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Brand identity documentation: a cross-national examination of identity standards manuals

Begona Jorda-Albinana and Olga Ampuero-Canellas
Centro de Investigacion en Tecnologas Gracas, Universidad Politecnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain

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Received February 2008 Revised June 2008, August 2008 Accepted September 2008

Natalia Vila
Department of Marketing, Faculty of Economics, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain, and

Jose Ignacio Rojas-Sola

Department of Graphic Engineering, Design and Projects, University of Jaen, Jaen, Spain
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to identify the key features of an identity standards manual and assess the differences in the rules used for applying the brand to both low- and high-context cultures, companies selling consumer goods and those selling services, and multinational and local companies. Design/methodology/approach The methodology is based on the analysis of 341 identity standards manuals and on the analysis of three key features found in the manuals: contents, normative tone, and development. Findings The results divide the contents of the manual into two blocks: core and peripheral; and show that there are differences between the manuals of high- and low-context cultures, companies selling consumer goods and those selling services, and multinational and local companies. Research limitations/implications Type I errors could have been introduced and the conclusions must be regarded as tentative. Practical implications The ndings show that applying the brand at an international level requires a strategy of adaptation which takes into account the particular nature of each culture. Originality/value This paper contributes to the debate on standardization/adaptation of the signs of visual identity (name, logo, and color) in global marketing, by studying the rules used in applying the brand and discussion of the documents which contain them. Keywords Brands, International marketing, National cultures Paper type Research paper

International Marketing Review Vol. 26 No. 2, 2009 pp. 172-197 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0265-1335 DOI 10.1108/02651330910950411

Introduction Companies that focus on developing an effective image program have control over a key competitive weapon (Gray and Smeltzer, 1987), and managers mindful of their companys image cannot afford to ignore the corporate identity of the organization (van Rekom, 1997). One of the more readily identiable features of corporate identity is
The authors would like to thank the R&D&I Linguistic Assistance Ofce, Universidad Politecnica de Valencia (Spain), for translating this paper.

the visual component that is specied in the identity standards manual (van den Bosch et al., 2004). This document is a guide to managing the application of the corporate identity visual system (Margulies, 1977) and is a fundamental tool for any company wishing to apply its brand in a consistent way (Margulies, 1977; Melewar et al., 2005; Olins, 1991; Regouby, 1989). Despite the importance of this document, few studies have examined its contents from a marketing point of view. Most of the information comes from the world of graphic design, and the studies are based more on the experience of professionals than on empirical research (Bos et al., 1991; Carter, 1998; Oejo, 1999; Whitbread, 2001). Furthermore, most of the studies comparing different countries, sectors or companies have concentrated mainly on the medium in which the brand is applied: advertising in general (Pratt, 1993; van Raaij, 1997), television, print media (Ahmed, 2000; Al-Olayan and Karande, 2000) and the internet (Okazaki, 2005; Vila, 2004). Corporate identity, visual identity and the ways to apply them consistently have been studied to a lesser extent (Jun and Lee, 2007; Madden et al., 2000; Melewar and Wooldridge, 2001; van den Bosch et al., 2006a, b). Against this background and in an attempt to add something new to the well-established debate on standardization/adaptation of international marketing (Ryans et al., 2003; Whitelock and Fastoso, 2007; Wong and Merrilees, 2007), this study analyses 341 identity standards manuals from all over the world and from different economic sectors, with four main aims to: (1) identify the key features of an identity standards manual so as to better understand the rules for applying the brand; (2) assess the differences in the rules used for applying the brand to both low- and high-context cultures; (3) assess the differences in the rules for applying the brand to both companies selling consumer goods and those selling services; and (4) assess the differences in the rules for applying the brand to both multinational and local companies. The analysis of these differences is based on three key features found in the manuals: contents of the manual, normative tone and development of the manual. The results will be a guide for any company interested in designing an identity standards manual and especially for those operating in different countries and cultures. We begin with an explanation of the theoretical framework of the rules for applying the brand and identity standards manuals and how they are related to different cultures, types of products and geographical expansion of the company. Then, we explain the research method, how the data were obtained and the variables used to measure the proposed concepts. We provide the results of the analysis and comment on them in the discussion section. Finally, we summarize the main conclusions, the managerial implications and the limitations of the research. Theoretical background Corporate visual identity and international marketing Corporate visual identity can be dened as the way an organization uses logotypes, typography styles, names and architecture to communicate its corporate philosophy and personality (Melewar et al., 2005). When a company plans to expand to other

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countries or cultures, it also needs to determine how to transmit its brand without losing its identity; thus, the question whether to adapt or standardize the brand is more common in the area of international branding (Whitelock and Fastoso, 2007). The problem of whether to adapt the brand name has been the subject of numerous studies (Whitelock and Fastoso, 2007), but less attention has been paid to studying visual identity in the international sphere. This explains why Whitelock and Fastosos (2007) study recommends that future research should concentrate on aspects such as standardizing visual signs (e.g. colors and logotypes). However, a brand is more than a name and a set of graphic signs; it also comprises a series of rules or a system that indicates how it should be applied (Margulies, 1977; Melewar and Saunders, 1998; Rogers, 1997; Villafane, 1999). Such a corporate visual identity system encourages positive associations with the company (Rogers, 1997), strengthens brand image (Kohli et al., 2002), unies the messages and positions the company as an entity (Olins, 1991), thus reducing the risk of image fragmentation (Chajet, 1989). In the eld of international marketing, previous ndings need to be extended through a study of the cultural differences that exist when rules for applying the brand are established. If branding has enormous potential for international marketing (Wong and Merrilees, 2007), application of this branding should have a fundamental place within international marketing theory. Identity standards manual: history, concept and dimensions As early as 1850, several British railway companies attempted to standardize the design of stations, trains and certain graphic designs (Hefting, 1991). However, the German company AEG and Olivetti in Italy are usually cited as the pioneers in identity design because, at the beginning of the twentieth century, they formally entrusted a designer with the task of devising a coherent design to use for their buildings, ller-Brockmann, 1998). Later, the Ulm advertising, products and sales outlets (Mu Design School, founded in Germany in 1951, dened the methodology needed to give identity design greater depth in discipline and formality (Satue, 1992). More recently, van den Bosch et al. (2004) identied 11 measures an organization can take to attain a consistent visual identity. One of them is the visual identity standards manual or corporate identity manual, which provides a set of rules on how to use graphics correctly and consistently in all marketing communication (Margulies, 1977; Melewar et al., 2005; Regouby, 1989; Rogers, 1997; Villafane, 1999). Olins (1991) states that all companies should have one of these manuals because it is impossible to implement and maintain the visual aspect of an identity program without one. In their proposals for the contents of an identity standards manual, Costa (1989), Regouby (1989), Bos et al. (1991), Hernandez Mogollon (1997), Carter (1998), Villafane (1999) and Sanz de la Tajada (2000) all establish a similar structure that comprises ve dimensions: (1) introduction, which contains the objectives of the visual identity system, instructions for use and the basic terminology that will be used in the manual; (2) basic elements of visual identity, including logo, symbol, brand, corporate colors and typefaces; (3) rules for using the brand, which basically refer to the layout and size of the items, the color and the decorative items;

