Recent Landslides

Landslides (2007) 4:9194 DOI 10.1007/s10346-006-0067-7 Received: 10 January 2006 Accepted: 11 October 2006 Published online: 30 November 2006 Springer-Verlag 2006

Yoshihiko Kariya . Go Sato . Kuniyasu Mokudai . Jiro Komori . Masaki Ishii . Ryoko Nishii . Yosuke Miyazawa . Noriko Tsumura

Rockfall hazard in the Daisekkei Valley, the northern Japanese Alps, on 11 August 2005
Natural environments The Daisekkei Valley is a glacigenic U-shaped valley (Koaze et al. 1974). During the last glacial period, it was filled by a glacier. Two remnants of cirquesthe north cirque of Mount Shakushi-dake and the south cirque of Mount Shirouma-dakeare present at the head of the Daisekkei Valley. Ice flows from these cirques would have converged on a shoulder located near the rockfall site (Fig. 2). The rockfall occurred on the north wall of Mount Shakushi-dake (2,812 m; Fig. 2). The rockwall consists of well-jointed, dense, and amorphous Miocene felsites (Nakano et al. 2002). The general aspect of the rockwall is 4050 in azimuth, and the average angle is ca 45. The source area of the rockfall is 200250 m above the valley floor (Fig. 3). At Sarukura, the total precipitation during the preceding 1 week was 77 mm (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport 2005). Although the daily precipitation on August 10 was 46 mm, there was no rainfall during the rockfall event. The estimated air temperature at the rockfall site was 11C, according to data obtained at the foot of Mount Shirouma-dake (Japan Meteorological Agency 2005). The northern Japanese Alps is characterized by snowy climate. In the Daisekkei Valley, the snow is fairly deep and avalanches occur frequently. Therefore, an elongated late lying snowpatch with a length of 12 km remains until autumn on the valley floor and was present at the time the rockfall occurred. Mountain trail in the Daisekkei valley In the Daisekkei Valley, a mountain trail is built on the snowpatches during the period from late spring to early autumn, and it is particularly set in the central portion of the snowpatches until midsummer (Fig. 5). It is finally moved to the valley side slopes after snow thinning. Climbers visiting the Daisekkei Valley prefer to walk on the snowpatches to enjoy the scenery and breathe fresh air. In recent years, many trekking tours have been organized by commercial tourist agents, and many beginners climb the snowpatches in a row. In particular, the trail is considerably crowded from late July to midAugust. In addition, most climbers stay in huts located near the Daisekkei Valley (Figs. 2 and 5). For these circumstances, the Daisekkei Valley and its landscape are beneficial for the regional economy. Spatial component of the rockfall sequence The spatial component of the rockfall is divided into a source area, a transportation area, and an accumulation area (Fig. 3). Source area The source area is 200250 m above the valley floor. Its slope angle is no less than 60 and is partly perpendicular. Felsites exposed in the source area are well-jointed (Fig. 4). Visual observations with a clino-compass from various positions around the rockwall revealed that the joint system can be grouped into three parts: (1) an inclined part across the rockwall at 3040 with a slope angle, (2) a

Abstract This paper describes a rockfall event in the Daisekkei Valley of Mount Shirouma-dake (2,932 m), the northern Japanese Alps. The rockfall occurred on a steep cliff comprising well-jointed felsites and produced debris of 8,000 m3. Most debris was deposited on an elongated snowpatch located immediately beneath the cliff, and it caused casualties among people who were trekking along a trail on the snowpatch. Additionally, a large rock block slipped 1 km on the snowpatch. The rockfall could have been due to the differential retreat of the rockwall, which contains areas of high- and low-density joints. Seasonal and diurnal freezethaw activities and snow avalanches and wash appear to be important factors responsible for the retreat. Although some rock blocks that can collapse further remain on the rockwall, the position of the mountain trail in the Daisekkei Valley is fixed. Fundamental reform of tourism systems for climbers, including education on natural hazards, is required. Keywords Rockfall . Alpine landscape . Snowpatch . Northern Japanese Alps . Japan Introduction In recent years, mountaineering has witnessed a boom in Japan. Although many climbers come from not only Japan but also the neighboring countries, neither the safety maintenance of mountain trails nor the dissemination of knowledge related to mountaineering is exhaustive. Over the past years, the number of climbers and mountaineering associates who lack basic knowledge in geology and geomorphology has increased. Spectacular landscapes of the alpine zone in the northern Japanese Alps, which can be accessed easily from the Tokyo and Osaka metropolitan areas, have enchanted many climbers (Fig. 1). On the morning of 11 August 2005, a small to mesoscale (8,000 m3) rockfall suddenly occurred from a high cliff facing the Daisekkei (meaning a large snowpatch) Valley with a large number of climbers to Mount Shirouma-dake (2,932 m) in the northern Japanese Alps; this resulted in one death and one injury (Fig. 2). Although microscale (1001 m3) rockfalls are common in the Daisekkei Valley, the August 2005 rockfall event was the largest in volume of sediment since recorded history in the Shirouma-dake district. Rockfall and slope failure also commonly occur in the other high mountains in Japan (e.g., Iwafune 1996; Matsuoka and Sakai 1999). However, few landslide studies that focus on alpine rockfall and slope failure have been conducted because their geomorphological information is quickly modified or eroded under the temperate rainy climate of Japan. In this paper, we describe the rockfall hazard of 11 August 2005 in the Daisekkei Valley based on field and laboratory investigations including interviews with witnesses. In addition, we also briefly comment on the potential for recollapse and suggest alternatives for safe climbing in the valley.

