Khodarev speaks f
.t.

He reports on the complexity

of the problems solved during the orbital flight of both stations: "If one formulates these problems on a large scale, one must isolate the following. The first

--

is the research into the sur-

face of Mars, its atmosphere and the processes taking place there. The second - - is the study of M r r s as a planet as a whole - - show its formation features, and the evolution of its development in the solar system which, in the final analysis, will help us to understand the nature of earth. The third - - is to answer the Of course, we are not

question of whether there is life on Mars.

taking of Martians, but the possibility of detecting life or traces of it, however primitive. The instruments in the stations must provide us with information on the physical conditions on the surface of Mars and in its atmosphere. We are interested in the relief and characteristics of the surface in various regions, information on pressure, humidity and temperature. We wish to study in detail the composition and structure of the planet's upper atmosphere, the physical conditions in the close vicinity o f Mars, and also the nature of its interaction upon the surrounding interplanetary medium. Incidentally,

the latter will give us a concept of Mars and its structure as a .. planet as a whole. The orbits of the Mars-2 and Mars-3 stations pass close to the planet's surface above its southern hemisphere. This will 309

allow observation and measurement t o be made in areas which have been studied least of all. The fact is that in observation from
*

earth, e-len in the most favorable coiititions, one can only satisfactorily determine the character and relief of the surface for the limited equatorial region of Mars. The best maps, compiled

from these observations, allaw us to study (and very approrimately; the belt from 20 north latitude to loo south latitude. little of the appearance of Mars beyond this belt where seasonal changes are observed. We know

--

in latituaes

Apart from this, the orbits

/ 151 -

of Mars-E and Mars-3 space stations will allow us to see the night
side of Mars, which is inaccessible from earth. At the present time, both stations continue their work and are giving us new information. Measurements have been made of the atmospheric humidity and the surface temperature in various regions

of the planet.

Photometery has been carried out into the atmos-

phere and surface, and photographs of Mars were taken from orbit and sent back to earth. It is worth noting that in December seasure-

ments were made during a strong and unusually prolonged dust storm covering large areas of the planet. However, this "present" from

Mars will give us new, interestifig information". What are the first scientific results obtained during the experiment? This q.Aestion is answered by V. I. Moroz: "Even during major oppositions, when the distance between the earth and Mars i s reduced to a minimum, the largest telescopes only give
i i

very rough picture of the physical conditions on Mars.

For

example, the planet's surface temperature according to its infrared 310

:-:,.ation

wa:

only measur?d from earth with >-;erap;ng o,.er very

large areas hundreds of thousands of square kilometers i r s . ~ e .

The Mars-2 an.! 3 f - r 5 - 3 stdtions are Liquipped w i t h small instrument,
a n ir.Zizrc2 .. r.jf---

- s ; e r , which measures t\- dveraged te??erat., ye

01

ari;as 10-20 km in diameter.

During one of the sessions a temperature was recorded along a rcute eu'endlng from 58' latitude, i9C0 longitude. the midday region. south latitude, 330' longitude to 3 O o ~ n h The highest temperature %as recorded near

Of course, this is only considt--re& h-gh in the

it equals
-ZOO

relat.ive sense of the word: points were colder. falls to -90' C.

C. All the remaining

On the planet's night side the temperLture

' A small increase in temperature (by 10-15O) was noticed beyond

the termina2or (the boundary between day and night) in the Cerberus region. Such small temperature irregularities can be

explained either by the increase,: thermal lag in different regions, which is linked, for example, with the exposure of rock, or volcanic activity.
A-

whole, temperatures measured in this session,

are lower than expected, obviously due to the fact that the surfgce was covered by
a

dust storm, and radiation from it during measure-

ment was attenuated by dust clouds. "Photometric profiles" in three regions of the spectrum: obtained when using a visual band photometer: violet filters were used. were

red, blue and ultra-

The optical system made it possible t o

-7.~7;

examine Mars ,n the plane of the ba.-;~ite;s cr'ii? .

of the disc to t h e edge.

+he edge

This measur-..nen- r t C:C

: h

: , - ~ filtei. d

311

shows t k significant f 2 - I . i of brightness near the limb of the planet and a smooth one near its terminator. The dark region:. were car.pletely invisible due to the dust storm. Recordings witii the ultraviolet filter showed a number interesting details of atmospheric origin:
4 f

'1

'.

an increase of br,ght-

ness near the limb and the terninator, and in the r c t ? ' . n with a longitude of 220 and a south latitude of 15" a blight cloud was obscrved stretching for several hundreds a f kilometer:. This c c r ! lt:
t

copsists of small particles whicfi scatter light more effectively

i3

the ultraviolet than in the red regibn.

It is obviously higher

than the dust clouds.

A

photometer, determining the intensity of carbon dioxide

bands, is designed for studying the planet's relief with respect to the optical thickness of the atmosphere, and in a dust storm cannot accomplish its main task - - measuring the depth of the atmosphere. When the storm ends it will be possible to compare the results obtained in normal conditions with those
wzy,
at
i

/I52

piesont and, in this

determine the altitude of dust clouds.

P. instrument, designed for optical measurznent oE humidity,

showed there
N ~ S a

very small content of water \rapor (at least, Apparently, the

1,000 times less than in the earth's atmosphere).

instrument did not examine thc lower layers o f the atmosphere owing to the dust storm. Similar measurenent was made in sess:ms at the end o f Decer'iber. Interpretation of results has only just begun, and the equip-

ment is working normally. There is reason to assume that the dust

312

storm is :i:,(ing down at the present time.

obtTined with
ir

On photox,tric recordings,

red filter, one can see shading :,-rrbi?onc!ing to

Martian "seas", which earlier were completely indiscing6:shable.

.dnever, G R recordings using an ultY'L:.iolet filter bribIi-i clouds

werz again recorded **
Apzrt iron: optical observations of the surface 2nd lower

atnosphere, the Mars-2 and Mars-3 station=

GLz

cirry ng cut inves-

tigation into the upper atmo:pl;;-~~~ - - its luminescence at altitudes greater than 100 kn;.

V. G. Kurt tells us about this:

"Compleu physical and chemical processes, in which atoms, molecules and ions take p a r t , occur in the upper atmosp ere of the Flanet. Molecules of when affected
\;,
c - rbon

dioxide disij:tegrate (dissok-iate) radiation with a wavelength

As

solar ultr,Y;clet

shorter than 2 , 0 0 0 - J , ~ , ~angstroms. 3 cldmin2ncc

.!:

a result, there is a pre-

s- dioxide 1itLr the surface of Mars, and in the m

i'pper ;i,nosphe:-. of the planet

Te found carbonic oxide, ions o f

carbo,: dic\.ide; n d atomi: oxy,en. Apart from this, there is a very ;mall amou;lt 01: water vapc

hater vapor also disintegrates when

a

radiation, and as affected b> so;;;r ~:traviolct atoms 'lppeai in Mars' upper atmosphere.

result, hydrogen

During ihe absorption of The

solar uitravillet radiation, she upper atmosphere heats up.

tempe;atu:-s a t altitude: in :he order of 2 0 0 km increases to

300-400

Kel.vii - - ~ u c h less than on earth.

However, hydrogen

atoms, t h e lighLest in the Martian atmosphere, may leave the upper atmosphere of the planet and rise into the interplanetary medium, since gravit,. is three times less than on the earth's surfa

.
31 3

These atoms form a hydrogen corona, earlier discovered near the earth and Venus. All these atoms and molecules in the upper atmos-

phere of Mars are intensively scattered by solar ultrzsiolet radiation in orbit.

By observing the lulninescent in individual,

characteristic lines m e can calculate the density of components of the upper atmosphere of Mars and build a model of it. Instruments recording radiation in three bands of the spectrum, containing lines of atoms of hydrogen , oxygen and argon ,were fitted into the artificial Mars satellite for this research. The first

observations showed that radiation in hydrogen lines extends to very great altitudes, exceeding the radius of the planet (3,400 lan). Heavier oxygen atoms are concentrated near the surface up to altitudes of 6 0 0 - 8 0 0 km.

To facilitate measurement, the field of vision of ultraviolet

instruments when satellites pass in the region of the pericenter of the orbit is directed to the "horizon" of the planet, that is, relative to the surface of Mars. In this way, a large number of

atoms can be observed "on the beam of vision" and the resolving power can be significantly increased.

We hope that observations

will. not only determine the density of atoms in the upper atmosphere of Mars, and its temrrrature, but trace the changes of these characteristics. Similar research is being done by our American

colleagues with the Mariner-9. We have already received the first information from them and can compare results. Meanwhile, we only have information on the intensity of illuminescence in individual spectral lines. 314 Labor-consuming machine computation is required /153

to determine the density and temperature.

Complex, matheaatical

processiiig of measurement lies ahead, and then theoretical models

of the Martian atmosphere can be built.

K>wever, it is alre-dy

clear that however paradoxical this may seem, the upper atmosphere
o f Mars is more similar to tbe atmosphere of Venus than the upper

atnosphere of earth.

Appbrently, this is linked with the fact that

there is a predominance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Mars and Venus".

Yu. K. Khodarev winds up the conversation:

"Hence, yc-i see that the results obtained are extremely interesting. The Mars-2 and Mars-3 continue their flights.

need only add that the first results obtained to date, and information of subsequent measurement will requjre careful processing, analysis, and study. Long months of work are ahead beforc. the

"raw" material received by the stations is converted into relief maps or temperature distributions, and before a corrected model of the atmosphere is built. The processed results must be generalized

and compared with others which we already have.

We are not expecting

sensations. The long-time consuming work conti..ues".

Reconnaissance of the Magnetic Field "Izvestiya", January 8 , 1972. During the six-month flight to the distant planet, the Soviet Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic stations investigated the magnetic fields of interplanetary space. Now they are studying them during

315

the flight in near-Mars orbit.

The "Izvestiya" correspondent asked

Professor S. Pikel'ner to tell us what the research i i o planetary !t magnetic fields means to science. Among planets of the earth group, including Venus, Mars, Mercury, and with reserve one cai. say our own planet's satellite, the moon, the earth is unique since it has a relatively strong magnetic field. Many scientists believe that this was the reason The "magnetic shield" 3rotects our planet from

for life on earth.

lethal flows of charged cosmic particles. According to present-day theories, the earth's magnetic field exists owing to motions in the liquid core and the earth's rottttion. Generally speaking, the magnetic field, apparently, was in the r,olar system from the very bebinning, when interstellar gas had been compressed and the Sun had formed. At first, when the planets were formed rolid particles conglomerated, forming llstones'l an of asteroid type, and later these werz united. into
a

compact whole.

But the planets which were coming into bejng could not retain the strong magnetic field sufficiently.

In t i m , the heat caused when

A

radioactive elements decayed caused a stratificAtion of mntter. liquid core was formed, inside o f xhich fused masses generating

electricity constantly moved in the weak, primary magnetic field. Since the planet was rotating, this motion became rather asymmetrical. Therefore, a stronger rriagnetic field was produced. This

process is similar tc ' e work of a "dynamo". h

If this theory is true, the presence of a magnetic field on

any planet means it has a liquid core and relatively rapid rotatian. 316

The moon has no n o t i c e a b l e magnetic f i e l d .

I t i s too small t o

/ 154 -

accumulate a s u f f i c i e a t reserve o f h e a t t o f u s e r o c k i n i t s c o r e . Venus i s p r a c t i c - - 1 l y t h e same size a s e a r t h and c o u l d be expected t o have a l i q u i d c o r e a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , a magnetic field. However, a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s d i d nc?t d e t e c t a n o t i c e a b l e A p p a r e n t l y , t h i s can be e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t
"A day on Venus"

magnetic f i e l d .

t h a t Venus r o t a t e s v e r y slowly around i t s a x i s . equals 243 e a r t h days.

I n s i z e , Mars l i e s between t h e moon and e a r t h and r o t a t e s j u s t a l i t t l e slower than t h e e a r t h . a negative r e s u l t . However, measurements g i v e

T h i s i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t f o r s c i e n c e , and l e a d s The l a c k of a n o t i c e -

one t o b e l i e v e t h a t Mars has no l i q u i d c o r e .

a b l e magnetic f i e l d on Mars p r o v i d e s t h e o r i s t s w i t h new "food" f o r thought. I t i s known t h a t t h e r e a r e magnetic anomalies on e a r t h , f o r example, Kursk. The absence of a g e n e r a l p l a n e t a r y magnetic f i e l d By u s i n g

does n o t mean t h a t p l a n e t s do r i u t have l o c a l f i e l d s .

v e h i c l e s which can l a n d on Mars and move around t h e r e , i n t i m e , a d e t a i l e d magnetic s u r v e y of t h e p l a n e t could be made. I t would be

i n t e r e s t i n g t o s t u d y r o c k c a p a b l e of s t o r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on a magnetic f i e l d f o r a prolonged time.

I f Mars p r e v i o u s l y had a

magnetic f i e l d , one c o u l d d e t e r m i n e how t h i s changed d u r i n g m i l l i o n s and even b i l l i o n s of y e a r s .

317

From 9rbits Around Mars "Pravda" , January 23, 1972. The long-range space communication center, 22.
(TASS).

The

Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic interplanetary stations are continuing to orbit around Mars. On January 22 the Mars-2 completed 74 revol-

utions around the planet, and the Mars-3 four revolutions. The stations are observing the surface of Mars, its atmosphere and surrounding outer space. According tc instrument readings, in some regions there have been signs that the dust storm, which has been continuing on Mars for several months, is dying down. However, the dust storm is still making photography and scientific measurement o f the planet difficult.
At the same t!.me,

prolonged systematic observations which are beir.,;made in the direct vicinity of this unusual and powerful r_zf,ural phenomenon are of great scientific interest.

In particular, it was seen that in some

areas the upper boundary of the dust clouds is 6-8 km higher than the average level of the surface of Mars. Owing to the low trans-

parency of the planet's atmosphere, caused by the dust storm, details on the surface can only be reliably distinguished in some photographs taken of areas where conditions are more suitable (Fig. 2 8 ) . Scientific instruments in the stations are measuring the surface temperature of the planet, the humidity, the brightness and other characteristics of its atmosphere. The research conducted fron: areas at the pericenters of the orbit is very important. A series

318

of measurements has beenmde

i
,

along tracks from the southwest to the northeast

and

from the day side of Mars t o

t h e night side.

This

research almost completely

covers the anstudied regions

of the middle latitudes of

the southern hemisphere

(from the 65th degree south

latitude), the equatorial
belt and rczions in the

northern hemisphere (up t o

t h e 20th degree rlorth fatiFig. 28. A photograph of Mars. The mountainous area and Coreland in the equatorial region o f Mars (a photograph taken i n t h e evening when the Sun was low).

tude).

In this way, the Mars-2 /155

and Mars-3 stations can

obtain detailed information on areas of Mars which a r e inaccessible when one uses astronomical observation from earth. The latest measurement confirms t h a t t h e temperature near the terminator (the boundary between day and night) is -80-90 C. Some

sections of the s u r f a c e are 1 0 - 1 5 O "warmer" than surrounding areas.

T h e maximum recorded daytime temperatures in the middle l a t i t u d e s

of the southern hemisphere are -15 - -20' C.

The on-board systems

and scientific equipment in the Mars-2 and Mars-3 are working normally, Photographs and other i n f o r m a t i o n transmitted by the
319

Mars-2 and Mars-3 are being processed and carefully studied in scientific institutes of the Soviet Union.

Science of Life

B. Kozlov, a Candidate of Technical Sciences and a senior

scientific worker at the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR "Sotsialisticheskaya industriya", January 26, 1972. The question of the existence of life beyond the earth is extremely important for science.

If we could detect some life-

forms on another planet, let us say Mars, this would be an outstanding discovery. Judge for yourself:

if life occurred indepen-

dently and exists on two planets in one system, apparently, it should be found quite extensively throughout the universe. Similar suggestions have been put forward earlier. The

present-day level of technical develcpment will allow us to test them practically: this means sending automatic stations into orbit around planets and landing descent vehicles on the surfaces
of them.

It is true, the first disappointment was when vehicles investigated Venus. The results of direct measurement of the parameters

of the Venusian atmosphere showed that the tencerature and pressure

registered near the surface of the planet
W~TP so

great that the

existence of life, as we know it c.n earth, was very improbable. Hence, there is a greater interest in Mars. Conditions there are

not so severe. A t least, not so severe as to completely rule out all possibility o f life (for example, the existence of micrGorganisms
320

or even plants).

Special experiments show thtit many microorganisms

have an amazing adaptability. They can withstand temperature changes in very wide ranges, from -60-100 to +80-looo, do not die in great pressure differentials - - even in an almost complete vacuum, and they can survive in atmosphere containing aciO and alkaline vapors. It is true that in these conditions life, as it were, stops. But one only has i o improve the environment and it again revives. For example, it vas shown that the simplest life-forms can exist cven in lunar condjticns. Hence, there is a theory according t o which life can be transterred in spore form through outer space from one planet to another. But in order not to commit an error

in the conclusions, one must always remember that the most favorable Conditions in themselves still mean nothing.
At first, life

itself must be born,and this is a completely different xhing!

It would appear that science has an extremely simple task:

one only hds to sent to Mars a scientific station with the appropriate equipment which would prove or disprove the existence of life. However, there is a serious obstacle even when setting such a problem. It appears that scientists still do not agree as to

which signs of life mdst be considered basic and determinant. Some believe that such signs are the ability for cells to grow, some -,*ievethat it is more important that they divide, some give preference to metabolic processes, and others believe in the ordered structure inherent in living formations.

321

If w wish t o send s p e c i a l i n s t r u m e n t s t o Mars f o r d e t e c t i n g e

l i f e , we must assume t h a t i t i s b a s i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t on e a r t h .
I n o t h e r words, we must a c c e p t t l i a t t h e b a s i c chemical element f o r
it i s carbon ana a c i d i s i t s o x i d a n t .

W have no o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e , e

s i n c e s c i e n c e on e a r t h has no i n f o r m a t i o n whatever on l i f e having a n o t h e r LAse. I t i s t r u e t h a t f o r some s c i e n t i s t s t h i s assumption t h e y b e l i e v e t h a t s i l i c o n c o u l d t a k e t h e p l a c e of

is a r g u a b l e :
carbon.

An e q u a l l y c o m p l i c a t e d t a s k i s t o choose a p l a c e and a t i m e

f o r conducting r e s e a r c h .

Again, from analogy w i t h t h e e a r t h , i t

can be assumed t h a t l i f e on a p l a n e t must be found i n p l a c e s which have been s e l e c t e d due t o t h e i r f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s .

I t simply

cannot e x i s t i n ot+.er a r e a s , e s p e c i a l l y i f l i f e i s n o t w i d e - s p r e a d over t h e p l a n e t . long time. The c o n d u c t i n g o f t e s t s w i l l t a k e a r e l a t i v e l y

On Mars i t would be t e m p t i n g t o choose t h e " l o c a l "

s p r i n g and suamer i n o r d e r t o a t t e m p t t o d i s c o v e r t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e p e r i o d i c , s e a s o n a l changes of c o l o r a;ld b r i g h t n e s s of some p a r t s of i t s s u r f a c e . Khat equipment i s needed t o d e t e c t l i f e ? must it r e g i s t e r ? What p a r a m e t e r s 1157 -

S c i e n t i s t s and e x o b i o l o g i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t impor-

t a n t s i g n s of l i f e c o u l d be chemical c o m p o s i t i o n , metabolism, growth, a p p r o p r i a t e r e a c t i o n s t o e x t e r n a l s t i m u l a t i o n , t h e s p e c i f i c o r d e r e d n a t u r e of a m i c r o s t r u c t u r e , i t s changes over time and f i n a l l y , reproduction. But, s i n c e c a r r y i n ; o u t e x p e r i m e n t s on

I

such a wide program c o u l d s c a r c e l y be accomplished immediately, a t f i r s t , o b v i o u s l y , one must l i m i t o n e s e l f t o sone s i g n s .

322

For

instance, experiments to detect metabolism are very Growth processes are

complex and special equipment must be used.

relatively simple to detect, especially if one takes into consideration the ability to living microorganisms to produce carbon dioxide.
It is not easy to produce, especially in specific

quantities and during certain stages of development. The orderly nature of a formation and dynamics of its changes ; e important along those signs of life shown above. r Special micro-

scopes working "in tandem" with television devices are needed to obtain images of fine microstructures. The greater the magnifi-

cation of these instruments, the more reliable will be the results of observations. From this point of view, the electron microscope which can magnify tens and even hundreds of thousands o f times is beyond compare. But it is complex, unwieldy and capricious. Good results can It

is not easy to produce a preparation for it.

alsg be obtained from the optical microscope, especially if one uses a "lighting" not only by visible but, for example, ultraviolet rays. Which is the best microscope to use?
It is believed that the

probability of detecting life (if, of course, it is present in samples taken for research) using an electron microscope is almost loo%, an optical microscope 10% and when using chemical analysis methods only 1%. There are strict requirements for sterilizing space equipment and instruments when conducting experiments for detecting life. Obviously, there is no sense in flying to another planet to detect
323

there microorganisms brought from earth. It is very difficult.

How can this be avoided?

We spoke above of the amazing abiliby for For example, it is impossible to heat This is why it

microorganisms to survive.

instruments to 500 or immerse them in nitric acid!

will be simpler to detect life than prove thpt it was not brought there by the equipment used for carrying out the experiment. Theseare by no meansall the difficulties which must be overcome to detect life on other planets. The successful solution of

this problem will depend on preliminary investigation

--

on the

results of studying the physical and chemical conditions on the planet and surrounding space. This will not only enable the most

suitable areas to be chosen when searching for life on the planet, but will give an approximate estimation of what can be expected. The Mars-2 and Mars-3 are conducting such research at present.

Conversions of a Signal

V. Pokras, a Candidate of Technical Sciences and laboratory head at the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences o f the USSR
"Pravda", January 30, 1972. Launching a space vehicle and sending it into satellite orbit of the earth, moon or Mars is not an end in itself, but a means o f studying the world around us. We receive most information on earth Some of this information

-/158

from radiotelemetry systems in orbit.

gives the condition of the vehicle's mcillary systems and their modes of operation. This information is analyzed and used for

324

controlling space vehicles. Another large part shows the progress of scientific experiments and, in the final analysis, is the source of new knowledge on objects investigated. Normally, signals arriving from space stacions are repeatedly converted, until they are scientifically evaluated. The Mars-2,

Mars-3 and Luna-19 have many sensors measuring different physical values. Some of these change quickly, others slowly. The frequency For example,

for receiving these readings is chosen accordingly.

if one is studying tlie change of temperature in a room using a normal thzrmometer, there is no need to look at the scale every half second or even every few seconds: the temperature in this

time will not change by an amount which a room thermometer can register. This is also true of space vehicles,where multi-stage

commutators interrogate some sensors tens of times per second, and others only once per minute. What happens if readings of a certain instrument change very slowly, but occasionally become more active? In this case, how

often does one interrogate it for information? Obviously, the interrogation device itself must allow for the "behavior" of the measured physical value by adapting itself to the speed of its change. A system such as this is successfully working in the Soviet-French "Stereo" experiment in the Mars-3. The use of multi-stage commutation and self-adapting systems uses the energy of space stations more effectively: the number of

measurements is reduced without detriment of the completenes, of the information.