(4) applications of the brand to various pieces, such as stationery, advertising, publications, uniforms, vehicles and signage; and (5) technical complements, which contain the color swatches and art les needed to reproduce the visual identity. The manuals vary in form, but almost all include these ve dimensions. The main differences are in the contents referring to how the dimensions are applied because there is a wide variation depending on the business activity and the size of the e, company (Gutierrez Gonzalez, 2006; Villafan 1999; Whitbread, 2001). In this sense, a distinction can be made between core dimensions, which are present in the majority of corporate manuals, and peripheral dimensions, which are present only in some manuals. Thus, we postulate the following hypotheses: H1a. There are ve dimensions that dene the contents of an identity standards manual. H1b. The dimensions of an identity standards manual can be divided into core and peripheral dimensions. Gutierrez Gonzalez (2006) divides the identity standards manuals into two types simple and complex according to how far they are developed. The simple manual contains only basic rules for using the brand and is relevant to companies whose brands have a limited application. The complex manual attempts to address all the possible circumstances in which a brand can be used and is relevant to big companies with many alternatives for implementing the visual identity and the potential for many people to use the brand. The complex manual tends to have more pages and sections than the simple manual. With regard to the tone used in the writing of the rules, the manual should be both strict and exible (Bos et al., 1991; Costa, 1989; Gutierrez Gonzalez, 2006), bearing in mind that excessive rigidity can limit creativity whereas excessive exibility can lead to a distorted identity. Depending on the type of company, the level of detail used in writing the rules can range from a meticulous description to a casual, broad-brush description (Whitbread, 2001). Rules for applying the brand: differences between high- and low-context cultures Hall (1976) concentrates on the type of communication that is predominant in each culture and distinguishes between high-context cultures, in which high-context communication is predominant (i.e. most of the information transmitted is found in the physical or internalised context of the person, in which non-verbal communication and silences play an important role), and low-context cultures, in which low-context communication is predominant (i.e. most of the information conveyed is included in the explicit code, and non-verbal communication is unimportant). Direct, explicit messages are appropriate to low-context cultures, whereas implicit, indirect and ambiguous messages are appropriate to high-context cultures (Gudykunst et al., 1996). In addition, in low-context communication, the receiver knows very little and must be told practically everything, whereas in high-context communication, the receiver is already contextualised and does not require preliminaries or introductions (Hall and Hall, 1990). High-context cultures are more common in the East than in the West and in countries that have a strong sense of tradition and history and change little over time.

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In contrast, low-context cultures change drastically from one generation to another. Furthermore, social behavior in high-context cultures is based more on social rules and codes than on explicit laws, whereas low-context cultures tend to be more law oriented (Al-Olayan and Karande, 2000). Likewise, Wurtz (2006) points out that low-context cultures prefer fast messages, which are easily decoded and interpreted (headlines, television ads, and prose), whereas high-context cultures prefer slow messages, which require more effort to be interpreted and decoded (books, television documentaries, and poetry). Thus, by relating the features of low- and high-context communications to the contents, normative tone and development of the identity standards manuals, we can establish the following hypotheses: H2a. Since low-context communication is reinforced by preliminaries to contextualise the receiver, the presentation section will have a higher prole in manuals of low-context cultures than in manuals of high-context cultures. H2b. Since high-context communication gives more importance to non-verbal elements whereas low-context communication gives more importance to textual elements, the graphic aspects of the brand (symbol and logotype) will have a greater presence in manuals of high-context cultures whereas the textual aspect of the brand (name) will have a greater presence in manuals of low-context cultures. H2c. Since ambiguous, indirect, and elaborate messages are characteristic of high-context communication, rules for use of the brand referring to decorative elements (e.g. secondary typefaces, secondary colors, corporate tiled pattern, and supergraphic) will have a higher prole in manuals of high-context cultures than in manuals of low-context cultures. H2d. Since low-context cultures tend to be more legalistic and based on written rules, the manuals of low-context cultures will include more rules and consequently will have a more rigid tone than manuals of high-context cultures. H2e. Because of their preference for direct language and fast messages, low-context cultures will have less-developed manuals, whereas because of their preference for indirect, elaborate language, and slow messages, high-context cultures will have more complex manuals. Rules for applying the brand: differences between companies offering consumer goods and companies offering services From a design perspective, there seems to be agreement that the contents of manuals vary in accordance with the business activity or type of problems faced by the company and that the greatest differences are found in the dimension called applications of brand (Bos et al., 1991; Costa, 1989; Gutierrez Gonzalez, 2006; Villafane, 1999). Thus, we can hypothesize the following: H3a. The greatest difference in contents between the manuals of tangible goods companies and service companies can be found in the dimension applications of brand. van den Bosch et al. (2006b) emphasize that open and dynamic organizations seem to use their corporate visual identity in a more consistent way than those of a closed or

