Nanyang Junior College

H2 Chemistry 9647

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Chemical Periodicity
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should, for the third period (sodium to argon), be able to: (a) describe qualitatively (and indicate the periodicity in) the variations in atomic radius, ionic radius, melting point and electrical conductivity of the elements (see the Data Booklet) explain qualitatively the variation in atomic radius and ionic radius interpret the variation in melting point and in electrical conductivity in terms of the presence of simple molecular, giant molecular or metallic bonding in the elements explain the variation in first ionisation energy describe the reactions, if any, of the elements with oxygen (to give Na2O; MgO; Al2O3; P4O6; P4O10; SO2; SO3), and chlorine (to give NaCl; MgCl2; AlCl3; SiCl4; PCl3; PCl5) state and explain the variation in oxidation number of the oxides and chlorides describe the reactions of the oxides with water [treatment of peroxides and superoxides is not required] describe and explain the acid/base behaviour of oxides and hydroxides, including, where relevant, amphoteric behaviour in reaction with sodium hydroxide (only) and acids describe and explain the reactions of the chlorides with water interpret the variations and trends in (f), (g), (h), and (i) in terms of bonding and electronegativity suggest the types of chemical bonding present in chlorides and oxides from observations of their chemical and physical properties

(b) (c)

(d) (e)

(f) (g)

(h)

(i) (j)

(k)

In addition, candidates should be able to (l) predict the characteristic properties of an element in a given Group by using knowledge of chemical periodicity deduce the nature, possible position in the Periodic Table, and identity of unknown elements from given information of physical and chemical properties

(m)

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1
1.1

Introduction
The Periodic Table

Elements placed under each other in a column are in the same group and show many similarities in their physical and chemical properties. Elements arranged in rows or periods across the table. The elements in a period have different physical and chemical properties, but trends become apparent in these properties as we move across a period. The elements can be broadly classified as s, p, d and f block elements. Block s Elements Group I and II elements where they have the outer electronic configurations as ns1 and ns2 respectively. Group III to 0 where they have the outer electronic configurations ns2 np1 to ns2 np6. Largely restricted to Sc to Zn These have the outer electronic configurations 3d1 4s2 to 3d10 4s2. Other d-block elements that are lower in the Periodic Table belong to a sub-group. e.g. the elements copper, silver (Ag) and gold (Au) belong to the copper sub-group. 4f elements from cerium (Ce) to lutetium (Lu) are called lanthanides. 5f elements of the second row are called actinides.

* Note: n refers to the number of electron shell

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Periodicity of Physical Properties of Elements

Na
[Ne]3s1

Element Electronic configuration Melting point / C Boiling point / C Atomic radius / nm Ionic radius / nm 1st ionisation energy / kJ mol-1 Electronegativity Electrical conductivity

Mg
[Ne]3s2

Al
[Ne]3s23p1

Si
[Ne]3s23p2

P
[Ne]3s23p3

S
[Ne]3s23p4

Cl
[Ne]3s23p5

Ar
[Ne]3s23p6

98 883 0.186 0.095 494

649 1090 0.160 0.065 736

660 2519 0.143 0.050 577

1410 2900 0.117 0.041 786

44 280 0.110 0.212 1060

113 444 0.104 0.184 1000

101 34 0.099 0.181 1260

189 189 0.192 1520

0.93

1.31 good

1.61

1.90 poor

2.19

2.58 nil

3.16

2.1

Atomic Radius

Atomic radius / nm

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

Across the period (from Na to Cl), Nuclear charge increases as protons are added to the nucleus. Screening effect remains approximately the same as electrons are added to the same outermost shell Hence, electrons are increasingly attracted to the nucleus (and are pulled closer) Atomic radius decreases across the period from sodium to chlorine.

Note: Atomic radius of argon is exceptionally high. (Refer to Appendix A)

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2.2
Atom Ion e.g.

Ionic radius
Na Na+ Mg Mg2+ Al Al3+ Si Si4+ P P3 S S2 Cl Cl Ar

Cations are smaller than their respective atoms as cations have one electron shell less than neutral atoms.
Na Na+

1s22s22p63s1

1s22s22p6

Anions are bigger than their respective atoms because of the extra repulsion of the added electron(s). Since the nuclear charge remains the same, the outermost electrons are now less attracted to the nucleus. Anions are bigger than cations because anions contain one more electron shell and the increase in screening effect outweighs the increase in nuclear charge.
Cl Cl

e.g.

1s22s22p63s23p5 Radius / nm

1s22s22p63s23p6

P3 S2 Cl

Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ Si4+ Si P S Cl

Na From Na to Si
+ 4+ 3

Mg

Al

and P to Cl

Nuclear charge increases, Shielding effect remains the same as the number of electrons in each ion is the same i.e. Na+ to Si4+ and P3 to Cl are isoelectronic Hence the outer electrons are more strongly attracted to the nucleus Ionic radii decreases from Na+ to Si4+ and P3 to Cl There is a sharp increase from cation to anion as anions contain one more electron shell than cations

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2.3

Melting point of Elements

Melting point / C

Ar

Na From Na to Al

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Giant metallic structure where strong electrostatic attraction exists between cations and sea of delocalized electrons. Melting points of the metals are generally higher. No. of electrons used for metallic bonding increase from 1 to 3. Hence strength of metallic bonds increases. Amount of energy required to break the strong metallic bonds increases, hence melting point increases.