It is true that the structure of information 325

transmitted to earth is becoming more complex, but present-day ground, processing systems are successfully analyzing measurement obtained from hundreds of sensors in this difficult sequence. During communication sessions with a space vehicle, millions
I

of measurements are transmitted to earth, received by ground stations, recorded on magnetic tape and fed into processing systems. These systems are a huge complex of all types of equipment, including several large, high-speed computers. Ground processing begins with a careful, comprehensive check of incoming signals. Interference in the path of radio waves, the

slightest malfunction of a complex on-board or ground collection complex, or a transmission or reception failure can result in some information being incorrectly interpreted. This phase is crucial, and although the responsibility is assumed by computers, it sometimes happens that they cannot cope in very difficult situations and "ask" specialists to intervene. Of course, it is simple to ignore these measurements which complicate life, however, the interests of science and the unique nature of experiments conducted forbid this. Everything must be deciphered and evaluated!

Information has been received and analyzed which casts some doubts on the measurements points.

Now, one can isolate the whole

mass of information from orbit into readings of individual sensors or groups. This operation, which required many months of work, is

done by a computer accuratelv in minutes. Another important factor is that information from equipment arrives o n earth in certain con-Centional units.
3 26
c -

/159

In some instances

it is very simple to convert these to physical values

--

only a

few arithmetical operations are required, however, in some cases one must examine the readings of tens of sensors together and use not only arithmetic but logical analysis. However, it is little When

to know that the measured temperature equals such a value. agd where in space was this information received?

In order to

"tie in" the measurement to time and space coordinates, the information of trajectory measurement and readings of special on-board clocks are used, which fix and transmit the accurate time of measurement in the form of electrical signals using a radiotelemetry systen!. When investigating many physical processes and phenomena it is important to know in which direction the scientific instrument's sensor, at a certain point in space, was "looking". Therefore,

simultaneously with the processing of "radiotelemetry",orientation of the space vehicles is done, for example, relative to the surface of Mars. Now one can combine scientific measurement with trajectory and orientation information, and provide additional information relative to physical conditions, in which measurement was made, required for each scientific experiment.
of initial processing begins:

Only then the final stage

the information takes on a form

convenient for the experimenters. The machines draw graphs, print tables, and record information on punched tapes aiid magnetic tapes. All these stages, which are normal for "ordinary" earth satellites, become more complex for Mars-2 and Mars-3 stations. For 327

the first time, signals from satellites of another planet which were processed arrived not once during the experiment, but regularly.

To a nonspecialist, it is clear that it is more difficult tomeasure

and calculate the orbit of a Mars satellite than an earth satellite. A new telemetry system has considerably increased the amount o f information transmitted. Not only the amount of measurement has increased, but there has been a saturation of information and its structure is more complex: this is the first time that such an amount of scientific

research has been done simultaneously.

The Earth Wheels of Martian Automatic Control Units Amos Aleksandrov, Doctor of Technical Sciences ("Novosti" Press Agency) "Moskovskaya pravda", February 6 , 1972. From the moment when the Soviet Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic scientific stations were launched in May 1971 until the present time they have been controlled by the Long-Range Space Communication Center. These new vehicles differ considerably from scientific stations produced earliei ior investigating far space. First of all, they are self-sufficient. Instruments were used for the first time for continuous solar-stellar orientation,as was an autonomous space navigation system. with on-board digital computers. The stations are equipped

328

But the 'tindependence*' the Mars stations does not simplify of the work of the controllers on the ground. The role of the command

and instrumentation complex is still significant i f only because of the extremely complicated conditions and problems of these flights. The work of all services and facilities participating in the flight control is combined and coordinated by the operational control group. Control of the Mars-2 and Mars-3 can be divided into three basic stages:

---

the flight from earth to Mars; the final flight to Mars, separation of the descent vehicle,

the s o f t landing, transmission of information from the planet's surface, injection of the stations into satellite orbit around Mars;

--

the flight in near-Mars orbits.

During the flight stage the planned trajectory was maintained, the necessary corrections were made, the load of operation of the on-board systems were checked, and scientific information was received. More than 230 communication sessions were held and 5,000 commands were issued. The duration of communication sessions varied from several minutes t o several hours. An important role in the long flight t o Mars was checking the condition of the scientific stations by telemetry information. Recommendations were compiled to maintain the serviceability of on-board units and systems.

329

The s t a t i o n s power e n g i n e e i h g was c a r e f u l l y checked and t h e n e c e s s a r y c h a r g e an^ d i s c h a r g e e n e r g y b a l a n c e was m a i n t a i n e d .

Ballistics a l s o played an important p a r t .

It controlled the

f l i g h t p a t h , d e t e r m i n e d t h e time f o r c o r r e c t i o n s t o be made, c a l c u l a t e d t h e amount cf t h r u s t and t h e l e n g t h o f time which t h e v e r n i e r e n g i n e s s h o u l d work. B a l l i s t i c s forecast the motim of

t h e s t a t i o n s and p r e p a r e d t a r g e t i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r t h e t r a c k i n g and control f a c i l i t i e s . Two r a d i o c h a n n e l s were used f o r communication w i t h e a r t h .

A

narrow-band i n t h e d e c i n e t e r r a n g e , d e s i g n e d mainly f o r t r a j e c t o r y measurement and t r a n s m i t t i n g t e l e m e t e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n .

A wjde-band,

i n t h e c e n t i m e t e r r a n g e , f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g s c i e f i t i f i c and p h o t o t e l e vision information.

As t h e s t a t i o n s moved away frolr e a r t h t h e y were more d i f f i c u l t

t o control..

The time from t h e moment when a command was g i v e n t o

wg-s

t h e s t a t i o n u n t i l t h e s i g n a l a r r i v e d and i t t h e end o f t h e f l i g h t , reached 1 5 min.

e x e c u t e d , towards

Radio s i g n a l s from t h e s t a t i o n s became weaker. i s o l a t e d from n o i s e , decoded and a m p l i f i e d .

They had t o b e

Whereas many c o n t r o l l e d e l e m e n t s i n t h e f l i g h t s t a g e had been more o r l e s s developed

iq

p r e v i o u s f l i g h t s t o Mars and Venus, t h e

c o n t r o l d u r i n g t h e approach f l i g h t and i n t h e near-Mars s t a g e o f t h e f l i g h t had n o t been done p r e v i o u s l y .

A l l the control operations

d u r i n g t h e s e s t a g e s were s t r i c t l y d e t e r m i n e d by time and were e x t r e m e l y dependent on each o t h e r . For example, t o c a r r y o u t t h e

t h i r d (approach f l i g h t ) c o r r e c t i o n i t was i m p o r t a n t , i n t h e s h o r t
330

time available, to carry out trajectory measurement, process this, and transmit to the station the final data which made more precise that already in its "memory1'. Then, the readiness of the autonomous systems to carry aut independently corrections and subsequent maneuvers was checked. After the maneuver, the descent vehicle was separated from the
+

Mars-3. The descent

:le's autonomous control systems supplied

i T

the necessary entry angle

the atmosphere of Mars.

d

This is

ctost important to carry out

s o r i landing successfully.

After separating the capsule and the descent vehicle the retrofire rockets in the orbital stations were switched on dnd they went from flight trajectories into artificial Mars satellite orbits. The Mars-3 took up a posi+,ion relative to the vehicle approacning the surface of the planet, which allowed it, when possible, to receive from it information and record it on the on-board memory. /161 An additional radio channel was used for transmitting informs- tion from the descent vehicle to the Mars-3 orbital station. The

station's memory recorded the information, and afterwards transmitted it back to earth. Telemetering information was received continuously on the condition of the station's systems and on the Jperations they werc planned to conduct, As a result o f information rLcejved, if necessary, appropriate corrections could be made to which had been calculated.
le

program sessions

331

Another task was to specify quickly and reljably the landing area and determine the orbital parameters of the new Mars satellites. Control of the Mars satellites was additionally limited by the so-called "radio fading": when the stations went behind the planet

and could not be reached by the ground radio complex. The schedule for the interworking of all groups taking part in the work

--

the control, ballistic, telemetering, diagnostic,

the ground radio facilities group, computation centers and television and communication facilities of a minute. At the present time, the third stage of controlling the statim's flight, in near-Mars orbits is continuing. The control of each stat.ion is "individualized". This i s

--

was calculated to fractions

because of the significant differences in their orbits and sum differences in equipment and modes of cperation of on-board systems.
A control plan is compiled for each station, dictated by the

tasks of the next research stage. Radio communication is maintained with the stations and all the commands given are accurately carried out. The stations have solar and stellar orientation and are working well.

The Mars-2 and Mars-3 in Flight "Pravda", February 1 9 . 1972. The Long-Range Space Communication Center, 1 8 ,
(TASS).

The

work of the Soviet automatic Mars satellites in near-planetary orbits continues.

332

On Feuruary 18 the Mars-2 had completed 111

and the Mars-3 six revolutions around the planet. tion is held regularly with the stations.

Radio communica-

In spite of the fact

that, at the present time, the distance between the earth and Mars has increased to 244 million kilometers, communication with the automatic stations is reliable. Trajectory measurement is carried out during the radio communication sessions, telemetering information on the work of the on-board systems is received, as is scientific information obtained by the research equipment in the stations. From January 22 to February 18, 1972 the Mars-2 and Mars-3 space vehicles continued measuring the temperature of the surface and the subsurface layer of the planet, studied its relief and determined the characteristics o f the atmosphere of Mars and nearplanetary outer space. Information obtained at this time shows that the dust storm has ended, the temperature of the surface has increased to a level expected when the atmosphere is hjghly transmittent, and the contrast o f cr=cails of the surface has increased in the red and near infrared regions of the spectrum. Measurement of brightness of the temperature shohed that the temperature at the depth of several tens of centimeters from the surface has practically no bearing on the time of day. The lati-

tudinal distribution of temperature brightness s h o w s that seasonal changes of temperature at this depth are significantly reduced in comparison with the surface temperature. This indicates the low heat conductivity of Martian soil. /162 -

333

When the artificial satellite went behind the planet experiments were conducted into its atmosphere by using radio wave transillumination. The processing of signals obtained on earth determined the dependence of pressure on altitude in the atmosphere of Mars. It was shown that the pressure near the planet's surfacb, in

areas where measurement had been made, was in the rangss from 4-8 millibars. The boundaries of Mars' ionosphere were determined. boundary is at an altitude of 80-110 km. Its lower

With an increase in alti-

tude the electron concentration increases sharply,and then gradually decreases. Measurement of ultraviolet radiation, scattered in the upper atmosphere of Mars, made it possible to determine the dependence of intensity of lines of atomic hydrogen and oxygen on altitude, and radiation in a line of hydrogen was recorded up to altitudes of approximately 2,000 km, where it exceeds the background level of the interplanetary medium. Radiation in the atomic oxygen line was Measurements made

traced to altitudes of approximately 800 km.

determined the dependence of the concentration of hydrogen and oxygen atoms on the altitude above the surface of Mars. The artificial Mars satellites are continuing their scientific research.

334

Three Months in Orbit "Pravda", March 2, 1972. The Long-Range Communication Center, 1. (TASS). The Soviet

Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic stations are continuing their flight. On March 1 the Mars-2 completed 127,and the Mars-3 seven rovolutions around Mars. From FebruTry I! to March 1, Mars had moved another t

15 million kilometers away from earth, and at the present time, the distance between the planets is 259 million kilometers. Reliable, regular communication sessions are held with the Soviet artificial satellite. Research into the surface and atmosphere o f Mais in continuing from near-planetary orbit. Photographs are being taken. The nature

of outer space surrounding the planet is being studied. The Soviet automatic vehicles have been near the planet for three months, during which time much valuable, scientific information has been obtained on Mars and on near-planetary outer space. The proposed work program for the Mars 2 and Mars-3 artificial satellites orbiting the planet is nearing completion,

A Plasma Experiment in blars Orbit ("Novosti" Press Agencyj "Moskovskaya pravda", March 11, 1972. The Soviet Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic stations have been carrying out observations for three months in an orbit around Mars. Their instruments have investigated the planet and surraunding

335

space.

Scientists are analyzing the information obtairled, summing

up the results and compiling a program for further experiments.

A correspondent of the "Novosti" Press f.gency asked Oleg

Vaysberg, a Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Scitnces, and a section head at the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, tc tell us of work of imtruments designed for studying charged particle fluxes, including one of the most interesting spare phenomena - - solar wind, and of some results obtained so far. /163 -

"TO understand the mechanism for generating and accelerating

solar wind particles is to solve one of the main problems of solar physics: this is to understand how the corona is heated to such

high temperatures. To somr extent, solar wind is a natural laboratory, where physicists can study processes occurring in extremely rarified plasma, that is, in conditions which, in many respects, cannot be reproduced on earth. in another question: In this experiment, we were more interested the solar wind which flows around Mars.

The fact is that the flow of solar wind around earth, when the plasma flow interacts with the magnetic field of earth, has been studied sufficiently. Since solar wind has a supersonic speed, and the obstacle itself, the magnetosphere, has relative conductance,
it influences the flow, and a shock wave is formed.
A

transition
A

region forms between the shock wave and the magnetosphere.

plasma flcw, heated as a result of colliding with the magnetosphere, flcws around the magnetic field.
336

Its exterr?al area i s deformed,

forming the earth's magnetic tail, rather similar to the tail o f a comet. Changes in solar wind cause magnetic storms on earth,

polar auroras and ionospheric disturbances.

A

second variation of this flow, which has also been studied The moon is

well, is the interaction of solar wind with the moon. an obstacle of a completely different type.

It has no conductance

and, therefore, does not give a reverse reaction - - does not influence the flow o f plasma. its surface. Solar wind directly interacts with

Although a considerable amount of the flow is Only a cavity is formed

neutralized, a shock wave does not occur.

bith a small concentration of particles, which the moon "selects" in the flow of solar wind: the so-called "corpuscular shadow".

Finally, the third class of interaction will take place when the solar wind flows around planets having an atmosphere, but not having their own magnetic field. Since the ionosphere o f any

planet has conductance, it must be expected that the progress o f the phenomena, to a certain extent, must be similar to the process of solar wind flowing around the earth's magnetosphere, but only in the sense of the general characteristics of the flow-around zone.
A

magnetized flow of plasma will induce - - cause an electric cur-

rent on the boundary of the ionosphere. A magnetic field of this current is also an obstacle for an oncoming solar wind. During the flight of Mariner-4,American scientists detected some features of an interplanetary field around Mars, which they interpreted as a shock wave when solar wind struck the planet.

337

However, later calculations showed that this effect was more likely
t o be linked with the change of the magnetic field with time.

The Mars-2 and Mars-3 are investigating solar wind by using equipment which, in particular, will determine its speed, temperature and composition of the basic components. were done during the flight to Mars. The measurements

For the first time, it was

possible to obtain information on the characteristics of the geomagnetic tail at distances of 20 million kilometers from earth. However, as I have already said, we are morc interested in studying particle fluxes in the direct vicinity of Mars. dently said that solar win2
It can be confi-

"meeting" the planet's upper atmos-

phere, must have a great effect on its strncture. Equipment on board the stations included an ion and electron spectrometer. This equipment measures the spectral distribution of j164

particles in an energy range from 30 electron volts to 10,000 electron volts.

It is convenient to measure the parameters o f the ion

components of plasma, since ions give us the basic information on the hydrodynamic characteristics of the flow perature. During the first few days of the flight of the stations in orbit around Mars, we were able to pi.npoint very sharp changes in the ion composition in the direct vicinity of the planet. The sta-

--

its speed and tem-

tion's equipment registered low-energy ions in the order of hundr:ds

of electron volts.

Normally, such particles are not seen in solar

wind.

338

Measurement has been carried out during six revolutions around the planet by the Mars-3. It showed that regularly, when the station approaches the planet, it enters a low-energy particle zone. The nature and the suddenness of the change of ion composition, and also the sudden changes in velocity of particle flow, which was observed at that time, gives basis to suppose that apparently, we are dealing with a shock wave.

Of course, this is only a preiiminary conclusion, and has

not been validated. For example, when we attempted to determine

the shape o f the boundary where the sudden change of velocity occurs, it appeared that the curve obtained approximately coincided with the theoretically calculated shape of the shock wave. Fur-

ther study of the flow-around zone, cornparism of results of recording the parameters of plasma flow before and after the shock wave, and analysis of magnetic measurement will allou us to make final conclusions.
It is possible that new information will be

obtained on the characteristics of the upper ionosphere of Mars.

Mars before and after a Storm Professor V . Moroz, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, L. Ksanfocaliti, Candidate o f Physical and Mathematical Sciences ":zvestiya", March 21, 1972

lr The fourth month of work near ' a s is being completed by the Mars-2 and Mars-3 interplanetary statims. The first anxious days

are over, that unforgettable communication session when the first paper tapes with their complex, curved 3hape fell on our table 339

--

the telemetering recordings of instrunient rehdings. The tine

has arrived for painstaking processing, the analysis of measurement and preparation of the first scientifi; publication. Con-

clusims can be made shawing that the study of the material obtained is still far from complete.
As

was reported, our artificia, Mars satellites are equipped

with two sets of equipment, one of which we can call arbitrarily an astrophysical oiie, the other (still more arbitrarily) a zeophysical one. The first consists of instrument> 'esigned for

investigating the atmosphere and the SUi,.ce of Mars according ts its rddiation in different spectral regions, and was p.~duced, mainly, by astrophysicists. The second is f o i investigating the interplanetary medium and vicinity of Mars, and was produced by geophysicists. Experiments conducted with these t.' sets o f instru..? ments, - - are the basic ones in our station's program, and photography of the planet plays an auxiliary role. This is the nain difference between ours and the American program for the Mariner-9 artificial satellite, the main aim of which is television photography of the planet. We shall give the results of experiments carried out at the laboratory o f infrared astronomy at the Space Research Institute of the Academy o f Sciences of the USSR, in conjunction with the State Astronomical Institute im. Shternberg,and many other scientific and industrial organizations. These experiments studied the radiation o f the planet,
to

be

/165

more precise, small areas of it, near a certain line ("mezsurement

340

path') in different sections of a wide range of wavelengths - - from

0 . 3 6 - 4 0 pm.

The hu,..-

eye reacts to radiation in a relatively

narrow lrterval frcn 0 . 4 - 0 . 7 pm, the wavelength here changes less than twice. Scientific instruments "saw" wavelengths differing a

hundred times.
7ne

field of vision of all these instruments is from 0.25-1' approaching clcse to the planet - - in the pericenter From earth,

and when

receive radiation of sections measuring from 6-25 km.

duricg astrophysical research into Mars, one normally isolates areas measuring n a t less than 500 km. Apart from this, research into the night side of Mars is practically impossible. Clouds in the atmospl:.re

of Mars are rare.

Unlike Venus,

where the atmosphere is 10,000 times more powerful and a dense cloud layer completely obscures the surface. When the Mariner-9 and later the Mars-2 and Mars-3 went into orbit it seemed as if they had discovered some new, unknown planet. Mars was shrouded with a cloud layer, almost as impenetrable as that of Venus. It

was impossible to distinguish the dark regions from the light, and pho4:ography of the surface was practically impossible. What had happened on Mars? Observers already know that during

major oppositions, the planet's disc for some weeks is covered by a light veil, behind which the dark Martian regions ("seas") become hardly distinguishable. The brightness and color o f this veil is almost the same as in the bright regions of Mars - - "continents". The continents are covered with a layer of finelyApparently, there is dust on the surfaces

crush<& niaterial, dust.

341

of che maria, but it is coarser, and there, probably, there are

greater rock extensions.

It is suggested that during a dust storm

a fine, "continental" dust rises into the atmosphere and extends over the whole planet. Such a dust storm began during the first ten days o f October and lasted three months. During the present opposition, the dust
It hindered photography, but measure-

storm was especially long.

ment, carried out by our astrophysical instruments, gave much new information on the dust storm itself. In December and the beginning

of January, measurement was made when the atmosphere contained dust.

In February all signs of dust disappeared.

The Mars-3 carried out three series of measurements during the storm and four after it. useful. A comparison o f them was extremely

During measurements on December 27 and February 16, the

measurement paths passed over the Mare Iapigya. Whereas on December 2 7 the Iapigya was discernible on a wavelength of 1.4 pm, and not seen at all on a wavelength of 0 . 7 pm, on February 16 Iapigya was half as bright as the neighboring continents in both wavelengths. The difference in contrast in the two wavelengths

between the continents and the maria during the storm allows us to estimate the size
0 :

dust particles, and the change of contrast

between February 15 and 16 in one and the same region - - the thickness o f the dust cloud. According to a preliminary estimation, the average radius of particles on December 15 over the Iapigya region was rather less than a micron, and their number over 1 cm2 was approximately 342

100 million.

I f clouds of such density cover the whole pldnet

uniformly, then its atmosphere must contain several billion tons

of dust. These estimations suggest that particles, basically, are

of a silicate composition, which agrees with infrared spectra obtained by the Mariner-9. Particles of such small diaensions, even in the very rarified Martian atmosphere, fall very slowly - - approximately a month even without supporting vertical motion in the atmosphere. It follows
/166

that during the investigation period there was no prolonged dust storm, in the true sense of the word, that is, constant wind. Winds which raise dust from the surface only occur in tl..e initial phase of the phenomenon, then the dust is suspende8 for a long time in the calm atmosphere. Hence, a dust storm consists of the formation of a cloud layer in the planet's atmosphere, hut as opposed tc Venus, it is temporary and not constant. What is the altitude of this layer? The first indications were provided by ground observations carried out by one of the authors in October 1971, during the initial phase of the dust storm. It seems that belts of carbon dioxide were con-

siderably reduced when the dust storm began. This means that the upper cloud boundary
J :

extremely high, not lower than 8-10 km.

The whole o f Mars' spectrum was observed from earth averaged along its disc. The Mars-?,obtained similar observatims for indiIt appears that the altitude of clouds is

vidual regions of Mars.

not identical, above high regions they are lower,and above low

343

regicns higher: during the dust storm, the Mariner-9 photographed some high regions protruding above the cloud level. On Venus the atmosphere and cloud layer are more transmissive
to solar radiation than to thermal radiation of the surface.
1

As

result, there is

"greenhouse effect" - - the surface heats up

significantly. Does the same happen on Mars during a dust storm? Apparently quite the reverse occurs. The cloud layer with the

characteristics shown above allows thermal radiation of the surface

t~ p a s s through beti.ar than short-wave,solar radiation.

Therefore,

the surface does not heat up but cools. "anti-greer>rilse effect".

One might say there is an

Since Martian clouds are practically

transmissive in a radiometers sensitive infrared band, it "sees" the surface through the clouds and measures its temperature. During the dust s t o m the surface temperature fell by 20-30' in cmyarison with that which was expected from normal conditions (without dust clouds). When the storm ended, the temperature rose.