static nature. If, as van den Bosch et al. (2006a) claim, service companies are more open and dynamic than companies with tangible products, they will try to have a more consistent visual identity and, consequently, to use more rigid or rule-based manuals to help them attain this. Similarly, Wilson (1997) points out that quality and effectiveness in delivering a service vary signicantly from one branch ofce to another and at different moments in time. This inconsistency creates the need for more rigid rules to help standardize the service and convey one single image. This rigidity can be extrapolated to the identity standards manual. Thus, we can hypothesize the following: H3b. Service providers manuals will have a more rigid normative tone than tangible goods companies manuals. In relation to the corporate identity of a service, Wilson (1997) also shows that designing and controlling corporate behavior is much more difcult and complex than managing visual identity. A similar idea is maintained by van den Bosch et al. (2006a); they indicate that manufacturing companies rely more on the tools for managing corporate visual identity than service companies do. Consequently, we can hypothesize the following: H3c. Product-based companies will tend to have more complex manuals, whereas service providers will tend to use simple manuals. Rules for applying the brand: differences between multinational and local companies Several studies have analysed the need to adapt or standardize the brand and/or visual identity in an international context (Jun and Lee, 2007; Melewar and Saunders, 1998; Schmitt, 1995). Unlike other aspects of marketing communication, the nature of visual identity tends towards centralization, and its standardization is accepted by local managers and produces prots by having a favorable impact on consumers and sales, enhancing advertising awareness, and enhancing the success of executive recruitment, for example Melewar and Saunders (1998). Melewar and Saunders (2000) nd a positive relationship between the degree of standardization of the visual identity of multinational companies and the perceived effectiveness of the different applications of the brand used by the organization. In terms of design, Villafane (1999) points out that the applications of the brand included in the manual vary with the size of the company. Likewise, Melewar and Karaosmanoglu (2006) nd that large multinational companies identify architecture and location as an important aspect of visual corporate identity. Accordingly, we posit the following hypothesis: H4a. The contents of the identity standards manuals of multinational companies will vary from those of local companies in the dimension applications of brand and, in particular, in the sections on architecture and signage. For a global brand, it is imperative that the central organization does not lose strategic control by allowing local or regional branches to have too much autonomy (Roellig, 2001). This is even more important in todays context, in which practically all employees have easy access to digital tools to manage or design communications on their own (Keeley, 2001). Consequently, we offer the following hypothesis:

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H4b. The identity standards manuals of multinational companies will have a more rigid normative tone than those of local companies. Whitbread (2001) and Gutierrez Gonzalez (2006) state that the development of the manual depends on the number of possible users who will apply the identity. Considering that the number of people involved in the use of the visual identity is greater in a multinational company, the manuals of these companies will be more complex. This idea is corroborated by Oejo (1999), who states that the manual of local small and medium-sized enterprises may be a few pages in length, whereas some multinational companies may need three volumes and editions in different scripts (e.g. Latin, Arabic, and Chinese): H4c. The identity standards manuals of multinational companies will tend to be more complex than those of local companies. Methodology Sample The methodology is based on the analysis of identity standards manuals. To obtain the manuals, we consulted three web pages that select, classify and offer manuals to graphic designers (i.e. www.ci-portal.de, www.identityworks.com and www. brandsoftheworld.com). The manuals available are representative of manuals that are currently being designed for companies for two reasons: (1) designers include their latest work completed for a company on these sites; and (2) the manuals are used as models for designing other manuals, according to Costa (1989). From the manuals available on these web pages, we selected 341 manuals that contained the three basic features common to all manuals (Whitbread, 2001): identiers, instructions on what to do and instructions on what not to do. Table I includes a more detailed description of the sample. Coding procedure: content analysis This paper focuses on content analysis because little empirical research has been done regarding mission statement content (Pearce and David, 1987; Peyrette and David, 2006). Furthermore, the suitability of using content analysis in cross-cultural studies is noted in recent studies by Wang and Chan (2001), Lin and Jeffres (2001), Jo and Jung (2005) and Heinonen and Strandvik (2005). To provide greater guarantees as to the reliability of the results and before statistical analysis, two specially trained judges (doctoral students) evaluated each manual independently. Following Jo and Jungs (2005) recommendations, the judges coded 10 percent of the manuals and assessed whether the properties studied existed. Discrepancies were solved by discussion between the judges, in line with Holstis (1969) procedure. The statistical tool used to demonstrate that agreement between the two judges was Cohens (1960) k. If there is perfect agreement, the statistical value will be 100 percent; otherwise, it will be zero. The result of k-values for the majority of the variables was above 0.8. In the rare cases in which k-values were below 0.7, the coding procedure was repeated so as to reach higher values.

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No. Sector Education Public Technology Foundations/non-governmental organizations Telecommunications Industry Transport Tourism Health Culture B2B Real estate Energy Finances Food and agriculture Sports Politics Others Total Culture Very high-context High-context Low-context Very low-context Total No. of pages Up to 10 From 11 to 30 From 31 to 50 From 51 to 100 More than 100 Total 77 48 25 23 21 20 19 18 17 14 10 9 8 6 5 5 4 12 341 12 119 122 88 341 66 143 61 42 29 341

% 22.58 14.08 7.33 6.74 6.16 5.87 5.57 5.28 4.99 4.11 2.93 2.64 2.35 1.76 1.47 1.47 1.17 3.52 100 3.52 34.90 35.78 25.81 100 19.35 41.94 17.89 12.32 8.50 100

No. of products 16 6 19 5 6 1 2 7 5 4 71

No. of services 77 48 9 23 15 1 14 18 11 13 10 7 1 6 5 4 8 270

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Table I. Features of the manuals analyzed

Corporate information obtained: variables of measurement At the beginning of the content analysis of the manuals, we compiled a list of the sections included in these documents according to three criteria: (1) the proposals of the existing literature; (2) the contents of the manuals of the top ten companies, following Jo and Jungs (2005) recommendations; and (3) the results of a survey sent to 106 design studios that had worked in the area of visual identity, had proven experience in the graphic design sector and had received some kind of recognition for their work. In total, 51 graphic designers answered the survey. The survey consisted of a le with 46 contents, and the interviewees needed to signal the contents that in their opinion were part of an identity standards manual. Table II shows the results of this survey in more detail.

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Dimensions 1. Introduction

Variables Presentation Brand strategy Contents User guide Glossary History/values Name Logo Symbol Brand Corporate colors Corporate typefaces Typographic standards Spatial versions Proportions Exclusion zone Minimum size Construction grid Chromatic versions Monochromatic versions Third dimension Blind emboss Color backgrounds Print variations Secondary typefaces Secondary colors Corporate tiled pattern Supergraphic Incorrrect applications Formats Basic grid Brand placement Stationery Publications Advertising Promotional tems Events Packaging labels Point of sale Architecture Signage Vehicles Uniforms Web site usage Color swatches Art les

Percentage of citation 90.20 7.84 100.00 58.82 74.51 68.63 62.75 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 92.16 7.84 92.16 90.20 100.00 100.00 72.55 94.12 100.00 7.84 3.92 52.94 76.47 98.04 98.04 84.31 76.47 90.20 5.88 7.84 13.73 100.00 86.27 90.20 88.24 76.47 74.51 76.47 56.86 92.16 90.20 82.35 88.24 74.51 100.00 (excluded)

