1.

Introduction
My group will do a project based on night lamp.We choose to do night

lamp as it has a lot of advantages to us.We can use night lamp during night time.It give out a very dim but soothing light.It will make us asleep faster.Thus,we can sleep comfortable all night long.The night lamp can turn on and off by itself.It will automatically turn on when there is no light and automatically turn off when there is light.Therefore,it is very convenient for us because we do not need to turn on and off by ourself.The reason why the night lamp can turn on and off by itself because it is using the light operated switch.

Light -Operated Switch Working Principle

An example of Light -Operated Switch

During day time when sunlight falls on LDR, the resistance of LDR decreases. The decrement of resistance causes more potential across VR1 and very less potential across LDR. The potential across LDR is directly fed to the base of transistor TR1 (shown in circuit). Because of the low potential difference across TR1's base and emitter,

the transistor TR1 goes into cutoff, and restricts any flow of current from collector to emitter. This non availability of sufficient current causes the relay to get de-magnetized and switches off any device attached to it (bulb in this case). Similarly when sunlight is not present (i.e. at night), the resistance of LDR increases and hence the potential across LDR also increases. The increased potential causes transistor to move from cutoff to saturation, allowing maximum current to pass from collector to emitter. The increased current turns the relay ON and also the bulb attached to it.

1.1

Basic Electronic Components

What is Electronic Components

Picture showing various Electronic Components

An electronic component is a basic electronic element usually packaged in a discrete form with two or more connecting leads or metallic pads. Components are intended to be connected together, usually by soldering to a printed circuit board, to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged singly (resistor, capacitor, transistor, diode etc.) or in more or less complex groups as integrated circuits (operational amplifier, resistor array, logic gate etc.)

Components

Very often electronic components are mechanically stabilized, improved in insulation properties and protected from environmental influence by being enclosed in synthetic resin.

Components may be Passive or Active:

Passive components are those that do not have gain or directionality.

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In the Electrical industry they are called Electrical elements or electrical components Active components are those that have gain or directionality, in contrast to passive components, which have neither. They include semiconductor devices and vacuum tubes (valves).

Basic Electronic Component

Wires

WIRES: Used for connecting BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS mainly resistances, capacitors and inductors.

Resistances and Capacitors

Resistance: Its value is measured in ohms ( )

COLOUR CODE:

Resistances

which

have

large values:-

most of

them

have four

bands

Example: A resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands. So its value is 270000 = 270 k . On circuit diagrams this is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.

o o o o

The first band gives the first digit The second band gives the second digit The third band indicates the number of zeros The fourth band is used to determine the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may be ignored for almost all circuits.

Small Resistances: The standard colour code cannot show values less than 10 . To show values less than 10 two special colours are used for the third band: The first and second bands represent the digits as normal. For example: red, violet, gold bands represent 27 0.1 = 2.7 and green, blue, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56

o o

Gold which means 0.1 and Silver which means 0.01.

Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code): The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code. It is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of 10% will have a value within 10% of 390, between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390). A special colour code is used for the fourth band: silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, brown 1%. If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is by default 20%. (Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor values are rarely required.)

CAPACITORS

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in 'timing' circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

Polarized Capacitors: They must be connected the correct way round, at least one of their leads will be marked '+' or '-'.They are not damaged by heat when soldering.

Un-polarized Capacitors: No such precaution is needed. They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V.

Variable Capacitors: They are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and 500pF (100pF = 0.0001F).

METERS

y y y

A voltmeter is used to measure voltage. An ammeter is used to measure current. A galvanometer is a device used to detect whether current is flowing in a circuit or not.

An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance. Most multimeters have an ohmmeter setting.

An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of electrical signals and it can be used to measure their voltage and time period.

POWER SUPPLIES

y y

Cells & batteries are used. Supply is provided directly from power line. It can be Alternative Current (AC) or Direct Current(DC).

Fuse: A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the current flowing through it exceeds a specified value.

Ground: A connection to earth. For electronic circuits this is the 0V (zero volt) of the power supply (but for mains electricity and some radio circuits it means 'earthing').

Transformer: Two coils of wire linked by an iron core. Transformers are used to step up (increase) and step down (decrease) AC voltages. Energy is transferred between the coils by the magnetic field in the core. There is no electrical connection present between the coils.