During the dust storm the surface was cooled, and the atmosphere itself heated up, since it absorbed a considerable amount of solar radiation. There was a very small content of water vapor in the atmosphere during the dust storm and after it.
It did not exceed 5 pm of

precipitated water - - 2,000 times less than in the earth's atmosphere. From previous ground observations we know that the content

of water vapor in the Martian atmosphere fluctuates considerably. Sometimes it reaches 50 pm of precipitated water, sometimes less than 10 pm - - this is the instrument limit of ground observatiuiis.
344

It is difficult to say whether the small amount of humidity in the Martian atmosphere during the dust storm and sfter it was a coincidence, or whether there is some connection. The existence of water on Mars is an extremely interesting problem.

In one of the final photographs taken by the Mariner-9 there

is a formatior- similar to the channel of a dried-up river. that water in liquid form cannot exist on Mars: or boils (due to the low atmospheric pressure). We know

it either freezes Such channels

indicate that until relatively recently the climate on Mars could have been completely different higher.

--

the temperature and pressure were

It could be that these enormous climatic chankes are o f a

periodic nature.

A Radio Telescope in Crbit around Mars

N. Krupenio, Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences ("Novosti" Press Agency)

"Moskovskaya pravda" , June 8 , 1972. Artificial Mars satellites

--

the Mars-2 and Mars-3 Soviet

/167

automatic interplanetary stations - - were equipped with many scientific instruments designed for investigating the planet's atmosphere and surface. They included a miniature radio telescope working on a wavelength o f 3.4 cm. This is the third time that a

radio telescope has been fi'.ted into a space vehicle. As opposed to its two "older brothers", which measured the intensity of radiofrequency radiation of the earth and Venus, the Mars-3 radio telescope is much more "intelligent".
It not only measured the

345

intensity but the polarization of the planet's radio-frequency radiation. The simultaneous measurement of the intensity and polarization of Mars' radio-frequency radiation made the processing of the radioastronomical experiment more difficult. How-

ever, the results justified these difficulties. Only the most complex resetrch could determine the temperature of the planet's surface layer to a depth of approxiiilately 0.5 m. Apart from the

thermodynamic temperature by using polarization measurement, the dielectric permeability of matter of Mars' upper cover, several tens of centimeters thick, was determined. The on-board radio telescope worked with a fixed anetnna system with a diameter of approximately 60 cm. The surface of the

planet was scpnned by the radio telescope when the Mars-3 artificial satellite moved in its orbit. At the same time, the radio telescope received the radio-frequency radiation from a section of the surface, the linear measurement of which was approximately
2 0 0 km.

It is worth mentioning that the best ground telescopes

can only measure radio-frequency radiation of the planet as a whole and not in detail.

In order for a ground radio telescope to detail

radio-frequency radiation of Mars to the same degree as the onboard Mars-3 radio telescope, it would need an antenna diameter of more than 30 km. will have
a

The largest radio telescope being built on earth The antenna

rotating antenna with a diameter of 100 m.

size and accuracy required for meas'rrement of Mars is a dream which cannot be realized in the near future.

346

The Mars-3 interplanetary station has an elongated orbit.

Its

minimum distance from the planet's surface (pericenter) is approximatel.y 1,500 km, the maximum approximately 200,000 km, and the orbital period around the planet is approximately 12 days. The

orbit was oriented relative to the surface of Mars so that the radio telescope can receive in sequence during each revolution the radio-frequency radiation of the surface from 6 ' south latitude 0 to 33' north latitude. The northern latitudes of Mars have been studied very little. Whereas we have information of radiation observations from earth for the area of the northern hemisphere from 3-22', by which we

can estimate the dielectric permeability o f matter on the upper cover, the southern hemisphere is a completely white spot. Temperature information on the planet's subsurface layer in specifjc regions of the southern hemisphere, obtained by the Mars-3 radio telescope, strictly speaking, will have nothing with which to be compared. The results of the radioastronomical experiment were very interesting. The theoretical calculations were confirmed, according to which there are never positive temperatures at a depth of 0.5 m, where the cold is lower than -40' C. Khen moving

towards regions in the southern latitudes, towards the 60th parallel, the temperature at this depth falls even more by approximately
3' 0. It was found that the temperature at a depth of 0.5 m at a

certain point did not depend on the time of day.

Thc heat. con-

/168

ductivity of Martian soil varies in different regions.

347

Processing of polarization measurement of radio-frequency radiation showed that the density of matter of the upper cover varied for different regions of the southern hemisphere. The small dark region, Cerberus, was very interesting. It

was examined by the Mars-3 at night. The radio telescope recorded an increase in the dielectric permeability in this region, An increase in the dielectric permeability and night temperature of the surface are caused by denser soil. Processing of the radioastronomical experiment completely confirms this. Whereas in nearby regions the density of the upper cover is approximately
1.2 g/cm 3 , in the Cerberus region it is twice as great.

Since the radio telescope transmitted information from an area with a diameter of approximately 200 kn, this increai; in density can indicate rock on the surface in that region (with a density of approximately 3.5 g/cm3 ) . Processing of information collected by the on-board radio telescope, apparently, will give additional knowledge on thermal conditions and the electrical properties of substance of Mars' upper cover and, probably, determine in ;;hat way the dark and bright regions of the planet differ from each other.

348

lllars, bar and Near

B. Kozlov, Candidate of Technical Sciences

"Radio", No. 7 , 1972. Mars, one of the closest planets to earth, has always been of special interest to scientists who believed that life could possibly exist there. The problem of whether life exists on another planet is not only interesting in itself, Its solution is extremely important for science. By discovering life on another planet, studying the
wc+s in which it originated, its form of development, etc., scien-

tists would understand better the origin and evolution of life on earth. Successes in the development of technology have meant sending to Mars automatic interplanetary stations with scientific equiprnent
f o r directly measuring and obser-ring, checking theories and

attempting to answer the question on whether life exists there. The flights o f automatic stations to Mars have provided several surprises. For example, no one expected that the reliaf of the terrain shown on photographs would be so similar to tha+ on the moon. One can now say that the atmosphere of Mars almost

completely consists of carbon dioxide, and the temperature near the surface i s 5-10 millibars, which corresponds to a pressure
in

tke

earth's atmosphere at an altitude of approximateiy 30-40 km.

The

temperature in the equatorial zone at noon i s 15-20' C , wheieas near the poles it can fall to 130-150' of frost.

34 9

It is possible that the surface of Mars is covered with sand.

Strong winds blow away dust f o l one place to another, and dust rrl storms occur.
It was noticed that they reached their greatest

intensity exring oppositions. According to present information, an exceptionally strong storm occurred during the last quarter of 1971. Radar observations show that on Mars the maximum difference in elevation is 12 km,with average inclination valLes of approximately 5 - 4 ' . A layer of perxafrost begins at a depth o f approxiduring the year
/169

mately 50 cm, where the temperature hardly c a . e h;:s and is from - 5 0 to -70' C.

Apparently, polar caps observed on

photographs consist o f dry ic- crystals (solid carbon dioxide: and dust. In summer, the soilthern cap normally melts completely, and

the northern one is reduced but does not disapFzar completely. Martian ci-uds were observed through telescopes near the poles. Scientists believe that they are a mixture of Cry ice crystals, ordinary ice and dust.
It c3n be

seen that conditions on Mars are quite severe, but

not so as to completely exclude tne poszibility of the existence of life on the planet (microorganisms or even plants).
It seems a simple task to send an atitoiratic control unit to

Mars which, with its scientific equipment, would determine whether

l i f e existed or not.

In fact, this i s
ii+d

very complex problem.

:here are many obstacles

they ofteri occur in most unex2ected

spheres. For example, it appears that it is quite difficult to produce a "life detector" - - an instrument for detecting life on
350

Mars.

It would be difficult to detect living organisms (if they

exist) by their external appearance, since they could be different from those ori earth. One must find other signs which are more

reliable. Where and how can we look for them?

Is it possible tr, look for a certain structure or rely on t3e

presence of biochemical processes? Firstly, this requires the use of complicated equipment, and secondly it i s not quite clear which signs of life can be accepted as a base. The fact is that in

inaninate nature there are many analogues of biochemical grocesses, and if they are examined in isolation, they can confuse the researcher. For example, an analogue in metabolism in inanimate

nature are the varied cxidatim-reduction processes, and cell division often makes it difficult to distinguish between some processes in crystals. These are not all the problems which must be solved in order
+o

find the correct answer.

Ne need extensive information, the

more extensive, the more cnance of success. Therefore, science is attempting to study in more detail space around Mars, the gas composition, temperature, pressure and other characteristics of the atmosphere, and to obtaip, if possible, more detailed and complete maps and pictures of its surface, etc. Having this data, one can attempt to say where to look for life a . in what form it might exist. rd Since individual experiments do

not give a definite arswer on whether life exists, one must conduct a whole range of different experiments.
By comparing and generali-

zing these results, one can put lnore faitk, in their reliability. 351

What is the overall plan for such an extensive space experiment?

A large space vehicle when approaching Mars goes into artificial satellite orbit of the planet (MAS). After this the descent

vehicle (DV) is separated, and makes a soft landing ir, the selected area. The DV has a scientific oase-laboratory and a self-propelled

device, a Mars vehicle, also equipped with scientific iiistrurrent~ and, of course, rtdio transmitters for communication with the base and the Mars satellite. The Nars vehicle will study the surface

of tLe planet in a radius of 300-500 km for 3-6 nonths, and afterwards return to the base.
It will carry out the majority of physio-

chemical and biological experiments.

If there are complications or

if it finds something interesting, it h-ill take samples. Puring investigations it will systematically t i e phocographic images of a. the area, and the film will be stored dnd sent back to earth together with :e samples. h Meanwhile, the base station will carefully study the landing area and carry out research requiring more time. The results are /170

periodically transmitted to the Mars satellite, and from there back

to earth.

The Mars satellite studies space near Mars, photographs the surface of the planet and works as a relay or, the radio link between Mars and earth. When the experiments end on the surface of

fars,part of the base station with soil samples collected by the Mars vehicle, and photographic and magnetic film, flies off, docks with the satellite and returns to earth.
352

This is only a general picture of one of the possible variations of a flight to liars.
It must be noted that in the first part

it resembles the space flight of Sogiet Mars-2 and Mars-3 space vehicles, and also the experiment when a descent vehicle made a soft lapding on the planet'. surface. This flight gave science

valuable information which, of course, can be successfully used for k t u r e Mars research. Let us try in more detail to show the flight schedule of wtich we spoke earlier.
It must be sti-essed that it will last

approximately 2-2.5 years and will require the use of various t e d nical aids which have been developed, based on new achievements in science and technology. The most important of these are radio engineering, el+?ctron;cs,television, cybernetics acd cDmmunic,tions. When carrying out a space flight such as this, we shall have to solve many unusual problems.
For example, the space communi-

ccticn links between the eartk. and the Mars satellite or the earth and the 'lars vehicle. h e shhll reckon that the distance between '

the two extreme points o f thc route, on an average, will be

200-300 million kilometers.

Taking into account that radio waves

are propagated with a speed of approximately 300,000 kmjsec, the time for a signal to pass to both en2s is 2 4 - 3 5 min. Obviously,

this must be allowed for when controlling the space vehicle's systems, since it moved towards Mars a t great speed. Further dif-

ficulties await us when organizing communication with the scientific station on planet's surface or with the Mars vehicle.
353

1
I

Imagine that we have decided to maintain communication with the Mars vehicle directly, and not via the satellite operating as a relay.

If one takes into account that communication between

space objects is only possible when there is direct visibility, a radio link of this type will give very poor results. There will

be few sessions - - once or twice a day (since the rotation period of Mars around its axis is approximately 25 hours), and they will only last a few minutes. Let us add that it is difficult and

unsuitable to install large antennas on the Mars vehicle: they must not only be set down on the planet but must be continually directed toward earth which is observing it. There is also the

additional weight and energy expenditure, new instruments and equipment.

It is better to keep the large antenna in the Mars

satellite, since this must maintain communication with eartlA. This will make it possible to reduce the size and weight of the antenna on the Mars vehicle and broaden its directional patterns in order to keep track of the satellite. How can this complex scientific program be accomplished? The instruments must be controlled, and the need for setting up new experiments will be determined by the results o f previous ones. Must one wait for the next communication session with earth? Obviously, cybernetic facilities and special computers must be set /171 up to contcol the progress o f scieiitific research, decide independently what to do and when, evaluate the results obtained and, depending on these, decide and determine the further course o f the exper;qent and the work of the vehicle's systems.
354

A cybernetic automatic control unit such as this must also be

used for controlling the movement of the Mars vehicle. are as follows.

Its tasks

The terminal point and overall direction of move-

ment can be chosen on earth and it is impossible to forecast accurately a concrete path and the vehicle's behavior in it. will appear in its path: cliffs. Obstacles

stone, craters and, perhaps, caverns or

They must be "seen", avoided, and a Fzth chosen which is

safe, and if there is something in its path it must approached and "examined" to see what it is. Depending on the result of the examination, it either continues moving, investigates the object in detail, or takes a sampie with it for further study at the base or on earth. These problems must be solved by using special, inde-

pendent control cDmplexes. The Mars vehicle can be equipped with an irradiator using an optical system which illuminates the area tens of meters ahead of
it with a vertical beam.

The beam travels over the selected area

It must move

of the ground in front of the vehicle in sequence.

in such a way that the surface investigated, when viewed from above, forms a scanning field, the lines of which are in a fan shape and are intersected at a point where the irradiator is placed. The thickness of the beam and the distance between the lines determines its resolving power (Figs. 2 9 , 3 0 ) . Television cameras, forming a stereo system, are placed at both ends of the irradiator. These are the two eyes of the vehicle, positioned so that they only see the illuminated points through special light filters. Video signals from both "eyes" are
355

F i g . 29. The measurement of c h a r acteristics of t h e relief of the t e r r a i n i n f r o n t of a s e l f - p r o p e l l e d v e h i c l e . XYZ - The c o o r d i n a t e system o f t h e t e r r a i n ; (M)XYZ - A c e r t a i n p o i n t on t h e t e r r a i n ; Q - The s c a n n i n g [ r o t a t i n g around a x i s (OY)] p l a n e ; S - A l i g h t beam from t h e i r r a d i a t o r . a t p o i n t 0; r i g h t s c r e e n s of a s t e r e o p a i r .

F i g . 3 0 . A f u n c t i o n a l diagram o f an autonomous movement c o n t r o l system. F - Light f i l ters; 0 3 F 3O p t i c a l objectives; S2 - T e l e v i s i o n sens o r s ; EM - An e l e c t r o n i c measurer f o r c o o r d i n a t e p o i n t s ; SC - A s i g n a l c o n d i t i o n i n g u n i t ; ODC - An on-board d i g i t a l comp u t e r ; SG - A synchronous g e n e r a t o r ; SI - A scanning i r r a d i a t o r ; M.C. - Movement c o n t r o l . 1 - Transmitter; 2 - Recei-er.

ii,~ i , ~ i i *

p r o c e s s e d by t h e on-board d i g i t a l computer.

As a r e s u l t , complete

d a t a on t h e r e l i e f o f t h e t e r r a i n a p p e a r s i n t h e machine.

The

b a s i c t e c h n i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e t e r r a i n t r a f f i c a b i l i t y of t h e Mars v e h i c l e a r e known e a r l i e r , and t h e v e h i c l e , knowing t h e s e , s e t s a c o u r s e a l o n g which i t must t r a v e l . I f , f o r some r e a s o n , an

1172 -

emergency o c c u r s ( o r may o c c u r i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e ) , a computer s w i t c h e s o f f t h e e n g i n e s and d u r i n g t h e n e x t communication s e s s i o n

w i l l transmit a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s i t u a t i o n t o e a r t h and a w a i t

further instructions. There a r e o t h e r r e a s o n s f o r u s i n g computer equipment when studying p l a n e t s i n t h e s o l a r system.

W have a l r e a d y s a i d t h a t e

356

scientific experiments in themselves are varied, numerous and very complex. As a result, when carrying them out much information will be obtained which must be transmitted to earth. where another difficulty arises. This is

For example, If we equip a Mars

satellite with the same transmitting equipment as an earth satellite, owing to the great distance, the transmission speec. will have to be reduced by approximately 100 billion times. Otherwise, the

signal will not be recognized among the background noise.

Of

course, the special Long-Range Space Communication Center is developing special transmitters and increasing their power.
But

this cannot completely solve the problem,and there is only one solution - - process the results obtained before transmission, selec:: from them that which is valuable or new, and disregard what is not required. Specialists call this the compression of information. Here is an example. Suppose we have to transmit information on changes of temperature inside the Mars vehicle.
It can be simply measured from time

to time (every 5-10 min), recorded on a tape recorder ana later transmitted. Here, almost all the figures will be identical and the time for their transmission will have practically no value. This can be done another way: an additional electronic unit can be

installed which automatically shows whether there are great variations in the information and whether any critical values have been reached. In this case, the effectiveness of the transmission is

greatly increased.

357

A gi-milar,!L vice, produced at the Space Research Institute o f

tF.2

Ax2demy ,'.

:ences of 'he USSR, was installed in the Soviet

Mars-3. measuri i r b ami.::.

prn-ossed information obtained from a French instrument,

t d U A r . -

;dency radiation of the Sun, and reduced the

..

-n transmitted by approximately 100 times.

:eem rather fantasxclc.

T h i s picti;-

But people once dreamt

o f earth sa
sild .

+as.
'ew,

lhere is no doubt that in the near future we

..

amazing space experiments.

A TASS Report:

The Program Has Been Accomplished

"Pravda", August 2 3 , 1972. The preplanned complex research program of Mars, carried out by the L v i e t Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic stations in orbit around it. b a s ended.
A

great deal

0:

+:ientific information on the physical proyer2

tic;

-<

tht- surface

;.- qtmosphere of the planet and outer space

neaT ; t has been obtained. The Mars-2 an5 Mars-3 automatic interplanetary stations were sent into a flight path to Biars on May 19 and 2 8 , 1971, respectively. During the flight from the earth to Mars, lasting more than s i x months, the stations regularly transmitted scientific measurement on the physical characteristics c?f interplanetary space. On November 27 and December 2 , respectively, the Mars-2 and Mars-3 were sent into near-planetary orbit ard began to study the planet and space directly surromding it.
/173

3 58

An outstanding achievement during this space experiment was the first soft landing of a descent vehicle from the Mars-3 on the planet and the transmission of a radio signal from its surface to earth. of Mars.
To date, the Mars-2 has comp'.eted 362 revolutions, and the

Pennants showing the Statt. Emblem were left on the surface

Mars-3 20 revolutions around the planet. For more than eight months the stations orbited Mars and conducted complex research into the properties of the surface and atmosphere by the nature of radiation in t h e visible, infrared and ultraviolet ranges of the spectrum, and also in the radio wave Sand. This measurement showed the temperature of the surface o f the subsurface layer, and traced its changes depending on the aerographical latitude and the time of Martian days. Some thermal

anomalies were detected on the planet's surface. High-altitude profiles of the Martian surface along the satellite's path were obtained by information on the absorption of infrared radiatiori by carbon dioxide. Measurement of the water vapor content in various regions o f the planet showed that during the observation period it was approximately 5,000 times less than in the earth's atmosphere. Measurement of scattered ultraviolet radiation provided information on the structure of the planet's upper atmosphere

--

its

extent, composition and temperature. Study o f the refraction of radio waves when they passed through the atmosphere of Mars made

359

it possible to determine the pressure and temperature near its surface. Changes in the transmittance of the Martian atmosphere during an unusually strong dust storm which occurred during the first two months of the station's flight, gave information on the characteristics of this interesting phenomenon, and an evaluation was made on the content and average dust particle size in the planet's atmosphere. The dust storm hindered phot3graphy o f the pliizet and some scientific measurements. However, pictures of Mars' disc, taken

by photographic equipment on board the stations, gave useful scientific information on the planet. Photographs were taken of Mars Photographs on the sur-

for the first time in phases not observed frnm earth. transmitted from the stations added to the informa'ion

face, the structure of the atmosphere and the planet's shape. The flight program of the Mars-2 and Mars-3, which had quite different orbits, devoted much attention to the direct measurement
of characteristics of fields and particles of different energies

in space surrounding Mars. Measurements made by the satellites enabled studies to be made on the question of the existence of a magnetic field near the planet. Research into the regularity of a magnetic field is extremely important for understanding not o n l y the nclture of Mars, but the origin and evolution of planets in the solar system. Measurements made by the "Stereo" equipment, developed and produced by French specialists in accordance with the Soviet-French

360

program of cooperation into the research of outer space for friendly purposes, obtained adcLitional information on the structure
of the Sun's radio-frequency radiation.

Another stage has been completed in outer space research. Scientific establisi,iiients in the Soviet Union are continuing to process and analyze inforrr Lion ob?qicl-d by the Mars satellites. The results of this new space experi: Ait will give science valuable information on the nature of planets in the solar system. The outstanding success of Soviet astronautics opens new possibilities for conducting systematic, scientific research into heavenly bodies by using automatic vehicles.

/174

Soviet Automatic Control Units Investigate Mars CTASS) "Pravda", August 25, 1972. Soviet blars-2 and Mars-3 automatic interplanetary stations, which became Mars satellites more than eight months ago, have completed their scientific research program. Their instruments

carried out observations which told us many new things about the "red" planet. The complete processing of irformation obtained and

analysis will still take Some time, but the first results can be given. The American Mariner-9 satellite carried out measurement

simultaneously with our stations.

The Soviet and American space vehicles were sent into orbit

around Mars and .'ere equipped with mutually supplementing sets of

361

s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s ; t h e y can o p e r a t e f o r long p e r i o d s and i n f o r m a t i o n can be exchanged between S o v i e t and American s c i e n t i s t s w h i l e e x p e r i m e n t s a r e s t i l l b e i n g c o n d u c t e d , which i s extremely u s e f u l when s t u d y i n g Mars. The Mars-2 and Mars-3 o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s were s e n t i n t o q u i t e d i f f e r e n t o r b i t s arounG Mars, which was d i c t a t e d by r e s e a r c h t a s k s b o t h o f t h e p l a n e t i t s e l f and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s p a c e s u r rounding i t . Both s t a t i o n s approached M a r s t o a m i n i m u n , d i s t a n c e

of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 , 5 0 0 km; t h e maximum d i s t a n c e of t h e Mars-2 s t a t i o n was more t h a r , 2 5 , 0 0 0 km, and t h a t of t h e M a r s - 3 more thar,

2 0 0 , 0 0 0 km.

When t h e Mars-2 approached Mars a c a p s u l e w i t h a pennant c a r r y i n g t h e image of t h e emblem of t h e S o v i e t Union was dropped onto t h e planet. The d e s c e n t v e h i c l e o f t h e Mars-3 made a s o f t l a n d i n g between t h e E l e c t r i s and P h a e t h o n t i s r e g i o n s . T e l e v i s i c n s i g n a l s from i t s

panoramic cameras were r e c e i v e d a t t h e e s t i m a t e d t i m e s i m u l t a n e n u s l y on two i n d i v i d u a l c h a n n e l s ; t h e l e v e l of t h e s i g n a l was h i g h , w i t h o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e , however, t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of s i g n a l s soon stopped.