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2. Basic elements of visual identity

3. Rules for using the brand

(excluded)

(excluded) (excluded)

(excluded) (excluded) (excluded)

4. Applications of brand

Table II. Results of the survey of 51 graphic designers

5. Technical complements

Subsequently, we removed seven sections that obtained a frequency lower than 20 percent (brand strategy, typographic standards, third dimension, blind emboss, formats, basic grid, and brand placement). In the opinion of the designers surveyed, the manual should not include these items because they do not strictly correspond to the

manuals contents or are already included in other sections. We used the remaining 39 sections to make a template for analysing the manuals contents. To study the normative tone of the manuals, we accounted for the number of rules present in the advertising section. According to Reddy (2002), too many rules in this section restrict creativity and are a clear indicator of a manual with a rigid tone. Conversely, fewer rules open up the possibilities for the advertiser and indicate a exible tone. For each manual, the amount of rules appearing in this advertising section were counted, with the idea that if the number is high, the normative tone will be rigid, and if it is low, the normative tone will be exible. To measure the level of development of the manuals, in line with the indications of the literature (Gutierrez Gonzalez, 2006), we counted the pages and sections in each manual. Although the number of pages is a clear indicator of the length of the manual, certain design decisions can increase the number of pages without having an effect on the information contained (e.g. wide margins, larger graphics or typefaces, blank pages separating the sections). Thus, counting the sections provides a better idea of the degree to which the manual is developed. To categorise the culture to which each manual belongs, we used the classication proposed by Hall and Hall (1990). This classication identies four different contexts: (1) very high-context cultures (e.g. Japan, China, and Arab countries); (2) high-context cultures (e.g. Greece, Spain, Italy, England, and France); (3) low-context cultures (e.g. the USA and Canada); and (4) very low-context cultures (e.g. Scandinavian and German-speaking countries). To measure the concept of product vs service, we classied the companies according to the procedure used by van den Bosch et al. (2006a), which distinguishes between service providers and manufacturing companies dedicated to delivering tangible products and services related to those products. To measure the concept of multinational vs local, we consulted the web page of each company and then used a dichotomic variable to indicate its local or multinational character. Statistical treatment: techniques applied In the content analysis, we applied a binary code procedure to estimate the presence of each of the 39 sections established. To check H1 and show that various dimensions dene the contents of an identity standards manual, we used the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test. The differences with respect to the normal function (theoretical) indicate that the variables measured can be divided hierarchically into two large groups: variables with signicant presence in fewer than 50 percent of the manuals analysed and variables that are signicantly present in more than 50 percent of the manuals analysed. The cluster analysis method was also used in hierarchical mode to distribute the 39 variables studied into dimensions. To check H2-H4 and demonstrate the existence of signicant differences among the manuals according to the type of culture, type of product and type of company, we used x 2 analysis and the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance test, following the indications of Jo and Jung (2005) and Peyrette and David (2006).

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Results Content analysis of the identity standards manuals The relevance of each of the 39 sections analysed is ascertained by how often they appear in the manuals, and their importance is assessed using quartiles. The K-S test identies the variables that appear signicantly in more than half the manuals studied. As Table III shows, of the 39 variables, 13 are prominent in more than 50 percent of the manuals. These 13 variables belong to four of the ve dimensions identied by the literature: (1) introduction (two out of a total of four variables); (2) basic elements of visual identity (three out of a total of seven variables); (3) rules for using the brand (seven out of a total of 14 variables); and (4) applications of brand (one out of a total of 12 variables). In view of these results, dimensions 1-3 can be considered core contents of an identity standards manual and dimensions 4 and 5 (technical complements) can be considered peripheral contents. Dimension 4 is included in the second group because only one of its 12 variables is present in more than 50 percent of the manuals. Thus, H1a and H1b are accepted. When comparing these results with the designers answers (Table II), we show that the sections appearing most in the manuals are those mentioned most by the designers, and the sections appearing least are also those mentioned least by the designers. However, the degree of importance given is different; for example, 92.16 percent of designers agree that the corporate typefaces section is important, but only 73.2 percent of the manuals include it. This may be because the designers are speaking about the sections in general whereas the manual refers to specic cases that is, a specic brand or company that differs in certain aspects from the general norm. Next, following Ward cluster analysis results, we can group the variables analysed into two groups according to the following three reasons: (1) the solution explains a large intra-group variance (d 2 # 65 percent), in which both groups differed greatly from each other; (2) the addition of a third group explains less than 5 percent of the additional variance (Dd # 5 percent) (Flavian and Polo, 1998; Lewis and Thomas, 1990); and (3) when the dendogram is analysed, two groups of variables appear rapidly (Reger and Huff, 1993). Thus, as Table IV shows, the natural solution is two groups. Study of the variables included in Cluster 1 (Table V) shows that they coincide with those present in more than 50 percent of the identity standards manuals analysed (the only exception is the advertising variable). In contrast, the variables that appear less frequently in the manuals are in Cluster 2. H1b is again corroborated because the core dimensions and peripheral dimensions of an identity standards manual have been identied. Differences in the contents of identity standards manuals: high-context vs low-context cultures, tangible vs intangible products and multinational vs local rms The results of Table VI show that of the 39 sections analysed, 18 differ signicantly in the four cultures studied. The differences found were the following. For dimension 1,

Test (K-S) Low importance (variables present in , 25 percent of the manuals) a Point of sale (4) 0.9 9.8 Architecture (4) 2.3 10.0 Print variations (3) 2.9 10.0 Corporate tiled pattern (3) 3.8 10.0 Color swatches (5) 4.4 10.0 User guide (1) 4.9 10.0 Packaging labels (4) 5.6 10.0 Name (2) 6.1 9.9 Events (4) 6.7 9.9 Uniforms (4) 7.6 9.9 History/values (2) 8.6 9.9 Supergraphic (3) 8.7 9.9 Glossary (1) 9.6 9.8 Construction grid (3) 16.6 9.4 Vehicles (4) 19.2 9.2 Promotional tems (4) 19.2 9.1 Logo (2) 20.1 9.0 Web site usage(4) 22.7 8.9 Symbol (2) 23.9 8.7 Medium importance (variables present in 25-50 percent of the manuals) Signage (4) 27.7 8.4 Publications (4) 31.2 8.1 Proportions (3) 31.8 8.1 Art les (5) 34.1 7.8 Secondary colors (3) 38.0 7.4 Color backgrounds (3) 39.5 7.3 Advertising (4) 45.5 6.7 High importance (variables present in 50-60 percent of the manuals) Chromatic versions (3) 49.9 6.3 Secondary typefaces (3) 50.0 6.3 Spatial versions (3) 51.0 6.4 Minimum size (3) 56.0 6.8 Stationery (4) 63.0 7.6 Exclusion zone (3) 60.9 7.3 Incorrect application (3) 61.5 7.4 Monochromatic version (3) 68.5 8.1 Very high importance (variables present in more than 75 percent of the manuals) Contents (1) 66.2 8.4 Presentation (1) 72.3 7.8 Corporate typefaces (2) 73.2 8.5 Brand (2) 88.3 9.7 Corporate colors (2) 91.9 9.9