The circuit symbols are shown below.

DIODES

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a 'valve' and early diodes were actually called valves.

Forward Voltage Drop: Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode like a person opening a door with a spring attached to it. This means that there is a small voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant and is independent of the value of the the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep characteristic (current-voltage graph).

Reverse Voltage: When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few As or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a maximum reverse

voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.

Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small currents of 100mA or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In addition there are LEDs and Zener diodes.

Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed to operate in 'breakdown' region in a reliable and non-destructive way so that they can be used in reverse state to maintain a fixed voltage across their terminals. A resistor is attached in series with zener diode to limit the current.

TRANSISTORS

Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing voltage, hence the transistor is used to amplify voltage.

A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (if it is always partly on i.e. some current is passing through it).

The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.

Types: There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E). These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels.

Additional Information-> A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain. In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are usually referred to as FETs.

Connecting Transistors: they have three leads which must be connected the correct way round. Please take care of this because a wrongly connected transistor may be damaged instantly when you switch it on.

OTHER CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

A transducer is a device which converts a signal from one form to another.

An LDR is an input transducer (sensor) which converts brightness/intensity (light) to resistance. It is made from cadmium sulphide (CdS) and the resistance decreases as the brightness of light falling on the LDR increases.

A thermistor is an input transducer (sensor) which converts temperature (heat) to resistance. Almost all thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) which means their resistance decreases as their temperature increases. It is possible to make thermistors with a positive temperature coefficient (resistance increases as temperature increases) but these are rarely used. Always assume NTC if no information is given.

Buzzers:These devices are output transducers converting electrical energy to sound. They contain an internal oscillator to produce the sound which is set at about 400Hz for buzzers and about 3kHz for beepers.

1.2

BASIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

Circuit A circuit is a path for electrons to flow through. The path is from a power sources negative terminal, through the various components and on to the positive terminal. Think of it as a circle. The paths may split off here and there but they always for a line from the negative to positive.

NOTE: Negatively charged electrons in a conductor are attracted to the positive side of the power source.

Conductor

A conductor is a material (usually a metal such as copper) that allows electrical current to pass easily through. The current is made up of electrons. This is opposed to an insulator which prevents the flow of electricity through it.

Simple Circuit If we break a circuit down to it's elementary blocks we get: 1) A Power Source -- eg: battery 2) A Path -- eg: a wire 3) A Load -- eg: a lamp 4) A Control -- eg: switch (Optional) 5) An indicator -- eg: Meter (Optional

Series Circuit

A series circuit is one with all the loads in a row. Like links in a chain. There is only ONE path for the electricity to flow. If this circuit was a string of light bulbs, and one blew out, the remaining bulbs would turn off. There is specific properties to this circuit that will be described in another section.

NOTE: The squiggly lines in the diagram are the symbol for Resistors. The parallel lines are the symbol for a battery.

Parallel Circuit

A parallel circuit is one that has two or more paths for the electricity to flow. In other words, the loads are parallel to each other. If the loads in this circuit were light bulbs and one blew out there is still current flowing to the others as they are still in a direct path from the negative to positive terminals of the battery. There are also specific properties a parallel this circuit that will be described in another section.

Combination Circuit

A combination circuit is one that has a "combination" of series and parallel paths for the electricity to flow. Its properties are a synthesis of the two. In this example, the parallel section of the circuit is like a sub-circuit and actually is part of an over-all series circuit.

1.3

Analog Circuit

Analog circuit is a electronic circuit that operates with currents and voltages that vary continuously with time and have no abrupt transitions between levels. Generally speaking, analog circuits are contrasted with digital circuits, which function as though currents or voltages exist only at one of a set of discrete levels, all transitions between levels being ignored. Since most physical quantities, e.g., velocity and temperature, vary continuously, as does audio, an analog circuit provides the best means of representing them. However, digital circuits are often preferred because of the ease with which their outputs can be manipulated by computers, and because digital signals are more robust and less subject to transmission errors. There are special analog-to-digital and digital-toanalog circuits to convert from one type of signal to the other.

Analogue Electronics

Analogue electronics (or analog in American English) are those electronic systems with a continuously variable signal. In contrast, in digital electronics signals usually take only two different levels. The term "analogue" describes the proportional relationship between a signal and a voltage or current that represented the signal.