N s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r a s t d e t a i l s were shown i n t h e panorama t r a n s o

m i t t e d a t t h i s time, The r e a s o n why t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n s t o p p e d s o Probably i t i s l i n k e d w i t h l o c a l ':eii;iures

suddenly was n o t c l e a r .

of t h e l a n d i n g a r e a , which a r e c o m p l e t e l y unknown, o r w i t h t h e
s t r o n g dslst storm o c c u r r i n g on t h e p l a n e t a t t h e t i m e .
I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e d u s t s t o r m c o v e r e d d e t a i l s of t h e

s u r f a c e w i t h a " v e i l " when t h a t p a r t o f t h e p a l o r m was Photographed-

362

The study of materials of this complex experiment continues. The successful soft landing on the surface o f Mars opens up new possibilities for re?earch,.ngthis planet by direct methods in the near future. The Soviet Mars satellites carried out 11 scientific experiments. Seven studied the planet itself; three measured the yaram-

eters o f the interplanetary medium;and one, carried out in conjunction with French scientists, investigated the Sun's radio-frequency radiation. During their flight t o Mars, the Mars-2 and Mars-3 stations regularly measured the f . w and energy o f solar plasma, and a l s o 'd the parameters of interplanetar:. vagnetic fields. Electron concentration in the interplanetary medium was determined by the nature of radio wave propagation in two coherent frequencies. The Mars-3 station conducted the joint Soviet-French "Stereo" experiment and investigated the three-dimensiozzl structure, directivity and mechanism o f solar radiation. Measurement of ion components o f plasma duri1.g the flight showed that disturbance of interplanetary plasma, occurring when it interacts wiih the earth's magnetic field, was observed in a direction away from the Sun at distances of up to 20 million kilometers. In the plasma disturbance zone, caused by a flow of "solar
/175

wind", both components of plasma - - electrons and ions - - underwent almost periodic31 fluctuations of velocity. As Mars was approached, when the distance from the Sun h a s s-,.iificantly increased, there was a simultaneous reduction in electron Concentration in the

363

inteqlanetary medium.

The electron temperature near Mars was Numerous measurements using

several times less than near the earth.

magnetometers showed that the value of the interplanetary magnetic field, on an average, was in ranges of 5 - 6 gammas (1 gamma
=

lo-' oersteds; the earth's magnetic intensity is approximately

0.4

oersteds).

Of course, the most important information was on the planet

itself and this is why vehicles were sent to blars. Measurement o f

its temperature surface and soil were made, its relief, composition and atmospheri,: structure were examined. Scientists could observe

Mars closely and for a long period for the first time. The field of vision a f instruments on board the stations covered areas of the surface measuring from 6-50 km. From earth,

similar observations using optical telescopes distinguished areas with dimensions of 500-1,000 km and ground telescopes receive radiat;on from the whole disc at once. This is why Mars satellites

investigate the plane; in more detail th7n is possible from earth. Almost all the station's instruments were orientec so that when passing through the pericenter (the minimum distance from the center) they "looked at" the planet.

At this time, the satellite

was moving at a speed of approximately 4 km/sec, and the instruments examined ths surface of Mars from edge to edge in approximately half an hour.
An infrareC radiometer, receivi-ig radiation fI,,? the planet

in

waveleqtn range of 3 - 4 0

pm,

measured the tenperature surfact

a o : t h e satellite', path. lig

364

T h i s is a kind o i reenote thermometer.

The g a t h s began i n t h e s o u t h e r r hemisphere, where a t t h a t time, t h e M a r t i a n summer was e n d i n g , c r o s s e d t h e e q u a t o r and ended i n t h e n o r t h e r n hemisphere. The i n i t i a l p o i n t s o f t h e p a t h s were i n an

a r e a where i t was s t i l l morning, and t h e f i n a l ones where i t was a f t e r n o o n , evening and sometimes n i g h t t i m e . p e r a t u r e alcng t h e s e paths v a r i e d widely: Therefore, t h e t e m from + 1 3 O C ( f o r 1.4 hours

l o c a l solar t i m e o f t h e 1 1 t h d e g r e e s o u t h l a t i t u d e ) t c -93O ( l o c a l
time 19 h o u r s , 1 9 t h d e g r e e n o r t h l a t i t u d e ) .

I n t h e area o f t h e

n o r t h e r n p o l a r c a p , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e dropped even lower - - t o

-110"

c.
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o know t h e t e m p e r a t u r e on t h e s u r f a c e o f

Mars ic v a r i o u s l a t i t u d e s a t a d i f f e r e n t time, f i r s t l y , b e c a u s e
i t i s one of t h e main c l i m a t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and s e c o n d l y , one

can j u d g e t h e t y p e o f m a t e r i a l , o f which t h e s o i l c o n s i s t s , by t h e changes o f t e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g t h e day and from p l a c e t o p l a c 3 . I n F e b r u a r y , t h e meas-lrement p a t h s of t h e Mars-3 ended n e a I t h e n o r t h e r n p o l a r cap. An i n f l a r e 2 r a d i o m e t e r showed h e r e a t m -

p e r a t u r e lower thali - 1 1 ~ " .

As opposed t o t h e s o u t h e r n p o l a r c a p which d i s a p p e a r s i n

'176

summer, t h e n o r t h e r n c a p e x i s t s t h r o u g h t o u t t h e y e a r a n d , p o s s i b l y , t h e o v e r a l l amount of s o l i d c a r b o n d i o x i d e and f r o z e n w a t e r i n i t c o n s i d e r a b l y exceeds t h e amount of t h e s e s u b s t a n c e s i n t h e gaseous atmosphere nf Mars. The on-baord zatior a d i o t e l e s c o p e measured t h e i n t e n s i t y and p o l a r i r a d i a l i o n on
3

:adio-frequency

wavelength o f 3.5 cm a-ong

t h e same p a t h .

As opposed t o an i n f r a r e d r a d i o m e t e r , measuring

365

the surface temperature, i t gave the soil temperature at a depth of 30-50 cm. The temperature below the surface at a certain depth

is not affested by daily fluctuations, and this indicates the great thermal lag and low heat conductivity o f the soil. Apart from temperature, the dielectric constant of the soil was also determined, the value o f which depends mainly on its density. Measurements showed tnat changes of soil temperature and the dielectric constant are linked, that is, higher temperature values o f different areas correspond to hiFher values of the dielectric constant. This shows that the soil density changed along the measurement path. Apparently, when there are large values of the

dielectric conatant, there is crushed soil. An infrared photometer in the carbon-dioAide absorption band with a wavelength o f 2.06 urn showed that there was a large amount of carbon dioxide in the vertical column of Mars' atmosphere at various points along the path.
It determined the pressure near

the surface, which varied in different regions, owing t o their different altitudes above the mesn surface level. On an average

level, the pressure on Mars is equal to 5.5-6 millibars (approximately 4 - 4 . 5 mm Hg) which i s approximately 200 times less than on earth.
By knowing how the pressure varies along the path, the

relative altitudes could be determined and the surface relief could be found. Observations from earth detected altitude differences o f up to 12-14 km in the equatorial region of Mars,extending over large

366

areas.

Only more detailed study of the relief can be made from

satellites.

For example, the path made by Mars-3 on February 16. At first,

it passed over the Hellespontus region which is 2 - 3 km above the mean level. Then it reached the northeast edge of the bright regiori of Hellas, and here the relief falls sharply (to 1 the mean level).
kF;

above

Then it rose sharply towards the dark regions of

Iapigya and Syrtis Major, where the highest point is approximately

3 km above the average lev;'.
A

high-altitude section shows a The height

series of wide peaks and vai-eys in the dark regions. gradually decreases to the north of Syrtis Major. are greater in some regions.

Height differences

A dust storm was raging over Mars when our stations went into orbit. For two months, the planet was covered by dense clouds of

dust which had risen from the surface. Measurement, made by an infrared photometer in December, showed that these clouds were approximately 10 ki above the mean surface level. r r The cloud layer

was thinner above the higher regions and thicker above the lower ones. Dust storms on Mars are a powerful and, a s yet, enigmatic phenomenon. For a few days, the normally transmissive atmosphere

of Mars becomes almost as radiopaque to visible radiation as the cloud atmosphere of Venus. But the transmittance increases, as

photometry measurement showed, as the wavelength increases. This indicates a considerable amount of very fine dust particles of approximately 1 um in the clouds. These particles settle very

367

slowly, and this agrees with the general length o f a dust storm. On the other hand, photographs from the Mariner-9 show there was a rapid increase of transmittance at the end of December. It was

not complete, but after ten days visibility significantly improved. /177

To explain this it must be assumed that in the ciauds there is a

certain proportion of pzrticles, rather more than a tenth of a

micron in size, :.hich sei-tle rapidly. A photometer repeatedly observed clouds visible in blue rays (a wavelength of 0 . 3 6 invisible in red rays (0.7 pm).
pm)

and

These clouds must consist of

particles much smaller than a micr9n. Generally, particles of different size are contained in Martian clouds during a storm, and the r - i t i o of them changes over time. These clouds cool the surface and increase the atmospheric

Lcmerature, iihich in fact k-as observed. A type of "anti-greenhouse effect" was created, opposite to the situation on Venus, where the atmosphere is heated due to infrared opacity of the atmosphere.
A

photometer, designed for an absorption band of water vapor

with a wavelength of 1.4 urn, showed that the content of wziter vapor during the whole research period did not exceed 5 y m of precipitated water - - thousands of times l e s s than in the earth's atmos phere. bfars is a drier planet than expected: ground observations
LO

previously sometimes detected there up wzter.

50 pm of precipitated

Now, it is difficult. t o say if this dry period coincided

with thc dust storm or if there is some link between these events.
"Io

experiments conducted by the Mars-2 and ielars-3 were An

designed for investigating the upper atmosphere of Mars.

3C8

ultraviolet photometer recorded solar radiation, scattered by hydro-

\I
i
I

gen and oxygen atoms in the upper atmosphere of Mars a*. altitudes from 100 to several tens oi thousands of kilometers.
h s

opposed to

the optical complex, a l l the instruments of which "looked" down, on the planet, the ultraviolet photometer was directed in the pericenter towards the "horizon", parallel to the surface o f Mars. The

instrument recorded radiation of atomic oxygen in three adjacent lines with a wavelength of 1,300 angstroms and a radiation o f

atomic hydrogen with a wavelength o f 1,216 angstroms (an angstrom equals

a

100 millionth part of a centimeter).

The density of scattered atoms and their temperature uere calculatLI: by observations o f intensity in these lines. Kear the sur-

face of Mars, the atmosphere consists basically of carbon dioxide, however, at an altitude of approximately 1 0 0 km solar ultraviolet radiation breaks it down into a molecule of carbonic oxide and oxygen atoms.
A

similar process in water vapor creates hydrogen This is why

atoms whi,,i are 16 times lighter than oxygen atoms.

the atmosphere on Mars above 300-400 km becomes mainly atomichydrogenous. Traces of oxygen were registered on all orbital

revo utions ~9 to an altitude of 700-800 km, where its concentration was only 1 0 0 atrnos/cm 2 . The density of lighter hydrogen falls very slowly, decreasing from 10,000 atoms/cm2 near the planet t o 1 0 0 atoms arid even 1: es at a distance of 10,000 km. Measurement at

these great distances was made during special sessions by the Mars-3. The temperature of the upper atmosphere in the range o f altitudes fron 100-200 km increases,and absve this remains ionstant.
369

Almost the s m e piiture is true of

tl;prx-

srmospheres of the earth

and Ve~irs. The strange thing is that rhc upper atmosphere of Mars is more similar to that of Venus than earth.
A se:ond

experiment into investigating the atmosphere does nf,t

require

special instrument and is based on analyzing the signa:s

of the stations' centimeter radio transmitter when the satellit.-s

go

behind or emerge from behind Mars' disc.

This is extremely

important for investigating Mars' ionosphere which is 10 times less dense than that of the earth. The ionosphere on Mars is "pressed"
I _ _

to the surface: the maximum electron density is at an altitude of 140 km (for the earth this is 300 km). At altitudes of approxi-

/178

mately 110 km a second maximum is observed, the electron concentration of which is approximately three times less.
It is possible
b

that at altitudes of 6 5 - b O km tnere may be a third relative maximum, with an electron cc,ccentrationo f approxilnately 10,000 particies/d. The station had a set of three instruments designed for ingestigating the magnetic field and charged particles in the vicinity
of Mars.

In principle, this investigation may show the internal

structure Qf Y.ars ~ ' - 1 , mainly, if the planet has a metallic core or not. In 1965 the Mariner-4 did not detect a magnetic field near Mars. However, it flew at a distance of 9,100 km from the planet's

shrface. The Mars-2 and Mars-3 flew at a distance of only 1,500 kn. Measurement
0' ,

the magnetic f i - l d near the planet was done down to

this distance by usinb a sensitive ferromagnetic probe magnetometer. Distinct changes in the magnetic field were observed which were 370

eight times greater than the level of the interplanetary background. The intensity of the field when approaching Mars increased according to all three components of the magnetometer. Mars has its own weak, dipole magnetic field.
It is possible that

However, additional

analysis of measurement data is required to answer this question more reliably,which is so important for understanding the nature
o f the planet.

According to measurements done by the Mars-3 using electron traps, there was
+ .

uniform increase in the flow of electrons and

the electron temperature near the pericenter of the orbit as the satellite approached the planet. At the same time, there was also

an area with a hot electron gas,far from the pericenter at a distance of 180-200 thousand kilometers from the planet. This

interesting phenomenon, differing from tne normal concepts o f distribution and temperature of electrons in near-planetary space, is linked with features of space near Mars.
A charged particle

spectrometer, registering ions of solar wind in energy ranges smaller than 10 kiloelectron volts, showed there was an area of thermal ions near Mars. The shape of the external boundary c f this

area and the discontinuity in the velocity flow in solar wind shows there may be a shock wave when solar wind interacts with the uppei atmosphere of Mars. Photography o f the planet played an auxiliary role in exyeriments conducted by the Mars-2 and Mars-3 and was used f o r comparison with measurement results in other spectral intervals. At the sane time, photographs taken by t h e Mars-3 at a great distance

371

showed the optical compression of the planet (as opposed to the dynamic), built up a relief profile according to the image of the edge of the disc where there was large expansion, and obtained colored pictures of the disc of Mars by synthesizing photographs taken with different light filters. The photographs showed interesting twilight phenomena, especially luminescence o f the atmosphere at approximately 200 k beyond m the terminator line (boundary between day and night), and changes in the color of the surface near the terminator. The stratified structure of the Martian atmosphere can be traced on some photographs. Further analysis of information will provide much valuable information on the nature of Mars.

The Facz of the Red Planet Professor B. Rodionov, Doctor of Technical Sciences "Pravda", Se;)tember 8 , 1 9 7 2 . Photography played an auxiliary rcle in the exptriments conducted by Mars-2 and Mars-3. Nevertheless, those participating in the sciertific research program into Mars anxiously and impatiently awaited tlx first photographs. Thi- is quite understant/179

aLle. Pictures o f the Martian surface, taKen at close range, provide \ialuable inf rmation on the nature of the planet. However,

it was not easy to yhotograpl. the face o f Mars, since it was covered by a veil of dust clouds. In September last year, a prolonged dust

37 2

....

s t o r m of u n u s u a l i n t e r - s i t y o c c u r r e d on Mars and c o v e r e d a l m o s t a l l the planet.

Details which are n o r m a l l y o b s e r v e d well t h r o u g h ground

Only some photographs showed h i g h

t e l e s c o p e s c o u l d n o t be s e e n .

ground r i s i n g above t h e d u s t c l o u d s , o r p a r t s of t h e t e r r a i n t h r o u g h s m a l l gaps.

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of December, ground o b s e r v a t o r i e s n o t i c e d

t h a t t h e M a r t i a n atmosphere was c l e a r i n g up somewhat. d u s t storm increased i t s i n t e n s i t y .

But t h e

Some p h o t o g r a p h s t a k e n by t h e

Mars-2 and Mars-3 show c e r t a i n f o r m a t i o n s of t h e M a r t i a n s u r f a c e ,

b u t l a b o r i o u s p r o c e s s i n g by computer must be u s e d t o i s o l a t e t h e s e .

I t i s known t h a t a s a t e l l i t e o r b i t i s a n e l l i p s e , and t h e
p l a n e t i s i n one of t h e f o c a l p o i n t s of t h i s . The p o i n t i n t h e

o r b i t , n e a r e s t t h e p l a n e t , i s c a l l e d t h e p e r i c e n t e r , and t h e f a r t h e s t t h e apocenter. When p h o t o g r a p h i n g n e a r t h e p e r i c e n t e r t h e If

Mars-L and Mars-? o n l y c o v e r e d a s m a l l s t r i p of t e r r a i n . photography

i s done from f u r t h e r p o i n t s o f t h e o r b i t , t h e a r e a o f

M a r t i a n s u r f a c e c o v e r e d by cameras i n c r e a s e s , and a t a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e t h e whole p l a n e t a p p e a r s i n a frame.

O f course, t h e

d e t a i l a t g r e a t d i s t a n c e s i s reduced, although it i s b e t t e r than t h a t of ground t e l e s c o p e s . a 2 x e n t e r of which

whs

The Mars-3 was i n e l o n g a t e d o r b i t , t h e The s t a t i o a

much h i g h e r t h a n t h e p e r i c e n t e r .

p a s s e d n e a r t h e p l a n e t a t a d i s t a n c e ;f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 , 2 0 0 km e v e r y 1 2 . 5 d a y s , and t h e n moved away t o 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 km. I t was p o s s i b l e

t o c a r r y o u t photography n e a r t h e p l a n e t and f a r from i t and observe

s p e c i f i c r e g i o n s of Mars and t h e p l a n e t a s a whole.

373

Photographs of dust clouds in some regions were taken during, photography near the pericenter. and blue light filters. They were done using red, green

It was possible to synthesize colored

photographs, investigate the physical and optical properties of Martian dust and, consequently, the composition of the planet's surface cover. The thickness of clouds and circulation of gaseous

masses in the atmosphere is determined according to the nature of clouds and their variability during observations near the Martian horizon, along the vertical and in the transition zone from day to night (in the terminator). Therefore, new information can be

obtained an the composition and structure of the atmosphere which will help to determine processes causing dust storms. Scientists were extremely interested in photographs which covered the whole plar,et. It is known that the shapes of planets are not accurata s p h e r e s . For example, when we call the earth the

terrestrial globe, t h i s is o n l y ar, approximtion of its shape. In fact, the surfaces c f plancrs have a complex shape, close to the so-called ellipsoids of revolut7.on. In other words, planets are somewhat flattened 2nd conpressed near the polar axis. This comIt is

pression is the r e s u l t o f cexitrifugal force when rotating.

l i n k e d , to a certain c x t ? n t , :<*iththe viscosity of planetary

matter, the structure of its 1:iyers and t h e fdrrnation o f its core, and also the gravitational f i e l d . Qlanctary matter does not fly

/180 into space ciur t o centrifugal forces s i n c e they are balanced by the -internal
~OTCL;

dcpeliding on the fri.ctGr:-; mentioned above.

:TI h h j c ' t

Com-

pression characterizes c o n d i t i o n s

: h i s equilibrium is

374

achieved and, in this way, allows one to determine indirectly the planet's internal structure.

In other words, determining planetary

ellipsoids and their compression gives some indication of the similarity or difference in the internal structure of planets. Apart from this, information on planetary ellipsoids is required for compiling a geodttic coordinate system - - the basis for mapping. The compression of planets is determined in two ways. One of

these is the so-calle3 dynamic and is based on observing the changes in the positions of natural satellite orbits in space. The orbits of satellites rotate (precess) relative to the stars due to the gravitational field of the planet. Ground observations have shown that the precession of Phobos and Deimos correspond to the compressioii o f Mars, expressed by the figure 1/192. The other method is the use o f optical observations. These determine the Leometric shape o f the ?lanet

--

that which isdirectly

visible to the observor. Once the optical "compression" of Mars was just over twice as great was a mystery.
3s

i;s dynamic one.

This difference

If the first figure was correct, pccording to some

scientists Mars can have a hypothetical model similar to that of earth.

If the value based on ground optical observat;onc is true,

this means that the internal structure of the "red" :,laneti s s i g nificantly different from that of the earth. Observations from earth only give a rough estimation o f Mars' compression. Therefore, it is extremely importat to make this more accurate. The Mars-3 is helping to solve this problem.

According to photographs transmitted, the optical compression was

375

more accurate than was observed from earth.

Photographs are being

processed to determine the optical compression. The American astronomer V. Wright noticed that on photographs
of Mars taken by ground telescopes using different light filters,

the visible diameter of the planet in violet and blue rays was significantly greater than in red ones. The theory was put forward

on the anomalous physical and optical formation of the Martian atmosphere, and especially the existence there of a certain violet layer at a 6re;lt altitude. This was not supported by Soviet astronomers V. G. Fesenkov, V . V. Sharonov, N . P. Barabashov and others,
0 1 the basis of their theoretical and laboratory research, the ~

phenomenon noticed by the American astronomer can be explained by purely photographic effects. Praessing of photographs transmitted by Mars-3 confirm that direct measurement, three from the photographic effects, agree well with evaluations made by academician V . G. Fesenkov. Instruments on Mars-3 allowed the planet to be examined, as
it were, from the side.
I t is shaped like a sickle.

The nature

of its tapered ends (or as specialists ssy, "horns") depends on the atmosphere. Spectral zonal photography o f Mars during the sickle phases, which are not observed on earth, allows research to be made into the transfer of light energy in ?he atmosphere, which
w i l l enable its composition and structiire to be determined.

Further processing of information in the photographs, and also information transmitted by other scientific instruments in
tte

Nars vehicles, will help us to understand the nature of Mars - 376

the heavenly body most s i m i l a r t o e a r t h .

Study of the f a c e o f

Mars w i l l a l l o w comparisons t o be made with e a r t h and, by t h e same token, g i v e more knowledge of our own p l a n e t .

V.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

The "Interkosmos" Program in Action

V. Vereshchetin, the deputy chairman of the "Interkosmos"

Council attached to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR "Nauka i zhizn"', No. 7, 1972. Joint work in the research and conquest of outer space is one of the successfully developing spheres of all-round cooperanew

tion of scientists of socialist countries. This workopens

prospects for the wider use of the achievements of the scientific and technical revolution for developing the national economy of friendly countries and is one of the boundaries of socialist integration. The First Steps
It was wrong to believe that everything started at zero when,

in 1967, experts, representatives of nine socialist countries, gathered in Moscow to prepare the "Interkosmos" program. Coopera-

tion between these countries in the study of space began, in fact, in 1957, when the first artificial earth satellite was launched. At this time, our joiilt efforts were limited mainly to optical observations of artificial earth satellites (visua1,photographic and photometric). These observations, which are still important

today, allow study to be made of the density of the atmosphere at an altitude of the satellite's perigee, the irregularity of the 378

earth's field of gravity, t o set up geodetic links at great distances, carry out ephemeris survey which is required for forecasting the movement of satellites and controlling their scientific equipment. Special stations for photographic observations of satellites were built in cooperating countries at observatories or universities and equipped with Soviet cameras. These stations are success-

fully carrying out their work in eight countries. A laser range finder which will operate at these stations is being developed by specialists of socialist countries to increase the accuracy of satellite observations.