Sig. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

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Note: aThe number in parentheses indicates the dimension to which the variable belongs, according to the literature

Table III. Importance of the variables in designing an identity standards manual

the manuals of low-context cultures include the presentation section much more frequently than those of high-context cultures (x 2 9.921, p , 0.05) (, 70 vs 33 percent). This is in line with the literature that indicates that low-context cultures are more likely to use presentations to help situate the receiver. Thus, H2a is supported.

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For dimension 2, the manuals of high-context cultures stand out from the rest in the section history/values (x 2 4.24, p , 0.05), showing a greater sense of tradition and history typical of these cultures. Much more emphasis is also given to symbol (x 2 20.33, p , 0.01) and logo (x 2 49.76, p , 0.01), the latter of which appears more frequently in the manuals of high-context cultures. In contrast, low-context cultures tend to prefer the section name (x 2 9.71, p , 0.05). Thus, H2b is accepted because high-context cultures show a preference for the graphic features of the brand (symbol and logo) and low-context cultures show a preference for the textual features (brand name). The corporate typefaces section appears with much greater frequency in the manuals of very high-context and high-context cultures (x 2 8.993, p , 0.05), and this preference coincides with the importance for these cultures of the context surrounding the communication (e.g., typeface size, thickness, and modulation). For dimension 3, the manuals of very high-context and high-context cultures show a signicant preference for two of the rules that refer to decorative features: supergraphic (x 2 9.55, p , 0.05) and corporate tiled pattern (x 2 19.89, p , 0.01), in partial support of H2c. These manuals also give greater importance to chromatic versions (x 2 9.14, p , 0.05) and color backgrounds (x 2 10.84, p , 0.05), as well as to most of the rules that refer to the layout and size of items: proportions (x 2 26.50, p , 0.01), minimum size (x 2 26.48, p , 0.01) and construction grid (x 2 36.003, p , 0.01). In contrast, low-context cultures show a marked emphasis on the sections exclusion zone (x 2 50.66, p , 0.01) and incorrect applications (x 2 43.96, p , 0.01). The emphasis on the latter section is in line with the concise nature of low-context communication because this section tries to synthesise the main guidelines on how to use the brand. For dimension 4, manuals for very high-context cultures tend to include the uniforms (x 2 7.81, p , 0.05) section more frequently, perhaps because of the importance these cultures give people in terms of their inuence on communication. Manuals of high-context cultures give more importance to stationery (x 2 9.22, p , 0.05), and manuals of very-low-context cultures place particular emphasis on publications (x 2 11.49, p , 0.01), which reects the preference of these cultures for predominantly textual communication. As for type of product, the results show that of the 39 variables analysed, only four have signicant differences (Table VI). These belong to dimension 4: applications of brand. This is in line with H3a, which states that the manuals of consumer goods

Cluster 4 3 2 1

Intra-group variance explained (s 2 $ 60 %) 78.13 78.20 82.45 $ 60 100.00

Variance not explained (s 2 # 40 %) 21.70 21.80 17.55 # 40 0.00

Increase of intra-group variance explained by each cluster added (Ds 2 $ 5 %) 0.10 5.00 21.27 $ 5

Table IV. Intra-cluster variance explained

Note: Hierarchical cluster analysis Source: Own data and calculations

Items included in Cluster 1 by the program Cluster 1: permanent items Presentation (1) Contents (1) Brand (2) Corporate colors (2) Corporate typefaces (2) Spatial versions (3) Exclusion zone (3) Minimum size (3) Monochromatic versions (3) Incorrect applications (3) Stationery (4) Advertising (4) Cluster 2: variable items User guide (1) Glossary (1) History/values (2) Name (2) Logo (2) Symbol (2) Proportions (3) Construction grid (3) Chromatic versions (3) Color backgrounds (3) Print variations (3) Secondary typefaces (3) Secondary colors (3) Corporate tiled pattern (3) Supergraphic (3) Publications (4) Promotional items (4) Events (4) Packaging labels (4) Points of sale (4) Architecture (4) Signage (4) Vehicles (4) Uniforms (4) Web site usage (4) Color swatches (5) Art les (5) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Items included in Cluster 2 by the program

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2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Table V. Belonging conglomerate

Note: The number in parentheses indicates the dimension to which the variable belongs, according to the literature

companies and service companies are similar except in the dimension related to applying the brand. Thus, this hypothesis is supported. More specically, the manuals of companies with tangible products place more emphasis on packaging labels ( x 2 27.28, p , 0.01), architecture (x 2 4.15, p , 0.05) and vehicles

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No. of items 33.3 41.7 8.3 0.0 16.7 8.3 8.3 50.0 83.3 75.0 75.0 58.3 33.3 41.7 58.3 25.0 50.0 75.0 58.3 0.0 2.5 46.2 70.6 54.6 54.3 69.3 40.9 4.7 31.9 3.9 70.6 67.2 73.2 59.8 30.7 33.0 12.5 36.4 38.6 26.1 1.1 58.8 45.4 47.2 15.0 43.2 36.4 81.5 63.0 73.9 94.1 89.0 92.0 No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. 88.9 73.6 44.4 31.9 68.1 55.6 9.7 45.8 63.9 40.3 2.8 92.6 73.1 52.8 31.7 59.0 56.1 18.5 51.3 69.7 39.9 3.0 73.1 68.1 5.9 10.9 11.8 3.4 40.3 34.5 86.6 74.0 65.4 6.3 11.8 6.3 11.0 13.4 19.7 8.7 71.6 65.9 2.3 5.7 5.7 2.3 3.4 11.4 89.8 No No No No No No No No No sig. sig. sig. sig. sig. sig. sig. sig. sig. 66.7 61.1 6.9 12.5 12.5 6.9 12.5 19.4 88.9 73.8 67.5 4.8 8.9 7.4 5.9 22.1 25.1 88.2 No No No No No No No No No sig. sig. sig. sig. sig. sig. sig. sig. sig. 3.824 * 4.87 * No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig.