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Fig. 1 Location of the Daisekkei Valley in the northern Japanese Alps

mutually perpendicular part with an inclined part, and (3) a vertical part. Alternating high- and low-density joints are also conspicuous. Joint spaces are ca 10 m in the high-density parts and 0.050.15 m in the low-density parts.

Fig. 3 Aerial view of the collapsed rockwall on 11 August 2005 (courtesy of the Chubu Regional Forest Office, Forestry Agency)

Transportation area The rockfall occurred at a single site of the rockwall; subsequently, the collapsed debris rolled into two non-vegetated avalanche chutes (east and west) formed in the bedrock. The transportation area corresponds to these avalanche chutes (Fig. 3). The dimensions and

Fig. 2 Topography, geology, and lodging facilities of the Daisekkei Valley. The contour map used in the upper box is based on the topographical map of the Hakubacho district, released from the Geographical Survey Institute. The geology, in the lower box, is simplified from the geological map of the Shiroumadake district by Nakano et al. (2002)

Fig. 4 Comparison of the photos of the rockwall, taken before and after the rockfall event. Both were taken by Go Sato

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volume of the debris in the accumulation areas immediately below the avalanche chutes indicate that almost all the debris passed through the west avalanche chute. Hereafter, we describe only the transportation and accumulation areas on the western side. The length and width of the west avalanche chute are approximately 150 and 1520 m, respectively; it is inclined at 3040. Its longitudinal and transverse sections exhibit linearity and broad concavity, respectively. Accumulation area The rockfall materials that passed through the west avalanche chute were deposited immediately below the lower end of the west chute. Most of the deposits spread and accumulated on the snowpatch on the valley floor, while some dropped into bergschrunds and crevasses. In the case of the west accumulation area, the large transverse crevasse appears to halt the downslope extension of the debris (Fig. 3). The west accumulation area is elongated. The maximum width is 40 m in the middle part, and the average angles are 33 in the upper part and 22 in the lower part. The maximum thickness of the deposits is estimated to be a few meters in the upper part but smaller in the lower part (e.g., only 0.2 m at the terminus). Based on the dimensions of the west accumulation area (ca 4,800 m2), the volume of the rockfall deposits in the western part is estimated to be approximately 8,000 m3. The total volume would be rather large because this estimation does not include the deposits in the eastern part and the debris that extended into the bergschrunds and crevasses. Number and time of rockfall event Two anonymous experienced climbers (a couple, both in their 60s) stated that the rockfall occurred in two phases at ca 10-min intervals. They began to descend from the cirque bottom between 7:20 and 7:25 A.M. (indicated by their watches) and encountered the first rockfall ca 10 min after their departure. They continued to descend and encountered the second rockfall ca 10 min later. A male climber (60s) walking along the seasonal trail on the snowpatch was hit by the rockfall materials during the second failure and was killed. Additionally, another climber was hit by spattered debris and was injured. Besides these witnesses, sensitive seismometers equipped at two observatories (University of Tokyo and the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention) at the foot of Mount Shirouma-dake recorded extraordinary waveforms with a longer signal duration at 7:22 A.M. Although it is difficult to determine the wave source because the directions and distances of the two observatories from the rockfall site are almost the same, there is no evidence that the unique waveforms were generated by a source other than the rockfall.
Fig. 5 Trail position, track of the supranival sliding rock block derived from the rockfall and the late lying snowpatch in the Daisekkei Valley. The track of sliding block was measured by using a handy GPS receiver