In 1963 the yearbook "Nablyudeniya

iskusstvenn'kh sputnikov Zemli" [Artificial earth satellite observations] was published which contains scientific articles, accounts or work at stations and a chronicle of scientific deliberations. The "Interkosmos" program opened a new stage in the development of cooperation in space - - a transfer from ground observations to joint development and launching o f satellites and research rockets. The aim of the cooperating countries is not only to study

space, but to put astronaut.ica1 achievements into practical use. Nine socialist countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia) decided to cooperate in four basic areas: communications, meteorology and medicine. Work groups are permanently active in each of these areas. The joint work of each of the countries is coordinated by national bodies set up in all coopeTating countries. In the Soviet Union
379

space phvcics,

/182

these functions are carried out by a council for international cooperation in the field of research and use of outer space attached to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Financing of the joint work enables successful cooperation to be made: there is no general financial fuud or accounts linked

with this; each country pays for the work which its specialists carry out. In accordance with this principle, the Soviet Union

provides its partners with rocket and space technology serviced by the Soviet Union's command and instrumentation complex. The scien-

tific results are available for all those participating in the experiments

Whereas a few years ago we only spoke of plans of joint experiments in space, now international work has been done which has brought interesting scientific and practical results. International Satellites and Rockets The first joint satellite, the Interkosmos-1, was put into orbit on October 14, 1969. have already been launched. Satellites in the Interkosmos series are designed for studying heliophysical and geophysical processes taking place on the Sun, in the earth's atmosphere and in interplanetary space. The Intcrkosmos-1 and Interkosmos-4 contained scientific equipment from the German Democratic Republic, the USSR and Czechoslovakia for investigating the Sun's ultraviolet and X-ray radiation and its effect on the earth's atmosphere. This research To date, six international satellites

38 0

could only be done by satellites since this radiation does not penetrate the earth's atmosphere. As a result, scientists obtained new information on the origin and development of solar flares, with which many processes in the earth's atmosphere are linked (breakdown of radio communication, magnetic storms, etc.). Apart from this, it was shown that at an

altitude of approximately 100 km there is less oxygen than was thought previously. In the near future "solar. sa'ellites" will be launched in the

"Interkosmos" program with a wider selection of scientific equipment to use the 11-year cycle o f solar activity for greater study

of huge explosions on the Sun and to develop reliable methods for

forecasting them. The Interkosmos-2 satellite studied the physical characteristics of the ionosphere. Apart from Soviet equipment, developed by specialists in Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia, the satellite contailled a dual-frequency "Mayak" radio transmitter produced in the German Democratic Republic. Reliable radio communication on earth depends on the condition

of the ionosphere,which changes depending on solar activity, the

time of the year and the time of day. The SO-day observation

carried out by the Interkosmos-2 gave scientists new information on the temperature distrioution of electrons on a global scale, and detected an equatorial anomaly in the ionosphere at altitudes above
900 km.

381

The Soviet and Czechoslovakian Interkosmos-3 and Interkosmos-5 were designed for studying the radiation situation in near space, the radiation belts of earth and electromagnetic processes in the ionosphere. These satellites carried out simultaneous geophysical /183 The information obtained extended our

and radiophysical research.

knowledge of links between the Sun and earth and laws governing the propagation of low-frequency waves and so-called "whistling atmospherics" in the earth's ionosphere. The Interkosmos-6 launched on April 7, 1972 varies considerably in construction and scientific assignment. This was the first satel-

lite in the "Interkosmos" series which returned to earth. The experiments carried out by the "Interkosmos" satellites are o f a complex nature. with ground observations. Measurement by the satellites is combined Experience in the use of complex research

was acquired in 1968 when the Kosmos-261 was operating. When the Interkosmos-1 and Intei-kosmos-4were launched solar activity was studied simultaneously by instruments in the satellites and in ground observatories. quem Ionospheric research and study of low-fre-

electromagnetic fluctuations, carried out by the Interkosmos-2

Interkosmos-3 and Interkosmos-5, were also accompanied by measurement done by a vast network of ground ionospheric stations in many countries. Apart from satellite research, the "Interkosmos" program includes experiments using meteorological and geophysical rockets. These experiments provide information on the atmospheric cross section, including at altitudes not reached by satellites. At the 382

end of 1970 the Vertikall-1 geophysical rocket was launched with a lift of approximately 500 km. The scientific equipment for the

rocket was developed and produced by scientists of six socialist countries. The experiment included measurement of a number of structural parameters of the ionosphere, solar radiation and research into the physical and chemical properties of meteor particles. This research was continued by the Vertikall-2 rocket launched in August 1971. Simultaneous mearurement by ionospheric stations

in the German Democratic Republic and the USSR was done where the rockets were launched. Scientists and engineers from socialist countries take an active part in all stages of the work with satellites and rockets

--

from designing and producing scientific equipment to prelaunch

tests and equipping the space vehicles. Satellites and geophysical rockets in the "Inte-kosmos" program will be launched in the future. Some of the experiments,

requiring statistical accumulation of material, will be repeated, and others conducted for the first time. The Soviet Union will

equip its partners with improved rocket and space technology. Joint work in space physics is not only limited to direct measurement from satellites and rockets. Above there was mention

of the long-term work of optical observations by artificial earth

satellites. Apart from this, coordinated observations between observatories and ionospheric stations is being carried out, joint theoretical work is successfully being done and systematic scientific meetings and discussions are held systematically. Laboratories
383

in several socialist countries are analyzing samples of lunar soil brought back to earth by Soviet automatic vehicles.

To Serve Mankind
Space science and technology is increasingly used for the prac-/184 tical needs of the national economy. The development of astro-

nautics in socialist countries is closely linked with solving such problems. They occupy the first place in the activity of working

groups in space communication, space meteorology, and space biology and medicine,set up in accordance with the "Interkosmos" program.

On November 15, 1971, Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic

Republic, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia signed an agreement to form an organization and a communication system via artificial earth satellites. This system was available to all member states and was called "Intersputnik".
It is based on equal and democratic rights and allows for the

requirements and existing economical and technical resources of the countries.

A number

of "Intersputnik" receiving and transmitting stations

During the first experimental stage, participants

are being built.

in the system will have free use of satellite communication channels provided by the Soviet Union. commercially. In satellite meteorology, cooperating countries are now transferring from joirit development of methods for using information from meteorological satellites to the practical use of this information for weather forecasting.
384

Later, the system will operate

The complexity in solving these

problems, occupying an important place in world meteorologicsl science, require5 the joint effort of many countries. Joint work in rocket sounding of the atmosphere is a l s o devoted to studying processes taking place in the upper layers of the a t m s phere and have a practical meaning or the weather service. Much attention is being paid to developing and improving technical sounding facilities, and developing equipment and instruments. Hence, specialists in the meteorological sei-riceof the German Democratic Republic have produced milar casings and metallized refractors for measuring wind speed at altitudes iess than 90 km, which were successfully tested in November 1971 during the launches of Soviet meteorological rockets. In Volgograd, a group of Soviet

and German sciectists conducted an experiment at the rocket sounding station to measure the concentration of ions and electrons in the upper atmosphere,using Soviet rockets and instruments produced i i r the German Democratic Republic. The joint efforts of specialists of many countries are helping
t o develop a complex

of ground equipment for receiving information

from meteorological satellites during direct transmission; this allows the meteorological services of socialist countries to make better use o f information from satellites for weather forecasts.
An integral part of the "Interkosmos" program is the joint

effort in space biology and medicine, conducted on 21 selected subjects. This work includes problems of space physiology, radiation safety in space flights and pharrnocological and chemical protection from ionizing radiation. Interest in this work on an
38 5

international basis is explained by their value not only for the safety of astronauts, but to develop aviation medicine and normal "terrestrial" biology and medicine. Combining the resoarces of

different scientific establishments, each of which has its own specific character, experience and developed methods of research,

is extremely usefd.

The cooperation has already shown concrete

results, scientific articles have been published jointly, and new research equipment has been produced. During the five years which have passed since the "Interkosmos" program was begun, cooperation between socialist countries in the research and use of space has occupied the main place in international programs for space research, and become an important factor in the scientific and technical progress of socialist countries. The Geography of Cooperation Cooperation in space goes beyond the boundaries of countries in the socialist countries. On almost every continent there are stations for carrying out optical observations of artificial earth satellites, equipped with high-precision Soviet cameras. Soviet meteorological rockets are sounding the atmosphere from the international research proving ground in India. Soviet and French high-altitude aerostats have repeatedly taken up scientific equipment for conducting geophysical research into the magnetic and associated points on earth from the Soviet Union and on the island of Kerguelen in the Indian Ocean.
38 6

/185

The launch of the French **SIS*' satellite with a Soviet launch vehicle in April this year was a new step in the successful development of Soviet-French cooperation in space, which already includes a great number of joint experiments conducted, using satellites and rockets. After an agreement was signed between the Academy o f Sciences of the USSR and NASA in the USA in January 1971, there was an increase of activity in space study between Soviet and American scientists. The conquest o f space is becoming truly international. The declaration, made during the 24th congress of our party on the readiness of the Soviet Union to increase the mutually beneficial cooperation with other countries in the research and conquest of space, is indeed being fulfilled.

A TASS Report:

The Interkosmos-6 in Flight

"Pravda", April 8, 1972. The Interkosmos-6 artificial earth satellite was launched in the Soviet Union on April 7, 1972 in accordance with a program of cooperation of socialist countries for the research and use of space for friendly purposes. The satellite was put into orbit with parameters:

--

minimum distance from the earth's surface (in the perigee)

---

2 0 3 km;

--

maximum distance from the earth's surface (in the apogee)

256 km;
38 7

-----

the initial orbital period orbital inclination

--

89 min;

--

5.' 18.

The Interkosmos-6 satellite is designed for studying: primary cosmic radiation particles with an energy of

101*-1013 electron volts; the chemical composition and electrical spectrum of cosmic

rays in the high-energy range;

--

meteor particles in near space.

For conducting research into primary cosmic radiation the satellite is equipped with a photographic emulsion unit and an ionization calorimeter with an overall weight of 1,070 kg, produced in the Soviet Union according to the technical requirements, developed by specialists in Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. Apart from this, the satellite is installei-! with equipment

-i 1186 t
x

for investigating meteoric matter, designed and produced jointly by Hungary, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. According to telemetering information in the satellite, the equipment is working normally.

A New Envoy of Friendship "Moskovskaya pravda", April 8, 1972. The TASS correspondent asked academician S. N. Vernov, the director of the Scientific Research Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Moscow State University,to give a report on the task and features of this new space experiment. 388

"The most important task for the Interkosmos-6 is the complex study of cosmic rays beyond the earth's atmosphere. Cosmic rays

are nuclei of different chemical elements, moving in interstzllar space with velocities close to the speed of light. The majority of them are hydrogen nuclei (protons). The study of cosmic rays is of great interest for two fields

of science

--

the physics of high-energy particles and astrophysics.

Research in this direction has brought about important discoveries: the existence of a positron was detected - - the first antiparticle,
1.1

and

IT

mesons were discovered, and also some hyperons.

Study of

the interaction of high-energy particles (more than 1,000 billion electron volts) nowadays is only possible in cosmic rays, since
"terrestria1"accelerators of particles of such energies have not

been produced. We know that this involves enormous expenditure of resources and requires much time.
It will not be an exaggeration if we say that hardly any astro-

physical phenomenon could be understood without knowing the nature of cosmic rays and their origin. Side by side with radio- and

gamma radiation there are rays which carry information on processes occurring deep in other galaxies. These are important when investigating the Sun. Physicists hove been using cosmic rays for a long time when studying the interaction of elementary particles with high and superhigh energies. type on earth. However, the atmosphere prevents experiments of this High-energy particle fluxts even in mountainous

regions (3-4 km above sea level) are extremely small. Apart from

389

this, "newcomers" from space, normally, move deep inside the atmosphere and are accompanied by secondary particles created when they interact with nuclei of the earth's gaseous envelope.
It is

extremely difficult to isolate cosmic (primary) particles from their "fellow-travelers". This can be overcome if equipment is sent beyond the atmosphere. The Soviet Uniop has produced powerful rockets arid launched scientific space stations in the Proton series, designed for recording cosmic particles with an energy from tens of billions to millions o f billions electron volts, and also for studying their energy spectrum and nuclear composition. In assignment, the new experiment is a logical development of research begun by the Proton stations. The Intezkcsmos-6 uqes improved equipment and a new method for recording particles. This

/I87

broadens the research and obtains more detailed characteristics of the interaction with proton matter of great energy.
A

large number of scientists from the following socialist

countries took part in preparing this experiment: Hunzary, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. The large number of countries participating in the experiment carried out by the Interkosmos-6 space scientific station shows that the problems o f t h e physics o f high-energy cosmic rays, examined beyond the earth's atmosghere,are attracting a wider circle of scientists, We hope that this cooperation will develop successfully in the future".

390

The Interkosmos-6 in Flight "Pravda", April 11, 1972. The Flight Control Center, 10.

(TASS).

The Interkosmos-6

satellite, launched in accordance with a cooperation program between socialist countries into space research, has been in orbit for four
days.

It completed 46 revolutions around the earth on April 10. The scientific equipment, developed by specialists from Hungary, Mongolia, Rumania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia, designed for investigating primary cosmic radiation, is working normally. Several

communication sessions have already been held with the satellite. The information obtained shows that the pressure, temperature and energy consumption in the satellite corresponds to estimations. Work is being done to carry out the experiment's scientific program.
It began immediately after the Interkosmos-6 kas separated

from the final stage cf the launch vehicle and power was supplied
to its scientific equipment.

After the first revolutions, photo-

recorders registering the results of the interaction of primary cosmic particles with atomic nuciei, were switched on from earth. During the satellite's first revolution, orientatiJn was done so that the input "window" of the instrument was permanently directed towards the particle fluxes.
A check of the instrument's serviceability and correction to

equipment sensitivity to telemetering information caning from the satellite was done during the first days of the flight. Specialists

391
I

are evaluating its operatioil aiid zontrcllizg individual systems and

the satellite as a whole by the information arriving from it on its equipment and systems. The incoming information is being operationally processed.

According to the tfInterkosmosft Program "Pravda", April 21, 1972. The Interkosmos-6 satellite, launched on April 7, has returned to earth. The experimental material obtained has been sent to The
3

scientific research institutes for analysis and processing.

Pravda correspondent asked Academician B. N. Petrov, the chairman

of the Council for International Cooperation in the "Interkosmos"

Research and Use of Outer Space Program, to show the importance o f this experiment.

Q:

What new information do scientists hope to obtain as a

/188

result of the flight and the return to earth o f this satellite?

A:
As

already reported, equipment in the Interkosmos-6 is

designed for investigating the chemical composition and the energy spectrum of cosmic rays, and also the interaction of high-energy particles of primary cosmic radiation on atomic nuclei. Similar

research was conducted earlier by Soviet scientists using heavy artificial Proton satellites. However, this experiment by the Interkosmos-6 is being done by a new method, which will return the scientific equipment back to earth, including a nuclear Thotbgraphic emulsion unit. This contains a picture of the nuclear interaction

392
I

of high-energy psrticles, which cannot be obtained on earth even

using the largest accelerators. When they have deciphered'"traces"
of these processes, scientists will obtain new information for

understanding the acceleration of elementary particles with high energies, and explaining the nature of cosmic rays.

The use of a nuclear photographic emulsion for recording

particles of cosmic rays also determined the flight features of the satellite - - its orbit and the time it remain2d in it. flight lasted four days. The

This was necessary to obtain sufficient It was inadvisable t o keep

information on particle interaction.

the equipment in space any longer,since this can cause the photographic emulsion to darken and, consequently, mean a partial loss

of scientific information.
The orbital parameters and the flight features of the Inter-

kosmos-6 were also used for another experiment - - studying the

properties of seteoric matter in near space. The equipment which

studied meteor particles waz also returned to earth.

Q:

Please tell us of the part played by scientists of dif-

ferent countries in preparing and conducting the Interkosmos-6 experiment.

A:

Scientists of the following six socialist countries agreed

to carry out this experiment several years ago when they met in
Moscow - - Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the

USSR and

Czechoslovakia. Later, the technical design of the scientific equipment was prepared and approved.
It was decided to produce

the main instrument in the Soviet Union at the Space Research

393

Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

The electronic

1
I

'-'

part of the equipment and its tldjustncnt was done by workers at the Scientific Research Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Moscow State University. The experiment program was also the result of They

1
1
{

the collective work of scientists of six socialist countries. are now helping to process the material obtained. The emulsion unit is being taken to the Joint Institute of

Nuclear Research at Dubna, where initial processing of the nuclear photographic emulsion will be carried out by physicists from socialist countries. They will use material and equipment developed Later, it will be sent

.,i

1.

by Polish and Czechoslovakian specialists.

to all countries taking part in the experiment for further research by two methods, developed by Polish and Soviet scientists. This will allow the material obtained to be analyzed by many specialists, using the technical resources of various scientific laboratories. We believe that this cooperation will provide the best research results in the shortest time.
As a whole, experiments by the
J

Interkosmos-6 have allowed another important part of the international cooperation program between socialist countries into space research to be carried o u t .
Q:

What are the basic research directions envisaged by this

tI

program?
A:

The ttInterkosmosll program was developed when scientists

/189i

394

this program, over the past years the S w i e t Unior? has launched

six artificial earth satellites, two Vertikal' geophysical rockets,

and several meteorological rockets with scientific equipment produced by scientists of socialist countries. Specialists from these

countries are also conducting a wide program of coordinated ground observations. These experiments have provided several interesting scientific results in the study of ultraviolet and X-ray solar radiation, the properties of the ionosphere and magnetosphere, the earth's radiation belts and cosmic rays. On November 15, 1971, representatives from nine socialist countries signed an agreement in Moscowfor setting up an organization and a space communication system

--

"Intersputnik".

This joint research also includes the use of meteorological information obtained by Meteor satellites. The cooperation between socialist countries is also being successfully developed in space biology and medicine. Many large scientific establishments and manufacturers from socialist countries are taking part in joint space research. Their

workers have developed and produced complex instruments which have worked well in space. tributing much
to

Specialists from the Soviet Union are conThe joint efforts

the "Interkosmos" program.

of scientists from socialist countries for the friendly conquest of space will make it possible to use the combined resources of our countries for scientific and technical progress. Until now, we

have dealt with the cooperation of socialist countries in the

395

"Interkoslrtos" program.

Soviet scientists are also working with

scientists from other countries. We are cooperating successfully with the French National Space Research Center. As is known, several joint experiments have already

been conducted. The Mars-3 automatic station was equipped with the French "Stereo" for investigating solar radio-frequency radiation in the meter wave band. produced in France. The laser reflector in the Lunokhod-1 was

In the Oreol satellites, the Franco-Soviet

"Arkad" project was carried out in studying the physical phenomena in the earth's upper atmosphere and investigating the nature of polar auroras. A number of joint experiments were made in Soviet and French meteorological rockets. On April 4, the Soviet launch

vehicle, which sent the Molniya-1 communication satellite into orbit, simultaneously launched the French small independent "SIS" satellite,

designed for technological purposes - - studying the characteristics

of solar batteries in space conditions.

Joint grounci stations have

bean

set up in i 5 collaborating

countries, including several in Asia and Africa, for carrying out optical observations o f artificial earth satellites. In January

last year, an agreement was signed between the Academy o f Sciences

of the USSR and NASA in the USA on cooperation in several direc-

tions for the study and use of outer space.

Recommendations,

developed in accordance with this agreement, envisaged the i q l e mentation of a series of coordinated investigations into near space, the moon and planets, the study of the natural medium surrotnding us from space, space meteorology, and also space biology and medicine.

396

Specialists from both countries are examining the technical resources for developing joint facilities for the approach and docking of Soviet and American spacecraft and stations. The Soviet Union is also cooperating with several other countries.

/190

The Interkosmos-6: The Flight Is Over, the ExDeriment Continues (TASS) "Sovetskaya Rossiya", April 21, 1972. The Scientific Research Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Moscow State University has begun to process material brought back to earth by the Interkosmos-6 satellite, launched on April 7. The satellite was designed for studying primary cosmic rays with an energy of thousands of billions of electron volts, their energy spectrum and clielilical eompcsition, and also meteor particles in near space. The Interkosmos-6 scientific program was developed by a

team of scientists from six socialist countries: Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. At the request of the TASS correspondent, one of the directors, Professor N. 1.. Grigorov, of the Moscow University, reported on the unique experiment

--

the study of cosmic rays:

"One can study the nature o f a cosmic ray particle and the result
0 :

its interaction with an atomic nucleus more reliably and

accurately if one uses special photographic materials - - thick

397

there were accurate photorecorders of the coordinates of particle trajectories. Photographit material brought back to earth will help

to interpret the trajectory of each particle an3 explain its fate. This method combined the two most effective means of recording energy particles: electronic dcvices. Using an emulsion as a basic cosmic ray particle recorder also determined the features of the experiment in the Interkosmos-6, its orbit and flight duration. Calculations showed that the fourby their traces on thick photo emulsion and by

day stay of the emulsion unit in orbit was sufficient to obtain the necessary information.

It would have been undesireable for it /191

to remain longer in space, since traces from particles of different energy begin to "superimpose" each other and can cause the photographic emulsion to darken. This would mean a loss of information.

Little time was required for preparing the equipment for the Interkosmos-6 flight. participated Specialists from all six countries actively

in developing the experiment and choosing the most

effective types of instruments. The research program was discussed, the t e c h n i c a l d c s i g n was examined and approved, and requirements were formulated for the scientific equipment.

It was produced by

the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Scientific Research Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Moscow State University, and a number of collectives.
A important stage of this experiment is the research into the n

photographic emulsion on earth after the Interkosmos-6 returns. The material obtained must be developed: there are traces o f the 399

interaction of high-energy particles with matter deep in the sensitive layer in cryptic form. The emulsion was developed in the high

energy laboratory at the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research in Dubna. The emulsion leaves will be glued to special slides, which

were prepared by Czechoslovakian specialists, and then developed.

The slides with the emulsion glued on them are cut into very
thin scction:; !jy a special machine, produced by Polish specialists. Then, h d :.

ihe processed material will be taken to the Cracow

Institute, :.here Polish scientists will investigate the traces of the interaction of heavy nuclei of cosmic rays on the photographic emulsion.
SDme of the material will be sent to Bucharest; here,

specislists from Hungary, Rumania, Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Cilion will combine efforts and use a method suggested by Polish scientists.
After completing this part of the pogram, the emulsion

/192

materizl is divided among research teams of all the participating cocntries. During the following stage of the experiment a method will be used which was developed by the Soviet Union. The cooperation of scientists from socialist countries has made it possible to study this important scientific problem, effectively use various technical facilities, and carry out a rational "division of labor".