Presentation Contents User guide Glossary History/values Name Logo Symbol Brand Corporate colors Corporate typefaces Spatial versions Proportions Exclusion zone Minimum size Construction grid Chromatic versions Monocromatic versions Col. backgrounds Print variations

Table VI. Signicant differences in the contents of the manuals according to culture, product and company According to product Very low-context (%) According to culture Very high-context High-context Low-context (%) (%) (%) According to company

x 2 (df 3)

x 2 (df 1)

Goods Services Local Multinational (%) (%) x 2 (df 1) (%) (%) 74.4 68.4 4.4 8.4 7.2 5.6 21.6 24.8 88.4 93.6 76.4 54.0 30.4 58.8 54.4 18.0 48.0 70.4 41.2 2.8 66.7 60.2 7.5 12.9 11.8 7.5 16.1 21.5 88.2 87.1 64.5 43.0 35.5 66.7 60.2 12.9 55.9 63.4 36.6 3.2 (continued)

9.921 * No sig. No sig. No sig. 4.24 * 9.711 * 49.765 * * 20.335 * * No sig.

No sig.

8.993 *

No sig. 26.507 * *

50.669 * * 26.487 * *

36.003 * *

9.140 *

No sig.

10.844 *

No sig.

According to product Very low-context (%)

No. of items 41.7 33.3 0.0 33.3 75.0 41.7 16.7 41.7 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 33.3 25.0 16.7 8.3 0.0 16.7 7.6 32.8 3.1 37.0 19.3 22.8 28.4 2.3 33.0 No sig. No sig. No sig. 3.4 0.8 1.7 34.5 21.8 11.8 8.7 0.0 2.4 21.3 15.7 3.1 4.5 2.3 3.4 26.1 19.3 6.8 27.283 * * No sig. 4.156 * No sig. 4.273 * No sig. 21.8 8.4 21.3 6.3 13.6 5.7 No sig. No sig. 16.7 11.1 18.1 0.0 5.6 29.2 27.8 11.1 22.2 4.2 333 19.9 5.5 2.2 1.1 1.5 27.3 17.0 6.6 22.9 4.4 34.3 58.8 69.7 32.8 49.6 78.7 53.5 22.0 35.4 36.4 68.2 43.2 53.4 No sig. 4.063 * No sig. No sig. 61.1 52.8 23.6 44.4 61.6 65.7 33.2 45.8 No No No No sig. sig. sig. sig. 3.5 * 7.83 * * 22.0 * * No sig. No sig. No sig. 3.5 * No sig. No sig. No sig. No sig. 10.1 8.4 0.8 7.9 0.0 6.8 No sig. No sig. 1.4 8.3 4.4 8.9 No sig. No sig. 30.3 44.1 40.9 No sig. 43.1 37.3 No sig. 36.8 4.4 7.6 65.6 65.2 32.8 44.4 16.8 4.4 2.0 1.2 1.6 26.8 16.8 6.4 22.0 3.2 34.8 48.7 53.5 45.5 No sig. 47.2 50.6 No sig. 49.6 50.5 43.0 2.2 11.8 50.5 57.0 26.9 48.4 25.8 12.9 15.1 0.0 4.3 30.1 25.8 10.8 24.7 7.5 32.3

x 2 (df 3)

According to culture Very high-context High-context Low-context (%) (%) (%)

According to company

x 2 (df 1)

Goods Services Local Multinational (%) (%) x 2 (df 1) (%) (%)

Secondary typefaces No sig. Secondary colors No sig. Corporate tiled pattern 19.894 * * Supergraphic 9.556 * Incorrect applications 43.969 * * Stationery 9.222 * Publications 11.496 * * Advertising No sig. Promotional items No sig. Events No sig. Packaging labels No sig. Point of sale No sig. Architecture No sig. Signage No sig. Vehicles No sig. Uniforms 7.818 * Web site usage No sig. Color swatches No sig. Art les No sig.

Note: Signicant at: *p , 0.05; * *p , 0.01

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Table VI.

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(x 2 4.27, p , 0.05); this is because tangible products must be packed, stored and transported. In contrast, the only signicant aspect of the manuals of companies offering services is that they contain the stationery section more frequently (x 2 4.06, p , 0.05). This is because in the absence of a tangible product, companies give more importance to items that help provide a tangible aspect to the service offered (e.g. business cards, invoices, reports, and quotations). Finally, with regard to company expansion, only six of the 39 variables studied showed signicant differences (Table VI). These belong to dimensions 2 and 4. For dimension 2, the sections related to corporate colors (x 2 3.82, p , 0.05) and corporate typefaces (x 2 4.87, p , 0.05) appear far more frequently in the manuals of local companies. For dimension 4, the manuals of multinational companies place far greater emphasis on promotional items (x 2 3.5, p , 0.05), events (x 2 7.83, p , .01), packaging labels (x 2 22.0, p , 0.01) and vehicles (x 2 3.5, p , 0.05). This may reect a multinational companys attempt to cover all the possible applications of the brand so that the subsidiaries can nd relevant examples of how to apply the brand and uncontrolled applications are reduced to the minimum. This is in partial support of H4a because the results show signicant differences in the applications of the brand but no signicant differences in terms of architecture and signage. Differences in the normative tone of identity standards manuals: high-context vs low-context cultures, tangible vs intangible products and multinational vs local rms Regarding type of culture, the results (Table VII) indicate that manuals of very low-context cultures have a higher average number of rules in the advertising section than those of the other cultures, showing a more rigid, rule-based tone (t 3.64, p , 0.05). This result conrms H2d. For type of product (tangible vs intangible), in terms of averages, there are no differences in the number of rules the two types of company include in the advertising section of their manuals (t 2.43, not signicant). Therefore, H3b is rejected. For type of company, there are no signicant differences between national and multinational companies in terms of normative tone (t 0.99, not signicant). Therefore, H4b is also rejected. Differences in the development of identity standards manuals: high-context vs low-context cultures, tangible vs intangible products and multinational vs local rms Tables VIII and IX show the differences in the amount of pages and sections in the manuals according to culture, product and company. The differences in manuals of different cultures are signicant in both the number of pages (x 2 29.89, p , 0.05) and the number of sections (F 5.21, p , 0.01). Manuals of very high-context cultures have fewer pages and manuals of high-context cultures have more sections than the rest. Measuring the amount of sections is more revealing and accurate than measuring the amount of pages (Gutierrez Gonzalez, 2006; Oejo, 1999), and therefore the manuals of high-context cultures tend to be more complex, in partial support of H2e. Manuals of low-context cultures may have more pages because, unlike high-context cultures, they need to give background details and, thus, more pages. The results for type of product show that there are signicant differences between the manuals of product and service companies regarding the number of pages.