Analogue Signal

An analogue signal uses some attribute of the medium to convey the signal's information. For example, an aneroid barometer uses angular position as the signal to convey pressure information. Electrical signals may represent information by changing their voltage, current, frequency, or total charge. Information is converted from some other physical form ( such as sound, light, temperature, pressure, position) to an electrical signal by a transducer.

The signals take any value from a given range, and each unique signal value represents different information. Any change in the signal is meaningful, and each level of the signal represents a different level of the phenomenon that it represents. For example, suppose the signal is being used to represent temperature, with one volt representing one degree Celsius. In such a system 10 volts would represent 10 degrees, and 10.1 volts would represent 10.1 degrees.

Another method of conveying an analogue signal is to use modulation. In this, some base carrier signal has one of its properties altered: amplitude modulation (AM) involves altering the amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage waveform by the source information, frequency modulation (FM) changes the frequency. Other techniques, such as changing the phase of the carrier signal are also used. In an analogue sound recording, the variation in pressure of a sound striking a microphone creates a corresponding variation in the current passing through it or voltage across it. An increase in the volume of the sound causes the fluctuation of the current or voltage to increase proportionally while keeping the same waveform or shape. Mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic and other systems may also use analogue signals.

Inherent noise

Analogue systems invariably include noise; that is, random disturbances or variations, some caused by the random thermal vibrations of atomic particles. Since all variations of an analogue signal are significant, any disturbance is equivalent to a change in the original signal and so appears as noise. As the signal is copied and re-copied, or transmitted over long distances, these random variations become more significant and lead to signal degradation. Other sources of noise may come from external electrical signals, or poorly designed

components. These disturbances are reduced by shielding, and using low-noise amplifiers.

Analogue vs. digital electronics

Since the information is encoded differently in analogue and digital electronics, the way they process a signal is consequently different. All operations that can be performed on an analogue signal such as amplification, filtering, limiting, and others, can also be duplicated in the digital domain.

The first electronic devices invented and mass produced were analogue. The use of microelectronics has reduced the cost of digital techniques and now make digital methods feasible and cost-effective.

The main differences between analogue and digital electronics are listed below:

Noise Because of the way information is encoded in analogue circuits, they are much more susceptible to noise than digital circuits, since a small change in the signal can represent a significant change in the information present in the signal and can cause the information present to be lost. Since digital signals take on one of only two different values, a disturbance would have to be about one-half

the magnitude of the digital signal to cause an error; this property of digital circuits can be exploited to make signal processing noise-resistant. In digital electronics, because the information is quantized, as long as the signal stays inside a range of values, it represents the same information. Digital circuits use this principle to regenerate the signal at each logic gate, lessening or removing noise.

Precision

A number of factors affect how precise a signal is, mainly the noise present in the original signal and the noise added by processing. See signal-tonoise ratio. Fundamental physical limits such as the shot noise in components limits the resolution of analogue signals. In digital electronics additional precision is obtained by using additional digits to represent the signal; the practical limit in the number of digits is determined by the performance of the analogue to digital converters, since digital operations can usually be performed without loss of precision.

Design difficulty

Digital systems require less skill and therefore are much easier to design than comparable analogue circuits. This is one of the main reasons why digital

systems are more common than analog. An analogue circuit must be designed by hand, and the process is much less automated than for digital systems.

1.4

Discrete Circuit

In digital electronic circuits, electric signals take on discrete values, which are not dependent upon time, to represent logical and numeric values. These values represent the information that is being processed.

The transistor is one of the primary components used in discrete circuits, and combinations of these can be used to create logic gates. These logic gates may then be used in combination to create a desired output from an input.

Definition Of Discrete Component

Discrete and Integrated Discrete devices and integrated circuits (chips) are used together in almost every electronic product.

An elementary electronic device constructed as a single unit. Before the advent of integrated circuits (chips), all transistors, resistors, capacitors and diodes were discrete. Discrete components are widely used in amplifiers and other electronic products that use large amounts of current. On a circuit board, they are intermingled with the chips, and there is hardly any electronic product that does not have at least one or two discrete resistors or capacitors. See also discrete manufacturing.