400

A TASS Report:

Interkosmos-7

"Pravda", July 1, 1972. On June 3 0 , 1972 the Soviet Union launched the artificial earth satellite Interkosmos-7 in accordance with the cooperation program between socialist countries in the research and use of outer space. The Interkosmos-7 is designed for continuing joint research, begun by the Interkosmos-1 and Interkosmos-4,into solar ultraviolet and X-ray radiations and their effect on the earth's upper atmosphere. The Satellite contains scientific equipment developed and

produced by specialists in ^he German Democratic Republic, the USSR and Czechoslovakia. The Interkosmos-7 satellite went into orbit with the following parameters:

- - minimum distance from the earth's surface (in the perigee)

- - 267 km;
- - maximum distance from the earth's surface (in the apogee)

- - 568 km;
- - initial orbital period - - 92.6 min;

--

orbital inclination

--

4.' 84.

Specialists from the German Democratic Republic, the USSR and Czechoslovakia took part in the assembly and scientific equipment testing in the satellite when it was prepared for the launch. The satellite's flight was ccntrolled by an operational group, consis'i;ng of specialists from the c;:rman Czechoslovakia. 401 Democratic Republic, the USSR and

The satellite's scientific equipment is working normally. Ground stations in the instrumentation complex are receiving scientific information from the satellite. Simultaneously with measurement carried out by the Interkosmos-7, observatories in socialist countries are conducting radio astronomica1,ionospheric and optical observations according to a coordinated program.

A Solar Watch in Orbit

(TASS)

"Sovetskaya Rossiya", July 1, 1972. On June 30 the Interkosmos-7 satellite began observations outside of the earth's atmosphere, using scientific instruments produced by scientists in the German Democratic Republic, the USSR and Czechoslovakia.
It is successfully continuing solar research

begun by the Interkosmos-1 and Interkosmos-4 automatic vehicles, according to an international space program for socialist countries. The aim of this work is to investigate the "pulse" of the Sun and study its effect on geophysical processes.
A TASS observer,

D. Dmitriyev, asked Professor S. L. Aandel'shtam, the scientific

director of this important international experiment, to report on the research carried out by the Interkosmos-7. "The new satellite is very similar to its predecessors, Interkosmos-1 and Interkosmos-4. Of course, the research instruments have been improved and modernized, using the experience of

/193

402

in aim of the

are almost t h e same.

This allows us to compare fresh information

w i t h results a ready obtained, and make the ne a few examples.

The Interkosmos

t e r e s t t o researchers
c e , since they are a b

determine the n a t v r e of the radiation of the "quiet

-?

33

Apart from this, scientists receive a double benefit, as it were, by installing such instruments into satellites. When an automatic vehicle is in the earth's shadow, it is possible to record the amount of molecular oxygen in the atmosphere by the intensity with which they are absorbed by solar rays. This work was begun by the Interkosmos-1. It was found that upper layers of the atmosphere contain half as many oxygen molecules as was assumed earlier. Subsequent experiments, in particular by the Interkosmos-4, showed that the amount of oxygen at altitudes of approximately 100 km changes, and depends on the time of day, the state of the atmosphere and many other factors. Naturally, this information must be repeatedly confirmed. The Interkosmos-7 will shed new light on this. All this is due mainly to development work carried out by scientists in the German Democratic Republic. In Cztchoslovakia specialists have produced original and highly sensitive instruments for a number of Interkosmos satellites, /194 which record hard X-ray solar radiation. This equipment car, detect rays which form when powerful solar flares occur.
It was interesting

to compare a picture of these natural phenomena with obse,.dtions from earth and froin space. X-rays do not reach the earth

--

the

atmosphere absorbs them. Therefore, ground observatories detect solar flares in rays of the optical band. Apparently, "X-ray flaxes"

on the Sun occur more often than normal ones observed from earth. Instruments in the Interkosmos-4 detected more than 100 such phenomena, some of w h x h were not seen oy astronomers.

404

Now, when there is little solar activity, it is important

to continue observations of its radiation in hard, ultrashort, X-rays. Judging by forecasts froa the solar survey, only individual Obtaining a detailed pic-

flares are possible in the near future.

ture of the development of each of these, in order to understand the nature of the phenomena, is a tempting prospect for researchers.
An important contribution to international space experiments

is that of Soviet scientists producing a series of unique instruments for the "solar watch" in the Ixiterkosmos program.
All three

specialized satellites, the first, fourth and seventh, were equipped with Soviet X-ray polarimeters and spectrometers. They helped to determine that "X-ray flares" on the Sun occur as the rc-ilt oE the interaction of ions, drifting in the Sun's farthest layers, with powerful electron flows, rapidly "falling" from the external to the deeper layers of the Sun's atmosphere. Scientists

hope that this experiment by the Interkosmos-7 will obtain new information substantiating prewious deductions. Study of the spectrum of X-ray flares on the Sun, obtained
by equipment in the Interkosms satellite, gave interesting

results. flares.

Soviet instruments detected the spectra of several X-ray

It was found that in the region of the flares there were

ions of atoms of iron which, when affected by high temperatures, only retained one or two electrons. Matter can only exist in this state at a temperature o f approximately 20-30 million degrees. Many such examples could be given. Each new experiment in

space gives valuable information on the nature and activity of

405

the Sun, and of the close link of its activity with processes on earth. Observatories in Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia will conduct complex observations according to a special program while the Interkosmos-7 is in orbit".

The Scientific Watch of the Satellite of Friendship (TASS) "Pravda" , January 2 3 , 1972.
A meeting was held on January 21 in the presidium of the

Academy of Sciences of the USSR by the operational and technical group from the USSR and Czechoslovakia who controlled the InterI

kosmos-5 satellite, launched on December 2 , 1971. The scientific equipment and on-board systems in the satellite are working normally. By January 21, 1972 the Interkosmos-5 had Instruments in the

completeG 7 4 0 revolutions around the earth.

Interkosmos-5 recorded a number of interesting phenomena when studying charged particle fluxes in the lower boundary of radiation belts, and when observing low-frequency electromagnetic fluctuations in the ionosphere. Geophysical stations and observatories in the USSR, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic, France and New Zealand are taking part in ground observations, which are being conducted simultaneously with measurement in the Interkosmos-5. /195 -

406

The joint Soviet-Czechoslovakianexperiment is continding successfully.

The Interkosmos-8 Investigates the Ionos?here (TASS) "Pravda", December 2, 1972. The Interkosmos-8 artificial earth satellite was launched in the Soviet Union on Dec&mber 1, 1972 in accordance with a cooperation program between socialist countries in the research and use of outer space for friendly purposes. The satellite is designed for continuing research into the earth's ionosphere: the concentration of electrons and positively charged ions near the satellite, and the temperature of electrons and their integral concentration between the satellite and the earth's surface. Apart from this, electron flows with an energy greater than 40 kiloelectron volts,and protons with an energy of greater than 1 megaelectron volt will be recorded. The Interkosmos-8 was sent into orbit with the following parameters :

- - minimum distance from the earth's surface (in the perigee)

---

214 km;

----

maximum distance from the earth's surface (in the apogee)

679 km; initial orbitai period orbital inclination

-7' 1.

93.2 min;

--

407
!

/-

The satellite contains the following scientific equipment:

---

an electronic unit for ion traps and

Langmuir probe,

developed and produced by specialists in Bulgaria; a Mayak radio transmitter and a signal conditioning unit

for recording readings from the Langmuir probe onto the satellite's memory, developed and produced in the German Democratic Republic;

--

an electronic unit for a high-frequency probe, developed and

produced by scientists and specialists in Czechoslovakia;

--

instrument sensing elements for measuring the parameters

of the ionosphere, semi-conductor and gas-discharge high-energy

electron and proton counters, developed and produced in the Soviet Union. The scientific equipment was prepared for the launch at the cosmodrome by specialists of countries participating in the experiment. The scientific equipment and all the satellite's systems are working normally. Receiving stations of the ground command and instrumentation complex are regularly receiving information fron the satellite. A wide network of ground geophysical observatories and ionospheric stations in socialist countries is carrying out ionospheric observatioas and receiving signals from Interi osmos- 8 . An operational group, consisting of specialists from Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia, is controlling the satellite's scientific equipment.
408
a

radio transmitter

in the satellite, simultaneously with measurement made by the

Research in the "Interkosmos**Program "Pravda*', December 2 , 1972. In connection with the launch of the Interkosmos-8, the "Pravda" correspondent asked Academician B. N. Petrov, the chairman of the committee for international cooperation in the research and the use of outer space, Interkosmos, to answer a series of questions. Q: program?
A:

/196

What research is being conducted in the"1nterkosmos"

Different radiations, solar, galactic and also cosmic

particle and micrometeorites are constantly penetrating the earth's atmosphere. These phenomena affect the weather and climate, radio communication, many biological processes, and through them

--

manrs

practical activity. Therefore, there is a need for comprehensive research into complex processes occurring in space, and their uniformities must be explained. biowever, individual space experiments cannot give sufficient information on these processes. a long-term systematic program. They must be studied according to Scientists from socialist countries

bore this in mind when they developed the *'Interkosmos" program.

It is working successfully.

Scientific i:iformation has been Observations on the

acquired on many aspects

space physics.

active regions on the Sun, and sources of shor-;-waveultraviolet and X-ray radiations have been made by Interkosmos-1, - 4 and -7 satellites. The Interkosmos-3 and Interkosmos-5 investigated

409

low-energy cosmic rays in the earth's radiation belts and lowfrequency radiation. Ionospheric and magnetospheric processes were

studied by the Interkosrtos-2 and the Vertika1'-1 and Vertikal'-Z geophysical rockets. Scientific equipment is being improved with each experiment, experience in cooperation between scientists of socialist countries is being developed, and our concepts of space and processes taking place there are being broadened.

Q:
ducted?
A:

What are the features of the experiment now being con-

Its program is aimed at continuing ionospheric research,

begun by the Interkosmos-2 and geophysical rockets. The main feature of the Interkosmos-8 is that its orbit is more inclined towards the equator than previous satellites. Therefore, it will pass through regions of the ionosphere in high latitudes, and intersect polar aurora zones in the earth's geomagnetic poles. In these regions, the planet's magnetic field affords greater penetration to solar radiation particles. Therefore, the link between geophysical and geomagnetic processes can be traced here more accurately. Furthermore, the study o f polar auroras, geomag-

netic storms and other phenomena can be a more direct method for understanding the links between the Sun and earth.

The Interkosmos-8 has more scientific equipment than the Interkosmos-2,and it was produced by specialists from a number of socialist countries. Bulgaria produced an electronic part for an instrument for measuring the concentration of positive ions in the

410

upper atmosphere.

Czechoslovakian scientists developed an elec-

tronic unit in the equipment for measuring electron temperature. Sensor e1em:nts Union. for these experiments were produced in the Soviet

An original intermediate memory was produced by specialists

in the German Democratic Republic. This accelerates the recording process o f information on electron concentration and temperature in the ionosphere, and gives a more detailed picture of the process studied. The German Democratic Republic also produce a twofrequency Mayak radio transmitter, which can sound the ionosphere between the satellite and gromd receiving stations.
-

/I97
i

Q: What is the future for the Interkosmos program?

A:

In the next few years, scientists from socialist countries

will continue scientific experiments from Satellites and geophysical rockets. At the moment, specialists from Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Poland, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia are working to produce a unified telemetry system for receiving scientific information from satellites, launched in the Interkosmos program. The fact is, that at the mo,nent, information is received
m a i r l i y , ii t k s 5 : ~ i z : i

and recorded,

Union.

With a unified system,

this can be done by all socialist countries. They will also take a greater part in the operational control of experiments, which is extremely important when investigating high-speed processes, for example, solar flares. A number of events will take place in 1973 to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the birth of Nicholas Copernicus. Scientists

from the German Democratic Republic, the Soviet Union and 411

Czechoslovakia are preparing another experiment to investigate the electromagnetic links between the magnetosphere and the ionosphere.

An Envoy of Friendshie

L. Vedeshin, a worker at the Interkosmos Council attached to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
"Vechernaya Moskva", December 2 , 1972. The new Interkosmos-8 artificial earth satellite, launched on December 1, is continuing ionospheric research, begun by the Interkosmos-2 and the Vertikall-1 and -2 geophysical rockets. Scientists throughout the world are interested in experiments to study the processes taking place in the earth's ionosphere, since they occupy an important place among other research into the physical properties of outer space, conducted according to the Interkosmos program. The earth's conducting envelope, the ionosphere, consists of charged particles. It affects the propagation cf radio waves, i Short-wave

partially absorbs long waves,and reflects short waves.

radio communication is possible far beyond the limits of the earth's

hcrizon between any points on the planet.

The ionosphere has a complex structure, it is non-uniform both

in altitude and in geographical position (latitude and longitude). Scientists have proved that its condition changes depending on solar activity, the time of the clay and time of year.

412

Calculation of radio wave propagation, and the theory of producing various ion sensors and micromotors, required for the orientation of spacecraft, requires detailed knowledge of the physical mechanism of processes taking place in the ionosphere. Here, scientists put great faith in space vehicles. Satellites can measure

the parameters of the ionosphere along their orbit. Experiments with rockets give a "vertical section" of the upper atmosphere, a distribution of its parameters according to altitude. The scientific program for the Interkosmos-8 is of a complex nature.
It includes on-board probe measurement of different param-

eters of ionospheric plasma, and ground observations of the propagation of radio signals from the Mayak transmitter in the satellite. Scientific instruments for the experiment were developed and produced in Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. Bulgarian and Czechoslovakian scientists produced electronic units, which control the Soviet instruments, measuring the concentration and temperati -e of charged particles. Specialists from the German Democratic Republic produced an intermediate memory for the Bulgarian instrument. This can obtain a more detailed picture of the distribution of concentration and temperature of electrons along the flight path. Apart from this, scientists from the German Democratic Republic produced the Mayak radio transmitter for probing the atmosphere between the satellite and numerous ground receiving stations. These stations, receiving signals from the transmitter zre in Bulgaria, /198 -

413

Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Cuba, Poland, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. They are equipped with standard receivers. Scientis-cs are also interested since, for the first time in the Interkosmcs program, the experimest is conducted from near-polar orbit near the geomagnetic poles. In this o?%it, the earth's field

offers less resistance to solar p1.asma in the atmosphere, and the link betweeri geophysical a d heliophysical processes here is more clearly expressed. Study of such phenomena as polar auroras, and the earth's current system can be a more direct method for understanding links between the Sun and earth. Joint space experiments will bring about the progress of science in all countries taking part in them.

The USSR and France:

Broadening of Space Cooperation

S. Petrunin, a worker at the Interkosmos Council attached to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (TASS)
"Moskovskaya pravda", April
6,

1972.

The launch in the Soviet Union of a launch vehicle for the Molniya-1 communication satellite and the French SIS (small independent satellite)
is prcof of the increasing cooperation between

the Soviet Union and France in space research. Joint experiments by scientists of both countries include problems of space physics, satellite meteorology, rocket probing of the atmosphere, space communication, medicine and biology. 1 A TASS report on the SIS launch can be seen in section 2 (author's note).
414

1'
and engineering problems linked with the further improvement of scientific stations and observatories, operating in space. The French independent satellite is designed for studying the effect of space conditions on solar batteries: radiation and sharp changes of temperature. Of course, photoelectric cells can be protected from direct radiation, but this increases the satellite's weight. It is better
1199
i

to develop semi-conductor materials which hardly react to the radiation background of space. Sharp temperature gradients also affect photoelectric cells. When in orbit, the satellite is heated by solar rays, then cools when it enters the earth's shadow. The temperature of solar batteries varies, and for this reason they quickly become unserviceable. The SIS is testing the elements of solar batteries

developed by French scientists. The satellite has thin cadmium-sulfide and cadmium-telluride batteries. There are also standard silicon batteries providing Specially-made individual silicon elements ar.!

power for the SIS.

fitted on the same planes as the exF5rimental batteries. The comparative information obtained will determine the rate of deterioration of different elements and their protective coatings. The two satellites were sent into orbit, using one launch vehicle, in sequence. At first, the Soviet Molniya-1 communication satellite was separated from the rocket and went into independent flight, followed by the French satellite, To remove the second vehicle from the launch vehicle and to prevent the satellites from 416

, .

colliding, the French satellite was given an acceleration of approxi-/200 mately 1 m/sec from a special pyrotechnic system, and went into its
own orbit.

Repeated, crucial tests of the satellite were made in

France and in the Soviet Union to solve this extremely technical problem

.
i

At first, the experiments were conducted in France using stationary and mobile equipment. A space vacuum, solar radiation and space temperatures were produced artificially. Complex checks showed that all the systems worked perfectly. Sometime later, a cylindrical container with Russian and French inscriptions arrived from France at the Sheremet'yevo airport: it

.!
c

,i

was sent by the National Space Research Center (NSRC) in France, and was delivered to the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Inside the container was the French satellite protected by spring shock absorbers. Afterwards, a special commission "examined" the small independent satellite according to the program. This check convinced the specialists

that the vehicle was ready for space flight. Scientific information will soon be received by a network of ground stations in France, and measurement results will be sent
to

the Soviet Union. Now, Soviet and French specialists are discussing the possi-

bility of using small independent satellites for future research. These space experiments can help designers in France and the Soviet Union to solve important technical problems, and increase the fruitful cooperation between scientists of both countries. 417

V o 1ar Morning"
(TASS j

"Pravda", June 14, 1972. The Soviet-French Meteorological Experiment

A scientific expedition returned to Obninsk after a three-month

stay in the Arctic.

It conducted an experiment called ''pols-

morning" at the Pol;,r Hydrometeorological Observatory im.

E. T. Krcnkel', together with French scientists. A series of

met:orological rockets, containing Soviet and French scientific equipment, was launchel: f r c ~ the island of Hayes (Franz Josef Land) to altitudes from 90-180 km. The head of the central design office of the Hydrometzorological Service, V. Teslenko, a Candidate of Technical Sciences, gave a report to the TASS corrcspondent: "The 'polar morning' is an important step in studying the upper layers of ttc atmosphere.
It is of scientific and practical

interest since, according to one theory, the formation of theearth's weather begins at great altitudes near the North Pole. One important factor of the experiment was that it was conducted at the transition time between winter and summer and from polar night to polar day. As a result, information was obtained on the temperature of the atmosphere, the speed and direction of the wind, the cloud state, corpuscular radiation and solar activity. New research will enable us to discover the laws which are the basis of these mysterious natural phenomena." 418

Fruitful Cooperation '+Fravda", .lul.y 6, 1972. Paris, S.

(TASS).

At the request of French scientists, the

/201

Academy of Sciences of the USSR sent to the French National Space Research Center samples of lunar soil brought back to earth by the Soviet Luna-20 automatic station.
t

"These samples," said Jean-Fancois Denise, the president of the National Space Research Center, in a conversation with t k e TASS correspondent, "have been distributed among eight French laboratories, which have already analyzed lunar soil samples brought back by the Luna-16. Work on the new samples is a conBy studying samples, collected
1

tinuation of research already begun.

by the Luna-16 station, French scientists discovered much about the hisrory of the formation and age of the moon." The president of the National Space Resarch Center said that many contacts had been established between French and Soviet scientists, which will help to coordinate their work and, in this

way, improve the results obtained. There are now good prospects for the furthei cooperation in space research between French and Soviet scientists. This, to a

great extent, is the result of the 7th session of the permanent joint Soviet-French commission on scientific and technical and economic cooperation which took place recently in Paris.

419

The Soviet Union and France: (TASS)

Future Cooperation

"Izvestiya", September 30, 1972.

A conference between Soviet and French scientists and special-

ists, devoted to the research and use of outer space for friendly purposes, ended on September 27 in Tbilisi. The Soviet delegation

at the conference was headed by Academician B. N. Petrov, the chairman of the committee for international cooperation in the research and the use of outer space (Interkosmos) of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR,and the French delegation was headed by Jean-Francois Denisse, the president of the French National Space Research Center. Summing up the joint work for the year since the previous conference, scientists concluded that cooperation was successfully developing in studying outer space, space meteorology, aeronomy, and communication. Research into polar aurora, carried out by the Oreol satellite in the Arkad project, the study of low-energy particles and g a m a rays of solar origin by the Prognoz-2 station !the Kalipso and Sneg experiments), were very fruitful. Launches of meteorlogical satel-

lites from the island of Hayes, giving new information on the xpper layer of the atmosphere in polar latitudes, carried out by specialists of both countries were well-known. The conference, which took place in a business-like and friendly atmosphere, discussed future projects in great detail. In particu-

lar, an agreement was signed for organizing the launches of Soviet

420

meteorological rockets on the island of Kerguelen in the Indian Ocean. Possibilities were discussed for joint research into space

biology and medicine.

Lunar Soil for French Scientists (TASS) "Pravda"

, December

20, 1975.

On December 19 in Moscow, A. P. Vinogradov, the vice-president /202

of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, gave French scientists more lunar soil samples brought back by the Soviet Luna-16 and Luna-20 automatic stations. French laboratories. The samples are intended for research in

A n Agreement between the USSR and the USA on Cooperation in

the Research and Use of Outer Space for Friendly Purposes "Pravda", May 31, 1972. The Union of Soviet Socialist's Republics and the United States of America,
by taking into account the role played by the USSR and the

USA in the research and use of outer space for friendly purposes, striving for further expansion of cooperation between the USSR and the USA in the conquest of outer space for friendly purposes, observing the positive experience of cooperation in this field acquired by the parties, 421

wishing to use the results of scientific research, obtained

in the exploration of space for friendly purposes, for the benefit

of the peoples of the two countries and peoples of the world, taking into consideration the provisions of tne Agreement on the principles of the nations into the research and use of outer space, including the moon and other heavenly bodies, and also agreements for the rescue of astronauts, the return of astronauts and objects launched into outer space, in accordance with the Agreement between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics under the United States of America on the exchange and cooperation in science, technology, education, culture and other spheres of activity, signed on April 11, 1972 and for the further development of the principles of the mutually beneficial cooperation between the two countries, have agreed to the following: Article 1. The parties will develop cooperation in space meteorology, the study of the natural medium,
research

into near space, the

moon and planets, space biology and medicine, and in particular,

will cooperate to adopt the required measures to stimulate and carry outthe"Fina1 Document on results of discussion of questions

of space research between the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and

the NASA in the USA" from January 21, 1971. Article 2 . The parties will carry out this cooperation through the mutual exchange of scientific information and delegations, the organization
422

of meetings between scientists and specialists of both countries,

and also in other forms, through which mutual understanding can be

achieved. Joint working groups may be formed for developing and

/203

implementing the appropriate cooperation program. Article 3 . The parties have agreed to work to produce joint facilities for the rendezvous and docking of Soviet and American manned spacecraft and statiuns tu increase the safety of Ran in space and enable further, joint scientific experiments. The first experimental

flight for testing these facilities, envisaging the docking of the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft and the American Apollo spacecraft with mutual interchange of astronauts, is to be carried out during 1975. This will be done on the basis of principles and procedures to be developed in accordance with the "Final Document of the meeting between representatives of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the NASA in the USA on the question of producing joint facilities for therendezvous and docking of Soviet and American manned spacecraft" from April 6 , 1972. Article 4 . The parties will contribute by international efforts t o solve international legal problems of research and use of outer space for frieiidly purposes to establish law and order in space and the further development of internztional space law, and will cQoperate in this direction.