According to culture Very high-context (%) High-context (%) Low-context (%) Very low-context (%)

According to product

According to company

ANOVA test

x 2(df 3)

x 2(df 1)

Goods (%)

Services (%)

x 2 (df 1)
0.99 (df 1) no sig.

Local (%)

Multinational (%)

Norms included/ prescriptions (average) 0.41 1.01 1.03 1.76 2.43 (df 1) no sig. 1.52

3.64 * (df 1)

1.32

1.52

1.32

Note: Signicant at: *p , 0.05; * *p , 0.01

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Table VII. Signicant differences in the normative tone according to culture, product and company

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No. of pages 52.1 20.2 10.9 5.9 2.5 8.4 100 2.5 100 29.890 * (df 15) 0.012 2.3 100 0.8 6.8 10 15 341 1.6 5.7 14 1.4 7.0 4.2 100 63.9 23.0 8.2 44.3 31.8 9.1 190 81 31 66.2 12.7 8.5

Up to 25 From 26 to 50 From 51 to 75 From 75 to 100 From 100 to 125 More than 125 Total x2 Sig. 0 0

Note: Signicant at: *p , 0.05; * *p , 0.01

Table VIII. Signicant differences in the development (number of pages) of the manual according to culture, product and company According to culture High-context Low-context (%) (%) Very low-context (%) Total 53.0 23.8 9.3 4.8 1.9 4.4 100 13.199 * (df 5) 0.02 According to products Goods Services (%) (%) Total 190 81 31 14 10 15 341 According to company Multinat. Local (%) (%) Total 56.5 16.3 12.0 4.3 5.4 55.4 26.5 8.0 4.0 2.0 5.4 4.0 100 100 7.111 (df 55) 0.212 190 81 31 14 10 15 341

Very high-context (%)

91.7 8.3 0

0 100

As Table VII shows, the manuals of tangible goods companies have signicantly fewer pages than service company manuals (x 2 13.199, p , 0.05). With regard to the number of sections, there were no signicant differences between the two types of products (F 0.03, not signicant). These results refute H3c, which stated that manuals for products would be more complex than manuals for services. Finally, the results show no differences between manuals of local and multinational companies regarding the amount of pages (x 2 7.111, not signicant) and the amount of sections (F 2.19, not signicant). Thus, H4c is rejected. Discussion The results of this research show that minimum or basic contents exist in the majority of the identity standards manuals analysed. These are the core contents of the manual, which include introduction, basic elements of visual identity and rules for using the brand. The other two dimensions applications of brand and technical complements make up the peripheral contents of an identity standards manual because fewer than half the manuals studied include variables belonging to these dimensions. The distinction between core and peripheral contents becomes evident when the main function of a manual is considered, namely, to present the basic features that make up the visual identity of the company and to explain how to use them. Furthermore, the results conrm the traditional differentiation between high- and low-context cultures and suggest that the identity standards manuals reect cultural characteristics. Indeed, of the three features studied herein, the difference between cultures seems to be what best distinguishes the contents, the normative tone and the development of the manual. The results for the contents coincide with the features most valued in each culture. In high-context cultures, these include non-verbal features (logo and symbol), traditions and customs (history/values), features dening the context of the communication (typography), accessories or decorative elements (corporate tiled pattern and supergraphic) and people (uniforms); in low-context cultures, these include textual features (name and publications) and direct messages (incorrect applications).

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Average no. of sections According to culture Very high-context High-context Low-context Very low-context According to products Goods Services According to company Multinational Local Note: Signicant at: *p , 0.01 7.91 9.20 8.20 7.20 8.23 8.32 8.78 8.12

Typical deviation 3.89 3.74 3.64 3.34 4.32 3.49 4.27 3.42

F 5.214 * (df 3)

Sig. 0.002

0.030 (df 2) 2.19

0.862 0.139

Table IX. Signicant differences in the development (average number of sections) of the manual according to culture, product and company

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The aspects that each culture values most seem to inuence the rules made for applying the brand and the preparation of the identity standards manual. The differences in the normative tone can also be explained by the differences between cultures. The preference of low-context cultures for written rules results in more prescriptive manuals than those of high-context cultures. The different ways the manuals develop their contents can also be explained by the particular nature of each culture. The preference of low-context cultures for direct language and fast messages results in simpler manuals. The preference of high-context cultures for indirect language and slow messages produces more complex manuals with more sections. We also found differences in terms of contents and number of pages between manuals of companies with tangible products and those of companies providing services. As indicated in the literature, the differences found in contents refer only to applying the brand, not to the rules for use. The intangible or tangible nature of the product explains why some applications are more important than others: packaging in the case of products and stationery in the case of services. With regard to the development of the manual, that the manuals of service companies analysed have more pages and therefore are complex manuals may indicate that companies offering services pay more attention to their visual identity. Regarding the expansion of the company, the differences found between the manuals of local and multinational companies pertain to content only. Local companies place more emphasis on contents that refer to the basic elements of the brand. Conversely, multinational companies place more emphasis on contents that refer to applications of brand. This reects how concerned multinational companies are about total control of how the brand is applied; they present their subsidiaries with the greatest possible amount of specic examples so that the subsidiaries merely copy them and create nothing themselves. Nevertheless, except for these differences, the research shows that the manuals of local and multinational companies are basically the same. This may indicate that when a company decides to expand to other markets, it uses the same manual as in the local market and only extends the dimension applications of brand. Conclusions, implications and limitations The evolution in competition, the massive proliferation in media and advertising platforms and the increase in demand and in the level of information offered to the consumer all indicate that the quality of a company depends not only on its products but also on its services, actions and communications. In this context, the corporate visual identity enables the company to present its corporate identity to the public through a total visual image (Mut Camacho and Breva Franch, 2004). However, the brand in itself does not exist; rather, it is presented to the public through different vehicles (e.g. advertising, signage, and uniforms). Implementation of these applications means following a series of design rules (e.g. margins, colors, typefaces, and sizes), which must always be the same to convey a coherent, coordinated image that reinforces and enhances the companys communication with its public. These rules are contained in a companys identity standards manual, and according to the results of this research, the main contents of the manual are the basic elements of visual identity and the rules for using the brand.