Supranival rock block slide It is noteworthy that a large block of felsites, 642.5 m, derived from the rockfall, traveled more than 1 km on the snowpatch in the Daisekkei Valley (Fig. 5). It slipped across the seasonal trail on the snowpatch with an unknown velocity. Finally, it fell into a snowmelt hole and landed on a subnival channel. No casualties due to this movement were reported. Transfer processes of rockfall materials Apart from the debris produced by the August 11 rockfall event, a large amount of debris is deposited on the snowpatches in the upper Daisekkei Valley. It is considered that microscale rockfalls have frequently occurred on densely jointed rockwalls. With the exception of the debris transported by avalanche and surficial wash, rock fragments on the snowpatches are considered to be deposited due to microscale rockfalls. Iwafune (1996) described the mechanisms of rockfall in the alpine environment of the Karasawa cirque, the northern Japanese Alps, in detail, based on field measurements and proposed a model for rockfall development. First, densely jointed rockwalls are selectively and easily destroyed by diurnal freezethaw activities, avalanches, and wash processes, resulting in the production of smaller rock fragments. Subsequently, these rockwalls retreat preferentially. Their selective retreat leads to the formation of jutting and unstable spurs of rockwall. Finally, the spurs collapse due to certain reasons such as seasonal freezethaw activities. A similar development would have occurred on the rockwalls of Mount Shakushi-dake. In fact, the rockwall around the source area of this rockfall contains visible open cracks that are spaced up to 10 m (Fig. 4). This indicates the instability of the rockwall with lowdensity joints. During the second failure, the anonymous couple watched the rockwall. They described the rockfall as follows: a mass of rock block fell out, like floating in the sky, but did not seem to topple (husband) and a rock looked to be slipping on the rockwall (wife). This testimony suggests that the main process of the second failure was sliding and not toppling. Although the triggers causing a rockfall have not yet been clarified, it is assumed to be due to an increase in the pore water pressure due to moderate rainfall during the previous days. Meanwhile, direct influences of diurnal freezethaw activities within rockwalls need not be considered for the summer climate. Potential for recollapse Open cracks and well-weathered joints are observed in the source area of the rockwall (Fig. 4). In such a cracked rockwall, the

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penetration of water into deeper parts would increase pore water pressure and promote chemical weathering. This would result in conditions suitable for rockfall. Similar rockfall might recur on Mount Shakushi-dake because of the presence of felsite blocks with widely spaced rock joints in the source area. In the Japanese alpine environment, rockfall is activated in the thawing period of the seasonal frozen ground from spring to early summer (Iwafune 1996; Matsuoka and Sakai 1999). Matsuoka and Sakai (1999) clarified that rockfall occurs most frequently when the seasonal thawing front penetrates to a depth of ca 1 m in the bedrock; furthermore, the maximum rockfall activity occurs on an average of ca 10 days after the meltout of the rockwall in the glacial cirque of the southern Japanese Alps (ca 3,000 m). They also mentioned that an intense rockfall activity would not always reflect rainfall events or diurnal freezethaw activities on the rockface. Recommendations In the Daisekkei Valley, debris flow events have been observed in torrential rains in summer (e.g., Matsumoto et al. 1998; Ishii and Koaze 1999; Maruyama et al. 2004). Although a series of debris flows could cause damage to climbers and huts in the valley, most climbers tend to suspend their planning under such circumstances. Snow avalanches are also hazardous and frequent events in winter and spring. Climbers who come to the Daisekkei Valley during this period, however, have broad experience, and they are trained for prediction and avoidance of snow avalanche. Compared to these hazards, the real risk by a rockfall event in the Daisekkei Valley is sudden and rapid drop of rock fragments onto steep snowpatches in a narrow valley and subsequent rock block slide on the snow surface. Regardless of weather conditions, a rockfall event might occur in the summer season. This means that a number of climbers may fall victim to the accident. Moreover, there are a few places for evacuation in the valley, and it would take time for rescue. As described above, some rock blocks that can recollapse remain on the rockwall of Mount Shakushi-dake (Fig. 4). If these blocks collapse, the debris will pass through the east and west chutes and reach the snowpatch in the Daisekkei Valley. Unfortunately, presently, it is difficult to predict the occurrence of a large rockfall. Moreover, it is difficult to establish sensor devices on the rockwall because of their steepness and severe natural environments. The installation of alerting sensors for rockfall activities on the rockwall, which constitute the alpine landscapes, also requires discussions because the Daisekkei Valley landscape attracts many climbers. Temporarily, establishment of a real-time monitoring system composed of robust, unobtrusive, and low power consumption cameras and transmitters seems effective. Although the local municipality and/or tourist agents may decide to relocate a trail in the Daisekkei Valley, the achievement of a complete relocation of the trail on snowpatches is questionable. In fact, the trail in the Daisekkei Valley, which was closed on 11 August, was resumed with partial migration in the accumulation area on 14 August. This is because the late lying snowpatches in the Daisekkei Valley are one of the key tourism resources in the region, and their economic effect is not negligible. However, both climbers and parties involved in sightseeing and tourism should remember that a large rock block slipped on the snowpatch by a distance of more than 1 km during the rockfall event. Fundamental reform of climbing and tourism systems in Mount Shirouma-dake, including a relocation of the trail and education on natural hazards for participants, appears to be necessary. Acknowledgments We thank the anonymous couple, Hakuba Village Office, Chubu Regional Forest Office of Forest Agency, Hakuba-kan Co. Ltd., the Association for Alpine Accident of the Northern Japanese Alps, Hiroshi Tsuruoka, and Shuji Iwata for their help in the field and the laboratory. This paper has benefited from the constructive comments from Heather Viles. References
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