423

Article S. The parties may, by mutual consent, determine other areas for cooperation in the research and use of outer space for friendly purposes. Arricle 6 .

This agreement comes into force on the day it is signed and

will be valid for five years. both parties agree. Completed on May 2 4 , 1972 in Moscow in two copies, each in Russian and English, whereby both texts have identical validity. For the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: A. Kosygin, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR.
For the United States of America:

It may be altered and extended if

Richard Nixon, President

o f the United States of America.

Space

--

The Arelia for Cooperation

(TASS)

B. N. Yetrov

"Pravda", May 31, 1972.

Q:

What importance do you attach to the agreement, signed

between t h e governments of the USSR and the USA, or the research

and use of outer space for friendly purposes?
A:

It is difficult t o overestimate the treaty which has just

/204

come into effect.

It envisages the cooperation in the research o f

near space, the moon and planets of the solar system, the natural medium, space meteorology, biology and medicine.
It is proposed to

424

produce joint facilities for the rendezvous and docking of Soviet and American manned spacecraft in space. The agreement is

attempting to increase the safety of man in space, and to carry out joint scientific experiments in the future. As a result of talks, previously held by syecialists from the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the NASA, the technical aspects were discussed for producing joint facilities for rendezvous and docking in space. The solution of these problems requires joint efforts,and many technical difficulties must be overcome. It was

found that it was necessary to carry out joint space experiments

t o check the technical solutions, guaranteeing the compatability of

rendezvous and docking

facilities. The first experimental flight

for testing these facilities, as was envisaged in the final agreement, should take place in 1975. It is intended to dock a Soviet

Soyuz spacecraft and an American Apollo spacecraft in space, with the mutual interchange of astronauts. Mucn work
must

Le &ne $7

Soviet and American specialists to prepare this unique experiment. Cooperation between Soviet and American scientists into space research has been taking p l a c e for several years. The present

agreement envisages measures necessary to assimilate and bring into

effect understanding between the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and NASA on the cooperation into space research for friendly purposes, which was reached in January 1971. In accordance with the final document, accepted as the result of discussing questions of cooperation between the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and NASA, some work has already been done 425

into outer space research, and in space meteorology, biology and medicine. For example, there wa5 an exchange of information on the

results of scientific research, obtained during simultaneous experiments using Soviet Mars-2 and Mars-3 interplanetary stations and the American Mariner-9 interplanetary station. There was an exchange
of information of raclar investigation of Venus, carried out by the
USSR, and Mars, carried out by the USA.

There was also an exchange

of catalogues of lunar maps, photographs of the lunar surface, and lunar soil samples, brought back by the Soviet Luna-16 and Luna-20 automatic stations and by American astronauts in the Apollo spacecraft

An agreement was reached on the exchange of the results of

research into the natural medium using space facilities. It is intended, in the future, to carry out a coordinated experiment into thermal sounding of the atmosphere using satellites from both
mnntries.

This is of interest for the space "weather service". results of meteoro-

There already exists an exchange of

logical research using rockets and satellites. A joint SovietAmerican work is being produced "Fundamentals of space biology and

medicine

.I'

There is no doubt that the agreeincnt signed batween both governments on cooperating in the research and use of space for friendly purposes will bring about the development of joint work
by Soviet and American scientists and specialists in this important

field.

426

Q:

What is the future for international cooperation in the

/205 -

research and conquest of spaze?

A:

With the development of space science and the emergence

of new possibilities for csrrying out direct space research, the task of conquering outer space, investigating the moon and planets of the Folar system, the link between the Sun and the earth, and the study of the earth's resources from space, are becoming more complex and wide-spread. Scientists from various countries are proposing new ideas fcr organizing space experiments. Many of these ideas are of a global nature. In other words, space is becoming

an arena for wide international cooperation and reqslires the joint efforts of many countries and, of course, countries which have more experience in the research and development of outer space. The Soviet Union has been cooperating with a number of countries for many years. .A joint research program, Interkosmos, is being carried out by scxialist countries.

In accordance with

a agrzzzer-t, r a t i f i e d f i v e vea.rs ago by Bulgaria, Hungary, the i

German Democratic Republic, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia, cooperation is being developed in space physics, meteorology and aeronomy, space communication, biology and medicine. Six satellites in the Interkosmos series

and two geophysical rockets for vertical sounding of the atmosphere have already been launched, a d wide research is being carried out in space meteorology. Many countries are participating in joint research, linked with the optical observation of artificial earth satellites. Last Novembe-*an agreement was signed

427

to set up sputnik"

an

international space communication system "Inter-

.
An angle reflector for laser location of the moon was

Much joint work is being done as a result of an agreement with France.

fitted into the Soviet Lunokhod-1. The Soviet Mars-3 interplanetary station, with French equipment, carried out a joint experiment in the Stereo project (investigating radio-frequency radiation of the Sun in the meter radio wave band).

In the joint Arkad project, an

Oreol satellite was launched with scientific equipment, developed by Soviet and French scientists. The French small independent

satellite and the Molniya-1 communication satellite were put into elliptical orbit simultaneously by a Soviet launch vehicle. Research has been carried out on magnetic and associated points on earth: the Arkhangle'sk region and the island of Kerguelen in the Omega project. Joint meteorological research into the atmos-

phere is being carried out regularly. There is active cooperation in space research between scientists from the Soviet Union and India. Joint work has been carried out for some time in probing o f the atmosphere Lsing Soviet meteorological rockets from the Indian international equatorial proving ground. Recently, an agreement was signed between both countries

for launching an Indian artificial earth satellite using a Soviet launch vehicle. There is an arrangement for the exchange of scientific information between the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the European Space Research Organization (ESRO).
428

An agreement was signed between the USSR and the

USA

for

cooperation in research and the use of outer space for friendly purposes, and is a new important step in developing international cooperation in a sphere so clcsely linked with technical progress.

The Yoyuz and Apollo Joint Flight Project

B. Petrov, Academician and Hero of Socialist Labor

"Pravda", August 2, 1972. A meeting was held between Soviet and American specialists to prepare the joint flight and docking of Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft. The technical aspects for this flight were examined during prcliminarytalks between representatives of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and NASA. At the manned flight center at Houston (USA)
a meeting was held between specialists from t . Academy of Sciences h:
1206 -

of the USSR and NASA, where technical and organizational questions on developing joint facilities for the rendevous and docking of the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft and the American Apollo spacecraft, and the flight preparation for them, were comprehensively discussed. During this meeting the basic technical requirements for the rendezvous and docking systems, the principle of building joirlt docking facilities and a project for carrying out the flight were agreed upon. The meeting took place in a business-like atmosphere, and many difficult problems were discussed for carrying out this complex space experiment and solutions acceptable for both parties. Some

429

questions need to be discussed and agreed upon during subsequent meetings of working groups of Soviet and American specialists. However, an understanding has already been reached which will mean the further development of joint facilities for rendezvous and docking, and preparing the joint spacecraft flight. What are the aims and the features of the flight? Equipping manned spacecraft and stations with joint rendezvous and docking facilities will increase the safety of manned flights in space. These facilities will allow any spacecraft or orbital

station, if necessary, to dock with any other spacecraft equipped with such facilities, irrespective of the country to which they belong. The main task of the experimental flight of the Soyuz and Apollo manned spacecrafts is to check the technical. decisions taken and test the joint rendezvous and docking facilities of the spacecraft, and tne systems for transferring astronauts from one spacecraft to another. The production of joint facilities does not envisage developing identical equipment. Each party will design and produce them independently, but they will be based on general principles and requirements agreed upon. Technical difficulties which arise are due to the fact that, until now, each country has developed rendezvous and docking facilities in accordance with its own program, therefore, in the future new design principles must be sought which are suitable for docking any two spacecraft which need to be docked. The joint work of

430

S o v i e t and American s p e c i a l i s t s have a l r e a d y found such p r i n c i p l e s , and ways have been d i s c o v e r e d t o overcome t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , a l t h o u g h much i s s t i l l t o be done t o b r i n g t h e s e t e c h n i c a l d e c i s i o n s into reality.
A p e r i p h e r a l d e s i g n h a s been developed u s i n g a s o - c a l l e d

"androgynous1* docking d e v i c e .

I t i s c o m p l e t e l y new, h a s r , t been

used by e i t h e r c o u n t r y and w i l l a l l o w any s p a c e c r a f t equipped w i t h

i t t o t a k e an a c t i v e o r p a s s i v e r o l e .

A s t r o n a u t s p a s s from one

s p a c e c r a f t t o a n o t h e r through i n t e r n a l h a t c h e s w i t h o u t going i n t o space.

A t t h e p r e s e n t time, one needs two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of docking
/207 -

d e v i c e s , an a c t i v e and p a s s i v e , t o c a r r y o u t docking.

The main

d i f f e r e n c e i n t h i s new system i s t h a t , i n s t e a d o f t h e a c t i v e docking d e v i c e having a c e n t r a l s h a f t and t h e p a s s i v e one a docking cone, each of them h a s g u i d e "lobes1' around i t s c i r c u m f e r e n c e , c o u p l i n g d e v i c e s and l o c k s and h a t c h e s i n t h e c e n t r a l s e c t i o n f o r t h e t r a n s -

f e r of astronauts.
Another i n n o v a t i o n i s
d

s p e c i a l docking compartment, which i s

t h e main s e c t i o n o f t h e Apollo s p a c e c r a f t and on i t s f r e e f a c e has a docking mechanism,compatible w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g mechanism of t h e Soyuz s p a c e c r a f t . T h i s compartment w i l l s e r v e a s an a i r l o c k The

f o r atmospheric a d a p t i o n when a s t r o n a u t s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d .

r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h a t t h e atmosphere i n t h e Soyuz s p a c e c r a f t i s normal a i r a t a p r e s s u r e o f 760 mm Hg, and t h e Ltmosphere i n t h e Apollo i s p u r e oxygen a t a p r e s s u r e of 260 mm Hg. Probakly, i n t h e

f u t u r e t h e atmosphere of a l l s p a c e c r a f t w i l l be c l o s e t o t h a t of 431

earth, then a special air lock, similar to that being produced for this flight, will not be required. Attention is also being paid to the compatablity of spacecraft docking facilities, and radio equipment for coK:munication between spacecraft and ground control centers, including direct voice transmission systems (radiotelephone from one crew to another during rendezvous and docking.
It was decided that the air crews should

be taught each other's language, to understand voice communications and learn the correct responses. The astronauts will familiarize themselves with the spacecraft of the other country, carry out joint training, and also joint tests of the newly developed rendezvous and docking systems. A sequence for the flight has been agreed upon.
It will take

place in the second half of 1975. The Soyuz spacecraft will be launched first from a Soviet cosmodrome. Approximately 7.5 hours later, the American Apollo will 5e launched. There is a possibility that the Apollo will be launched on the second, and on the third day after the Soyuz launch. The Apollo will carry o u t an inde2en-

dent flight for approximately a day and afterwards the spacecraft will rendezvous and dock. When docked, they will form a manned

space system, which will be controlled and stabilized as a single unit. The orbital flight will last approximately two days. During

this time, it is planned to transfer the astronauts from one craft to another and conduct scientific and technical experiments. Television pictures will be transmitted to earth. Then the astronauts will return to their own spacecraft and undocking will take place.
432

They w i l l f l y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r own program, t h e Soyuz w i l l l a n d

i n t h e S o v i e t Union, and t h e Apollo i n t h e waters o f t h e P a c i f i c

Ocean.
Much intense work must be done by b o t h c u l t i e s must be overcome f o r t h i s f l i g h t . The r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h i s j o i n t p r o j e c t is an i m p o r t a n t s t e p forward i n t h e development of i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n i n t h e r e s e a r c h and use o f s p a c e f o r f r i e n d l y purposes. There i s no doubt p a r t i e s and many d i f f i -

t h a t cooperation i n t h i s f i e l d of technical progress w i l l contribute g r e a t l y t o t h e conquest o f s p a c e f o r f r i e n d l y p u r p o s e s , and

t h e i n t e r e s t s of s c i e n c e , and technology of a l l n a t i o n s .

A Meeting between S o v i e t and American R e s e a r c h e r s

(TASS)

"Pravda",

October 1 0 , 1972. /208

A c o n f e r e n c e began between S o v i e t and American s p e c i a l i s t s a t

t h e Space Research I n s t i t u t e o f t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR

on October 9 i n Moscow, d u r i n g which t e c h n i c a l problems w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r o j e c t f o r t h e rendezvous and j o i n t f l i g h t of
t h e Soyuz and Apollo s p a c e c r a f t .

The working groups t a k i n g p a r t i n t h i s p r o j e c t i n c l u d e d t h e S o v i e t a s t r o n a u t A. S. Yeliseyev and t h e American a s t r o n a u t Thomas P. S t a f f o r d . S o v i e t s p e c i a l i s t s demonstrated a model of t h c docking d e v i c e , developed i n t h e S o v i e t I'nion i n accordance w i t h t h e c o o r d i n a t e d

433

principles

and

the

general

method o f

docking t h e two space-

craft i n o r b i t .
The c o n f e r e n c e between t h e s e working groups w i l l l a s t t e n days.

SOYUZ - Apollo -

D. Dmitriyev, a TASS o b s e r v e r
"Trud", The J o i n t F l i g h t P r o j e c t I n Moscow a conferer.ce h a s ended between S o v i e t and American s p e c i a l i s t s , who have beer: d i s c u s s i n g t e c h n i c a l problems f o r c a r r y i n g o u t t h e j o i n t f l i g h t o f Sayuz and Apollo manned s p a c e c r a f t .
A t t h e r e q u e s t s o f , o u r n a l i s t s from t h e two c o u r i t r i e s , p a r t i -

October 2 2 , 1972.

c i p a n t s i n t h e conference

m e t w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e S o v i e t

and American p r e s s , t o l d them o f t h e p r o g r e s s made, and o f t h e j o i n t work e n v i s a g e d by t h e agreement between t h e USSR and t h e USA. The meeting, which took p l a c e i n t h e p r e s i d i u m o f t h e Academy

of S c i e n c e s of t h e USSR, was opened by Academician B. N. P e t r o v

--

t h e chairman of t h e Interkosmos Council, a t t a c h e d t o t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s of t h e USSR. I n p a r t i c u l a r , he s a i d t h a t p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r

t h e j o i n t s p a c e experiment a r e c o n t i n u i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y .
An agreement has been reached on a number of t e c h n i c a l prob-

lems.

A wide range o f q u e s t i o n s i s being d i s c u s s e d on t h e mechanics

of t h e space f l i g h t , t h e on-board equipment i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t , and

t h e crews' l i f e - s u p p o r t system. P r e p a r a t i o n h a s a l r e a d y reached

434

the stage when the participation of astronauts, Soviet and American, has become necessary and useful in working conferences. Then, Academician B. N. Petrov introduced members of the Soviet delegation: Professor K. D. Bushuyev, a cGrresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR; A. S. Yeliseyev, and A. G. Nikolayev, space pilots of the USSR. The head of the delega-

tion of American specialists, Dr. Glenn Lanni*, introduced his colleagues to the journalists - - astronaut Thomas P. Stafford, and Ed Anderson, a worker from NASA. The press representatives asked

the astronauts to tell them of problems which were discussed in Moscow and of Thomas Stafford's opinions on "Zvezdnyy gorodok", where he was a guest of his Soviet colleagues. The American astronaut stressed, when answering this question, that the approach to preparation and training programs for the crews in the USSR and in the USA, in essence, are identical.

"In 'Zvesdnyy gorodok'," he said, **I 'piloted' a Russian Soyuz spacecraft using simulators. Practically all operations in con-

trolling this vehicle in space are done as we do them. Of course, the design of some assembly units and components is different, as are the control sticks. However, the methods and technique of 'piloting' and the sequence of many operations are the same." #e discussed with Aleksey Yeliseyev and Andriyan Nikolayev questions for training and selecting the crews, and training features for joint operations in space.
/209

* Translator's Note: Names, unless known, are transliterated directly from the Russian.
435

"During our meeting in MOSCOW, which preceded this one in Moscow, ne decided that the crews would begin joint training approximately two years before the flight. If I am a good mathematician,

this will take place during next sumner. Therefore, the selection

of crews must be made earlier. Our present meeting is an important

step for carrying out this decision."
"I would like to add," said Aleksey Yeliseyev, when he ended
h i s talk with the journalists, "that at the meeting we were involved

in questions for producing joint on-board documentation for crews,

discussed in generql details the best way to organize work and rest during the flight, and settled questions for the work of astronaut; with flight coztrol centers and radio procedure between spacecraft. There were no differences of opinion, and all that was
I

needed to be solved on this stage of preparation was solved." Andriyan Nikolayev, in his answer, dwelt on one important problem, upon which the success of the space operation depends: overcoming the "language barrier" between the Soyuz and Apollo crews. "Of course, scientists and specialists are doing all they can to simplify the astronaut's work in space. It has already been decided to prepare a Mork plan for the crews at all stages of the experiment: during take-off, the joint search and rendezvous of the vehicles in space, during docking, j o i n t flight, undocking and removal from each other. But this does not mean that this can be

done without a thorough knowledge of languages. At present, there are no astronauts among the Soviet or American crews capable o f
436

speaking fluently in both languages.

However, I an convinced that This will help the joint

we shall soon speak English and Russian.

training of c r e w envisaged in the space experiment program." The heads of the Soviet and American delegations at the conference in Moscow were asked several questions during the meeting between scientists and journalists. Professor K. D. Bushuyev said: "It is impossible to imagine how Soyuz and Apcllo spacecraft could be prepared without difficulty for a flight using docking. These spacecraft were built in different countries and, naturally, are different in design and in on-board equipment. During their

development, specialists in the Soviet and Union and in the United States did not intend these vehicles to be docked in space. Therefore, both vehicles had to be greatly adapted for docking in space.
A

special docking unit had to be produced and tested, the

design of which was based on experience accumulated by the Soviet Union and tke United States. Of course, there will be a number of basic differences. The docking device will enable crews to transfer from one spacecraft to the other through an inner tunnel without going out into space.
It was decided to build it so that both the Soyuz

and Apollo could dock, and assume the role of an active or passive partner. In the Apollo, the a r t i f i c i a l atmosphere cozsists ~f pure

oxygen. Therefore, the pressure in the American vehicle is relatively low, in the order of 300 mm Hg. The Soyuz uses a mixture of

437

nitrogen and oxygen, and the baronetric pressure is almost the same
as

the earth's atmosphere at sea level - - 7 5 0 - 8 0 0 mm. This alone complicates the problem of the atmospheric "com/210 -

patability" of the two vehicles.

It was decided to build a transi-

t i m compartment which would solve a number of important problems, including atmospheric "compatability". Soviet 2nd American specialAt the present time,

ists developed and examined several versions.

we are close to the final solution of this problem. we shall find the best version."

I believe that

Later, K. D. Bushuyev spoke of the changes which must be made to the Soviet spacecraft in order for the docking and joint flight with the Apollo to be made. "The Soyuz must have modifications made to its rendezvous equipment, special orientation signal lights and communication equipment must be installed, and antenna arrangements and on-board systems and instruments must be adapted for docking." Journalists were interested in the question:
astruiiauts be g u e s t s o f each other?"

"Will all the

K. b. Bushuyev said that

the mutual transfer program had been previously discussed by specialists, but will be examined and finally confirmed during the

next iiteztifig.

The e:xyerimenz; is caicuiated so that crews from both

vehicles can stay in the Soyuz and Apollo.

We are attemFting

to

arrange the f l i g h t so t h a t the Cull complement of both s p a c e c r a f t

can stay in one vehicle. Dr, Glenn Lanni, the head of the American delegation, elaborated on the Soviet scientist's answer.
438

'1 believe that Professcr K. D. Bushuyev has clearly explained '

the changes which must be made to the Soviet and American spacecraft. It remains for me to say that we have arranged in principle

the manner in which the joint work on the Soyuz-Apollo project will be done. Beginning i n t h e middle of next year, and during the next 12 months, we shall carry out preliminary tests and experiments. Later, we shall start producing equipment for the flight. By this

time, the joint flight program will be worked out in detail and, in this way, in 1975 the equipment, crews and ground flight and control services will be ready for work." Press representatives were also interested in the effect the Soyuz-Apollo project would have on the development of manned space flights.
"AS

13.

N. Petrov answered this question.

is known, the agreement between the governments, in partint-

lar, envisages the production of joint rendezvous and docking facilities for spacecraft launched by the Soviet Union and the
USA.

Producing these facilities and equipping spacecraft with them will be of value to crews who may need them for one reason or another. ?hey will be used by one spacecraft when it is ne2r In this way, this experimental flight is more

another in space.

wide and coiiiplcx than simply docking Soviet and American spacecraft.
As a

result of it, important problem will be solved necessary for

manned flights in space, irrespective to whom those manned

439

spacecraft belong.

Apart from this, they will enable joint experi-

ments to be conducted in space."

A Joint Conference
"Pravda", November 25, 1972.

New k'ork, 2 4 . [TASS). A joint technical group confer2nce between American and Soviet experts on preparing the first joint

/211 -

Soviet-American space flight begac at the Manned Space Flight Center in Houston (Texas).

In accordance with the Soviet-American agreement on cooperation

in the research and the use of outer space for friendly purposes,
the first docking in space between the Soviet Soyuz and the American Apollo and their joint flight is planned for 1975.

Iests on Hodels (TASS) "Pravda" , kcember 16, 1972 .

A

meeting between Soviet and American specialists, working to

produce joint docking facilities for the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft,
L U U ~

p ? ~ c zi :

'*'

-ccw

from December 7-15. During the meeting * . .

--*

there was duscussion and agreement on technical questions, and tests on working scale models of the crafts' docking devices were made. They were the first of preplanned joint tests. Next year meetings between specialists and joint tests will be continued.
440

An Exchange of Lunar Soil

(TASS)
"Pravda", April 14, 1972. On April 13, representatives from NASA (USA) visited the presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Lunar soil

samples, brought back to earth by the Soviet Luna-20 automatic

station, were distributed. At the same time, Soviet scientists were given a lunar soil sample brought back by the American Apollo-15 spacecraft. The exchange was made in accordance with the agreement between the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and NASA, signed in January 1971.

A Search in Space
I . Shklovskiy, a corresponllng member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR,

L. Matveyenko, a Candidate of Physical and Mathematical "Izvestiya", May 17, i972.

Sciences

Modern science is boldly attacking problems, the solution of which ten years ago would have seemed impossible owing to the great difficulties f o r carrying out large-scale experiments a m research. One way for overcoming these difficulties is the development of international cooperation between scientists, and the joint participation of scientific organizations from different countries in studying nature's mysteries.
An example of this is global research

of the weather and climate of the earth and the study of oceans.
441

Not only the earth, but far space will become the arena for world scientific cooperation. In particular, Soviet and American radio astronomers are conducting joint work in studying recently discovered space objects, many billions of light years from the solar system. The observations, which were conducted in observatories at great distances from each other, have provided new information for world science. This article shows the problems which are being studied by radio astronomers in the USSR and the USA. Among the many wonderful achievements in astronomy recently, possibly, the most important was the discovery of completely new types of space objects: quasi-stars or quasars in star formation

/212

and planetary systems. Analysis of radio astronomical and optical observations of quasars shows that they are at great distances from us,deep in the universe. These distances are
so

great that, on

account of the so-called red displacement, electromagnetic waves radiated by quasars are "lengthened" 2-5 times. This can only

occur if the distance to their source is approximately 10 billion light years. The radiation power of quasars is enormous

--

this is why they

can be observed from extremely large distances. Moreover, one unexpected fact is that these objects are comparatively small less than one light y2ar.