The results of this research also show that there are differences in the contents of the manuals depending on the culture (high- vs low-context) and that the rules governing the application of the brand differ according to the preferences of each culture. Similarly, differences also seem to exist in the tone in which the rules are written (rigidity vs exibility) and in the type of manuals used (simple vs complex). Consequently, the frequent debate in the eld of international marketing about standardization/adaptation of the visual identity should not be limited to verbal and graphic signs (e.g. name, logo, and color) but should also include the rules laid down for their use and the documents used to convey them (i.e. identity standards manual). The results we obtained in this area will be useful to all companies using a brand and identity standards manual and in cultures different from their own because knowing the most important rules for each culture will allow for more effective management of brand use. That the manuals of multinational and local companies only differ in the secondary dimension (applications of brand) may indicate that the companies have not implemented a process of adapting the manual to new cultures. Although some managers opt for standardizing the brand when developing a global marketing strategy, the results of this research indicate that in applying the brand at an international level, a strategy of adaptation should be followed, taking into account the particular nature of each culture and the characteristics of the people responsible for using the brand. With regard to future lines of research, this paper concentrated only on analysing the contents of a series of manuals from different countries, and as such, its results would be complemented with the use of another type of qualitative information. This could take the form of surveying directors involved in corporate identity or designers from different cultures commissioned to apply the rules for brand use. In this sense, of the different cultural dimensions proposed by the literature, this research focused only on the difference between high- and low-context cultures. The study could be repeated by applying the dimensions proposed by other authors, such as Schwartz (1999) and Hofstede (1980). Finally, we should highlight some limitations. First, Type I errors could have been introduced because of the number of tests we undertook and, therefore, we may have observed some statistical differences when there were none. Accordingly, our conclusions must be regarded as tentative. Second, we limited the study to a description of manuals and to collating opinions from experts in the sector. We made no attempt to measure how effective the manuals were in maintaining coherence in the use of the brand. It would be useful to measure coherence in use so as to dene which factors that come into play in creating a manual contribute the most to improving and enhancing a consistent application of the brand.
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Schmitt, B.H. (1995), Language and visual imagery: issues of corporate identity in East Asia, Columbia Journal of World Business, Vol. 30 No. 4, pp. 28-36. Schwartz, S.H. (1999), A theory of cultural values and some implications for work, Applied Psychology: An International Review, Vol. 48 No. 1, pp. 23-47. van den Bosch, A.L.M., de Jong, M.D.T. and Elving, W.J.L. (2004), Managing corporate visual identity: use and effects of organizational measures to support a consistent self-presentation, Public Relations Review, Vol. 30 No. 2, pp. 225-34. van den Bosch, A.L.M., de Jong, M.D.T. and Elving, W.J.L. (2006a), Managing corporate visual identity. Exploring the differences between manufacturing and service, and prot-making and nonprot organizations, Journal of Business Communication, Vol. 43 No. 2, pp. 138-57. van den Bosch, A.L.M., Elving, W.J.L. and de Jong, M.D.T. (2006b), The impact of organisational characteristics on corporate visual identity, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 40 Nos 7/8, pp. 870-985. van Raaij, W.F. (1997), Globalisation of marketing communication?, Journal of Economic Psychology, Vol. 18 Nos 2/3, pp. 259-70. van Rekom, J. (1997), Deriving an operational measure of corporate identity, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 31 Nos 5/6, pp. 410-22. Vila, N. (2004), Marketing mix and the internet: globalisation or adaptation, Journal of Euromarketing, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 31-58. Villafane, J. (1999), La Gestion Profesional de la Imagen Corporativa, Piramide, Madrid. Wang, C. and Chan, A. (2001), A content analysis of conceitedness vs separateness themes used in US and PRC print advertisements, International Marketing Review, Vol. 18 No. 2, pp. 145-59. Whitbread, D. (2001), The Design Manual, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney. Whitelock, J. and Fastoso, F. (2007), Understanding international branding: dening the domain and reviewing the literature, International Marketing Review, Vol. 24 No. 3, pp. 252-70. Wilson, A. (1997), The culture of the branch team and its impact on service delivery and corporate identity, The International Journal of Bank Marketing, Vol. 15 No. 5, pp. 163-76. Wong, H.Y. and Merrilees, B. (2007), Multiple roles for branding in international marketing, International Marketing Review, Vol. 24 No. 4, pp. 384-408. Wurtz, E. (2006), Intercultural communication on web sites: a cross-cultural analysis of web sites from high-context cultures and low-context cultures, Journal of Computer-mediated Communication, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 274-99. About the authors Begona Jorda-Albinana is a Collaborating Professor at the Department of Graphic Engineering of the Higher Technical School of Design Engineering of the Valencia Polytechnic University. She received a PhD in Fine Arts by the Valencia Polytechnic University in 2003 and has carried out research on topics such as visual identities, graphic and multimedia design. She is a member ana is the of AENORs (ISO member) Committee 54 (Graphic Arts). Begona Jorda-Albin corresponding author and can be contacted at: bego@mag.upv.es Olga Ampuero-Canellas is a research intern at the Department of Graphic Engineering of the Higher Technical School of Design Engineering of the Valencia Polytechnic University. She received her PhD in Social Communications (Advertising and Public Affairs) and her research interests include graphic design, visual identities, marketing and packaging design. Natalia Vila is a Lecturer in Marketing in the Department of Marketing in the School of Economics at the University of Valencia. She has carried out research on topics such as

competitive positioning, identication of strategic groups/competitive groups and the application of multidimensional scaling in marketing. Her research work has been published in diverse referee journals (i.e. Journal of Marketing Management, Journal of Strategic Marketing, European Journal of Innovation Management, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, Journal of Euromarketing, The Marketing Review) and Spanish refereed journals. She has presented papers at several conferences such as EMAC, AM and AMS. Jose Ignacio Rojas-Sola received an MS in Chemical Engineering at the University of Seville in 1991 and a PhD in Mechanical Engineering at the National University of Education at Distance in 1995. He is the Head of the Research Group Engineering Graphics and Industrial Archaeology from 1996 funded by Autonomous Government of Andalusia, Spain, and he is the author of more than 85 research papers including ten referee journal publications, several books and numerous lectures.

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