The size of large galaxies (such as our

stellar system, with more than 150 million stars) is a7proximately 100,000 light yehrs, but the radiation power is tens of times smaller than quasars. This means that quasars are very "compact" objects,
44 2

where enormous energy volume.

is produced

in a relatively small

Information on the small size of quasars was obtained by analyzing the astonishing fact that their radiation varies with time. Noticeable changes of brightness are observed over a few weeks or even days. However, to understand the nature o f processes

taking place with this huge generation of energy, it is important

to check the density of quasars not by an indirect, but a direct

method,and measure their structure in detail and its change over time. No less interesting and mysterious objects were some cebulae in our Galaxy, w l - i - n have been known for Some time but have only recently been isolated. Apparently, they have small, individual regions radiating enormous power in narrow radio wave spectra corresponding to lines of the so-called hydroxyl and water vapor. These bright lines must be linked with very active processes differing from those already known. Radiation of these lines changes This indicates that

q.it rapidly, sometimes over a few minutes. t..e

the size of the source is less than one astronomical unit and, consequently, smaller than our planetary system. Possibly, we

are observing regions where condensation of interstellar gas, and the formation of stars and planets from it occurs. Academicians N. Basov and A . Prokhorov,and the American scientist C. Towns were awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of a new mechanism for amplifying electromagnetic waves - - the

443

so-called maser mechanism

--

which, apparently, led one to assume

that something similar happexs in space. Study of the physical conditions for the formation of stars and planetary systems and processes which accompany them are of fundamental value. Until now, practically nothing is known on In order to do this, one needs

how stars and planets are formed.

to carry out detailed research into the structure of regions where this star formation process occurs. meet great difficulties here. Radio astronomers expected to

Both quasars and compact formations /213

in nebulae are visible at angles of less than one thousandth of

a second of arc, and individual "details" of these objects have even smaller angular measurements. To understand the minuteness of these

dimensions, one must imagine the angle at hllich we "seettan astronaat on the moon. The accuracy of measurement with extremely good optical telescopes is only approximately 1 sec. This gives the so-called "resolving power" of the instrument small details on the object image.

--

its capability to detect

The resolving power is deter-

mined by the ratio of the wavelength of the received radiation to the telescope diameter. The resolving power, even for very large radio telescopes, is low owing to the relatively large wavelength of radio-frequency radiation. More than 20 years ago, radio astronomers learned to overcome this difficulty by using an interference method. The

essence of this was that observations were done simultanemsly with two radio telescopes, at a considerable distance from each other,
444

linked by a high-frequency cable.

Signals received from the radiaWith

tion source were transmitted along this cable and compared.

this method of observation, the resolving power was determined not by the antenna diameter, but the distance between the radio telescopes. Since this could be considerable, the rescliing power was significantly increased in cornparsion with normal observations. However, the technical possibility for transmitting radio signals is no more than a few tens of kilometers. In 1963 Soviet scientists suggested a radio interference method to overcome this "barrier" and obtain whatever resolving power was required. Signals, received by radio telescopes, were rc.-ordedon

magnetic tapes which were afterwards taken to a computat. - n center and processed together. In 1969 and 1971 Soviet and American scientists from the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, the Physical Institute im, P. N. Lebedev, the California Technological Irstitute, the Cornel1 University, the Massachusetts Technological Institute, the Marine Research Laboratory, the National Radio Astronomical Observatory, the Smithsonian Observatory and the Haystack Observatory used this method for observing compact objects. The most sophisticated radio telescopes in the world were used in this experiment: the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory near Simeiz, the American National Radio Astromonical Observatory, the NASA Long-Range Space Communication Center and the Haystack Observatory. Areas where stars and

445

planetary systems are formec" were studied on a 1.35 cni wave, and quasars and nuclei of galaxies on 6 , 3.55 and 2 . 8 cm waves. The

antennas were at the greatest possible distance from each other which gave the maximum angular resolution, obtainable on earth, of several ten-thousandth fractions of a second. The high angular resolution made it possible to establish that quasars have a complex structure and, as a rule, coasist of several components. In a number of cases, these components had

such small angular dimensions that even the maxiinum resolution was insufficient to investigate them. In cases when the angular measure-

ments could be determined, it was found that their radio-frequency radiation was determined by electrons, moving in magnetic fields at a speed close to that of light. The mysterious regions in gas nebulae are also of a ccmplex structure, but consist of individual, very compact formations moving at different speeds.
It was not possible to measure

the

/214

angular dimensions of individual components, since one needs a higher angular resolution for this. In particular, one of the

components in the "W49" source has angular dimensions less than the doubled diameter of the ear*Lh's orbit, and its temperature was greater than lo1'
(

unit with 15 zeros) degrees.

It folic:.*c from the results obtained that a new increase in

angular resolution is required for further research. Therefore, Soviet and American scientists are dsveloping an interferometer projecL by taking one of its elements into outer space.

446

Space Cartography "Krasnaya Zvezda", September 20, 1972. New York, SeptevSer 19. (TASS). The cooperation between the

USSR and the USA in the research and use o f outer space for

friendly purposes is successfully developing.

Specialists from

the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and NASA have exchanged documentation on lunar coordinate systems and mapping of the moon. They have agreed on the joint development of basic principles for making lunar maps, to compile a map of the moon on a scale of 1:5,000,000. They will also develop an overall base system of selenographic coordinates. Specialists of both countries have agreed to a periodic exchacge of information concerning new projects and proposals in this sphere.

An Agreement

Is Signed

(TASSj "Pravda", May 11, 1972. A Soviet-Indian agreement on the further development of cooperation in space research was signed on May 10 in the presidium of the Academy 9f Sciences of the USSR. The agreement was signed by the presi znt of the Academy of Sciences of thc USSR, E. .?demician V. Keldysh and Professor M.

M, G. K . Menon, the chairman o f the Indian Space Research Organization of the Indian government.

447

Krishnarao Shivarao Shelvankar, the Indian ambassador in the Soviet Union, was present at the signing ceremony. During their stay in the Soviet Union, the delegation of Iniian scientists, headed by M. G. K. Menon, had talks with the president of Academy omy of Sciences, M. V. Keldysh and other leading scientists, and questioiis for the further cooperation between scientists

of both countries were discussed.

The Pians of Indian Scientists

I . Shchedrov

"Pravda", September 7, 1972. Delhi, 6 . ("Pravda's" own correspondent). "India will

launch its first satellite into near-earth orbit in 1974." said Professor M. G. K. Menon, the president of the Indian Commission for Electronics. Newspapers in Delhi printed this report on their front pages. Indian scientists and engineers have already produced

working drawings of a 250 kg satellite, which will be built completely from components mrde in India.
500

Shortly, approximately According t o /215

scientists and technicians will begin work.

newspaper reports, the first Indian satellite will be launched from a Soviet cosmodrome,in accordance with the Soviet-Indian agreement on the further devclopment of cooperation in space research, signed in May o f this year in Moscow. Later, launches will

take place from the rocket firing station at Tkhumba, in the extreme south o f India,which is already in operation.

44 8

Lunar Soil Shmples Are Handed Over

(TASS)

"Pravda", December 13, 1972. On December 12 in Moscow, Academician A. P. Vinogradov, the vice-president of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, handed over lunar soil samples, brought back by the Luna-16 and Luna-20 Soviet automatic stations, to a representative of the Indian Academy of Sciences.

Lunar -

Soil Is Being Examined

"Krasnaya Zvezda", November 2 4 , 1972. Workers at the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences have completed the first stage of research into lunar rock samples, taken from the Mare Fecunditatis by the Soviet Luna-16. Research into the rock, a gift from the Academy of Sciences of the USSR,was conducted by four institutes and research laboratories o f the Higher School of Chemical Engineering in Prague, and also the Mining Institute in Ostrava. The sample of investii

gated rock was divided into 1,300 recorded particles. Various tests, including: so-called neutron aciive analysis methods. provided much interesting information which will be published in scientific journals and collections.

449

For Scientific Work -.

(TASS)

"Pravdt", August 25, 1972.

In Moscow on August 24, Academician

A.

P. Vinogradov, the

vice-president of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, handed over to Professor James Lighthill, a representative of the Royal Society (London),lunar soil samples brought back by the Luna-16 and Luna-20.

Laboratories in England will carry out research into the samples. John Killick, the British ambassador in the USSR, was present at the ceremony.

News Item (TASS) **Izvestiya",May 2 7 , 1972.

A meeting was held in Moscow from May 2 4 - 2 6 between scientists

from the USSR and the German Democratic Republic, to examine plans for the furtl;er development of cooperation in the Interkosmos program. During the mceting the guests were given soil samples, brought back by the Soviet Luna-16, for research in laboratories throughout the German Democra?ic Republic,
(TASS)

"Pravda", December 26, 1972. In Moscow on December 2 5 an agreement was signed for scientific cooperation between the USSR and the Iraqi Republic. Academician
450

M. V. Keldysh, the president of the Acaixay sf Sciences of the USSR,

signed for t h e Soviet s i d e , and Dr. Khisham ash-Shaun, the Minister /216 for Higher Education and Scientific Research in the Iraqi Republic, for the Iraqi side. After the agreement was s i g n e d , Dr. Khisham ash-Shaun Kas given samples of lunar soil brcught back by the Soviet Luna-16.

A n Agreement Is Ratified

(TASS) "Pravda", April 6 , 1972.

An agreement for setting up Intersputnik, an international

system and space communication organization, signed in Moscow on

Xcuemher 15, 1971, was ratified by a decree issued by the Presidium

o f the Supreme Soviet o f the USSR on April 3 , 1972.

Credentials Are Deposited

(TASS)

t'Izvestija", April 1, 1972. On March 3 1 , D'yula Rapai, the Hungarian ambassador in the USSR, deposited with ihe government o f the Soviet Union credentials

on the ratification of the Hungarian agreement for setting up

Intersputnik, an international system and space communication organizat ion.

451

(TASS)

"Izvestiya", April 21, 1972. On April 21, Stoyan Gyurov, the Bulgarian ambassador in the
USSR, and Nyamyn Luvsanchultem, the Mongolian ambassador in the
USSR, deposited with the government of the Soviet Union ratifica-

tion credentials of the Bulgarian and Mongolian agreements for setting up Intersputnik, an international system and space communication organization.
(TASS)

* t I ~ ~ e ~ t i y a t t , 21, 1972. October On October 20, Z. Novak, the Polish ambassador in the USSR, deposited with the government of the Soviet Union credentials on the ratification of the Polish agreement for setting up Intersputnik, an international system and space communication organization.
(TASS)

"Izvestiya", Kovember 3 0 , 1972. On November 29, Kaoul Garcia Pelaes, the Cdban ambassador in the USSR, deposited with the government of the Soviet Union credentials on the ratification of Cuban agreement f o r setting ~p

Intersputnik, an international system and space conmunication organization.

452

At an Intersputnik Session (TASS) "Sovetskaya Rossiya", November 30, 1972. The first session of Intersputnik, an international organization for space communication, finished its work in Moscow. Parti-

cipating members of the organization came from Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the USSR, and Czechoslovakia. The organization council examined questions for imp1ementir:g the Intersputnik space communication program, and organizational questions. The first session took place in an atmosphere o f cooperation and mutual understanding.

/217

A Convention Signing (TASS) "Izvestiya", April 1 , 1 9 7 2 . In Moscow on Mzrch 31, Fan'ya la Norind-, the Laotian ambassador in the USSR, signed a convention on behhlf of h i s govern-

ment on international responsibility for damage caused by space

objc c t s

.
(TASS) "Izvestiya", June 7 , 1 9 7 2 ,

In Moscow on June 6, Kh. A. Ibrahim, t h e Jordanian ambassador

t o the USSR, signed a convention on behalf o f his government on

453

international responsibility for damage caused by objects.

(TASS)

space

ttIzvestiya't, June 23, 1972. In Moscow on June 22, John Killick, the British ambassador in the USSR, signed on behalf of the New Zealand government a convention on international responsibility for damage caused by space objects

.
Credentials Are Deposited

(TASS)
"Izvestiya", October 5, 1972. On October 4 , Salekh Mahdi Amash, the Iraqi ambassador in the
USSR, deposited with the Soviet government an instrument of ratifi-

cation of the convention on international responsibility for damage caused by space objects.
(TASS)

"Izvestiya", October 21, 1972. On October 2 0 , N. Luvsanchultem, the Mongolian ambassador in the USSR, deposited with the Soviet government an instrument of ratification of the convention on international responsibility f o r damage caused by space objects.

454

(TASS) "Izvestiya", November 2 8 , 1972.

On November 2 7 , La. Norindr, the Laotian ambassador in the

USSR, deposited with the Soviet government instruments of ratification on the activity of states into research and use of outer space, including the moon and other heavenly bodies, and agreements on rescuing astronauts and returning objects launched into outer space. (TASS) "Izvestiya", December 2 5 , 1972. On Oecember 2 7 , D'yula Rapai, the Hungarian ambassador in the USSR, deposited with the Soviet government credentials on the ratification of the Hungarian convention on international responsibility for damage caused by space objects.

The Future Paths o f Astronautics "Novoe vremya", No. 5 2 , 1972.

V. Rozen, a correspondent of "Novoe vremya", met Academician L. I . Sedov and asked for his opinions on the further development
o f research into the universe.

/218

I remembered the study which I had seen when the first Soviet satellite xas launched 15 years ago: the normal workroom of a scientist, piled with books, scientific journals, proofs and manuscripts

...

Its owner, Academician L. I . Sedov, as usual, is full He h3s recently returned from Baku,
455

of creative plans and energy.

where he was occupied not only in scientific but organizational work. He is the chairman of the organization committee for the

future 24th Congress o f the International Aeronautical Federation, which will be held in the capital of Azerbaydzhan, Baku, in October 1973.
It was necessary to carry out there preliminary preparations,

since such scientific forums are of a dignified and serious nature.

Far example, at the congress in Vienna in October 1972, there were

more than 500 delegates and many guests from 36 countries: during the week 300 lectures were heard on various subjects

...

Q: Today, at the beginning of the 16th year of the space age,

how can one interpret its present stage?
A:

If one is talking in wide general terms, I believe that

the most important and promising factor is the development and extension of international cooperation in space.

I have in mind

the desire to work hand in hand and create joint projects. Of course, the "friendly approach" of the Soviet Union has much to do with the present general improvement of international relations.
A

breath of warm air was felt at the recent Vienna Con-

gress, which took place in an atmosphere of true, creative cooperation.

The joint solutiorl of complex probles,s in the further study of

the universe and joint concrete technicai projects have a great political and practical meaning.
It brings about the present

Ancrease in the exchange of ideas, eliminates parallelism, and allows the most important and promising projects to be chosen. has another significant advantage: 456 the further we explore the
It

universe and the more our knowledge increases, the more complex and serious become new scientific problems. needed to solve these problems. Huge resources are

For example, the USA spent the

"astronomical" sum of 26 billion dollars on the Apollo Project. Therefore, it is more sensible, and even necessary, to combine the joint sources of two or more countries

...

Q: What is there to be said on the prospects and results

during the distant and not too distant future? A: The Apollo-17 flight is in progress at the moment and all The United States declared that they do not

that goes with it.

intend to land on the moon again before the end o f the century. This was a very useful program from the point of view of improving space flight technique, developing spacecraft docking in a vacuum, landing and bringing back a manned module fror a heavenly body, men staying on the moon's surface, and from the point of view of studying the earth's natural satellite. Probably, data obtained by American astronauts will provide valuable information not only on the nature o f the moon's history, but on the age and origin of the earth and other planets. The moon research carried out by Soviet automatic statiom was also extremely fruitful. It showed the usefulness of studying heavenly bodies by automatic means.
It is even more important,
1219

since when investigating distant planets,such as Venus, Mars and Jupiter, the use of automatic vehicles will be the only practical useful research method for the next ten years or so.

4 57

Soviet and American research .:.nto Mars and Venus was also extremely fruitful, especially th:: landing of Soviet automatic stations on these planets. Doubtlessly, these experiments will conI would also like to wish our

tinuc and provide new information.

American colleagues success in their launch of a space v e h i c l e for research into Jupiter. As for future plans, mainly there is the Soviet-American program, the first stage of which will be the docking of the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft in near-earth orbit in 1975, and the transfer of crew members from one spacecraft to another. Much has already

been said on this project and I will not dwell on it. There is a great future for producing manned orbital stations, both from the scientific and national economic points o f view. As

a matter of fact, the docking and joint flight of Soviet Soyuz-4 and Soyuz-5 spacecraft in January 1969 with their crews of V. A. Shatalov, B. V. Volynov, A. S. Yeliseyev, and Ye. V. Khrunov, was the first experiment in creating an a i r b o r n e laboratory. An

important contribution to astronautics was the flight in 1971 of the Salyut, first Soviet manned space orbital station. Undoubtedly, in the future the production of artificial earth satellite, airborne laboratories, will be the hasis o f most programs. The USA

has a project for setting up a laboratory in space to be launched into eartn orbit in 1973. Astronautics is concentrating on solving many types of purely "terrestrial" problems, which are of great economical value and promise immense technical progress, The Vienna Astronautics
458

Coryress had as its motto "space for world development", and many applied problems were discussed there. The crew of manned stations will be periodically changed and consist of, apart from astronauts, scientists and specialists from different fields

--

astronomists,

meteorologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, chemists, physicians, engineers, agronomists and others. Soviet flights, the crews of which contain t'ground" scientists and the fact that Schmitt, an American geologist, landed on the moon, can be seen as the initial steps along this path. Orbital stations have various uses: tory free of
i n t e r f e r e n c e

an astromonical observafrom the earth's atmos-

phere; an observation point, from which one can see in amazing detail not only how to determine the harvest, but to forecast it for an area of only a few hectares; and to carry out geological and geophysical examination of almost inaccessible areas. Such a

method may sometimes show oil layers or underground lakes, and useful minerals. Americans, for whom this is a painful question, are planning to expose from space enterprises which are discharging harmful waste into risers and lakes,and even determine t h e chemical composition of this discharge. Orbital stations will also be used as laboratories and produc- /220 tion units. Laboratories could carry out various expLriments in weigh2lessness and, if necessary, a vacuum, and workshops could produce in vacuum conditions various new materials, high purity metals, and grow crystals, The first welding in space was done on the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft. Experiments of a productive nature

459

i;i weightlessness

were conducted in 1971 by American astronauts.

In the

USA

they are already estiiaating the wide market for ttspace"

prod-rcts. The slie of orbital stations will gradually be incr:ased, and

their crews will consist of from 2 - 3 to several tens of pecple, and wherever one looks there will be space settlements forecast by K. E. Tsiolkovskiy. This may seem a dream today, but a great prophet expected peo2le on the mnon in the year 2017, and his pri?hecy came true almost 59 years before this. Therefore, such settlements are not pure fancy.
I f one looks back only 15 years, the progress made by

man in this short space of time seems fantastic. Of course, t h e pro8uetic.k o f manned stations r e q u i r e s more
developmeilt.

Apprr??riate rockets must be built to transport and

loads in both directions. This will be expensive. However, socalled shuttle flights in spacecraft which can be used many times are being suggested, real space aircraft which can land and take off froln less scphisticated cosmodromes than
;I-:

present.

Shuttle

flights will cut the cost of space transport considerably. Low can man live in weightlessness? Recent experience showed this is not an easy problem to solve. Probably, artificial weightlessness must be created - - this is iorrpletely possible technically. Space biology and medicine are studying other ways.

It is less dificult to feed an astronaut and supply him with

water and air.

Space greenhouses and poultry farms are being pro-

duced, various closed ecological systems are being developed, and

460

there has been good progress in food solutions.

regenel-atlng rater, air and

No doubt space electronics will be developed later. Here, a s

in other extremely technical progressive spheres, there is no real

difference between electronics on earth and in space. Recently,

a quarter of a century ago, the first comp.iters weighed 30 tons a D d cccupied an area of several tens of square maters: 5,JOO computations ?er minute. they only ma&

Generally speakifid, this is not bad,

but seems ridiculcw in comparison with modern computers, carrying out

m a t h e n a t i c a i o p c r a t i c n s i n a billionth part of a sbcond, and

:feighing only a few kilograms.

Miniaturization of electronic

equipment, nct only for computing, but in radio, television and other spheyes, is taking place at terrific speed. One only needs

to mention t h e distances of hundreds of milliom of kilometers from which autonaiiL stations transmit information from Mars: thc Soviet

Union and the USA hare received messages from even greater distances. Further successes can be expected in this field, and
iI;

the

use o f meteorological, television and other comunicatinn sazellites which have become a part of modern techcolDgy. Scientists

from various countries are investigating the possibility :f using meteorological satellites P.ot only for forecasting westher, but or wher. z ? where precipitation rd controlling it, for example, reg~la?in~ occurs

Development is being nade in space cummunication to organize radio telephone communication and television transmissions nor only /221 through rela, ..+ations earth, but directly from satrllites in cn

sprce

~3

individual receivers.

This i-.quite realistic since the

2

United Nctions recently adopted

special resolutiorr concerning the

aims and nature of such space television trarsmissions. Present satellites ao not have sufficient power to do this.

More powerful energy sources are needed in space. A more promising new method envisages the use of a laser beam as a transmission channel. In theory, a laser could broadcast millions of television

transmissions or billions of telephone conversations. With the nodern ground relay system, communication satellites are aore promising, fcr example, in teaching. Tnis is especially important for developing countries, where there is still a
o f textbooks, qualified teachers apd well-equipped schools.

shortage Next

year, Igdia wiil begin to use a satellite, above the equator, for transmitting agricultural and technical information to Inc?ian villages. The programs will be conpiled by an experimental station
in Akhnabsd and gradually, their content will be extended.

In

Brazil they are planning to organize educational television transmissions for 100,000 schools. Holography car. be mcst promising. Imagine how amazing it will

be to see pictures o f planets transmitted from space onto television screens. This story could be continued, since all this is not fantasy but could happen tomorrow or the day after. Much o f what has been

said is possible and was discussed scientifically at the congress in Vienna. The ma'? theme dealt with prolonged flights o f orbital

462

stations and ccientific and technical problems linked with producing them, in particular, developing space "shuttles". In bioastronautics there
b.-qs discussion

on the practical use

in medicine oi methods and instruments developed for space. At the

symposium on nuclear energy for space various methods for converting nuclear energy into electrical energy directly on board the spacecraft were discussed

...

It is believed that the next astronautical congress in Baku will provide much new information for this young but rapidly developing science.

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REFERENCES

1.
2.

Ginsberg, V. L., "Nauka i zhizn"', No. 2 , 1971.

"Priroda", No. 4 , 69 ( 1 9 7 2 ) .

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