For Si Giant molecular structure where strong covalent bonds exist between Si atoms in a 3d network. Large amount of energy required to break the strong covalent bonds. Hence melting point is very high

From P4 to Ar, Simple molecular structure where weak dispersion forces exist between molecules Small amount of energy required to break these forces and melting points of the nonmetals are generally very low. The strength of dispersion forces depends on the number of electrons in the molecule. The more electrons present in the molecule (i.e. Mr is bigger), the stronger the dispersion forces. Hence, the variation in melting point follows the order S8>P4>Cl2>Ar, according to the number of electrons in the molecule.

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2.4

Electrical Conductivity

Electrical conductivity

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

Na, Mg & Al: Giant metallic structure where cations are surrounded by delocalized, mobile electrons which are able to act as charge carriers. Hence electrical conductivities of metals are high. No. of electrons used for metallic bonding increase from 1 to 3. Hence, conductivities increase from Na to Al.

Si: It is a metalloid or semi-conductor which has properties of metals and non- metals. It has low electrical conductivity under normal conditions but conductivity increases at high temperatures or with doping (addition of other elements).

P, S, Cl & Ar: Simple molecular structure where valence electrons are localised within the covalent bonds. No mobile delocalised electrons available to act as charge carriers. They are non-conductors (insulators).

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2.5

First Ionisation Energy

First ionisation energy

Na Across the period,

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

Nuclear charge increases as protons are added to the nucleus. Screening effect remains approximately the same as electrons are added to the same outermost shell Hence, electrons are increasingly attracted to the nucleus (and are pulled closer) and more energy required to remove the outermost electron First ionisation energy generally increases across the period from Na to Ar.

Exceptions: Al has smaller first ionisation energy than Mg The outermost electron 3p electron in Al has higher energy than 3s electron in Mg. It is less attracted to the nucleus and less energy required to remove it.

S has smaller first ionisation energy than P The outermost electron removed from S is from the paired 3px orbital which experiences inter-electron repulsion. Less energy required to remove compared to the singly occupied 3p electron in P.

Summary of Physical Trends:

Across the Period: Atomic and ionic radius generally decreases. Melting points of elements increases (up to Si), then decreases generally. Electrical conductivity of elements increases (up to Al), then decreases significantly. First ionization energy generally increases.

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3
3.1

Periodicity of Chemical Properties of Elements

Reactions of the elements with oxygen and chlorine

Na, Mg & Al: Being metals, they are strong reducing agents. They react readily with oxidising agents e.g. oxygen and chlorine to form oxides and chlorides respectively. Exception is Al which becomes passive i.e. it forms an oxide layer which is nonporous and prevents Al from further attack.

Si, P4 & S8 Being covalent, they are mildly reducing and react less readily.

Reaction with Oxygen Burns vigorously with brilliant yellow flame Na 2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O(s) Burns vigorously with bright white flame Mg(s) + O2(g) MgO(s) Reacts vigorously only in powdered form. Oxide layer formed (at room temperature) prevents reaction 2Al (s) + O2(g) Al2O3(s) Si Reacts slowly under strong heat Si(s) + O2(g) SiO2(s) Reacts vigorously in excess oxygen with brilliant yellow-orange flame P P4(s) + 3O2(g) P4O6(s) P4(s) + 5O2(g) P4O10(s) Burns in pure oxygen with a pale blue flame S S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) S(s) + O2(g) SO3(g)

Reaction with Chlorine Burns vigorously with brilliant yellow flame. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s) Reacts vigorously Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s) Reacts vigorously 2Al (s) + 3Cl2(g) Al2Cl6(s)

Mg

Al

Reacts slowly Si(s) + 2Cl2(g) SiCl4(l) Reacts slowly P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) 4PCl3(l) P4(s) + 10Cl2(g) 4PCl5(s) Reacts slowly 2S(s) + Cl2(g) S2Cl2(l)

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3.2

Electronegativity of Elements
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract a shared paired of electrons in a covalent bond Across the period, electronegativity increases. Down the group, electronegativity decreases. In ionic compounds, the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms is very great. While in covalent compounds, the two atoms have similar electronegativities.

3.3

Oxidation number of the oxides and chlorides

Oxide Chloride Na2O NaCl +1 MgO MgCl2 +2 Al2O3 AlCl3 +3 SiO2 SiCl4 +4 P4O6, P4O10 PCl3, PCl5 +3, +5 SO2, SO3 +4, +6

Oxidation number of elements

Oxidation number increases across the period from +1 to +6. The maximum oxidation number corresponds to the Group number and hence the number of electrons in the outermost shell of its atoms

Oxidation number of the element is a positive value because oxygen and chlorine are both more electronegative than the element. Phosphorus and sulfur show several oxidation numbers because they can expand their octet by excitation of the outer electrons into the vacant and energetically accessible 3d orbitals. The oxidation state depends on the number of electrons used for bonding. e.g. In SO2, S has oxidation number +4 (only 4 valence electrons used for bonding).

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3.4

Structure and Bonding of Oxides

Electronegativity of elements increases. Electronegativity difference between element and oxygen decreases. Bonding changes from ionic to covalent. Hence, the oxides show a change in structure from giant ionic (Na2O, MgO & Al2O3) to giant molecular (SiO2) to simple molecular (P4O6, P4O10, SO2, SO3). This change in structure is reflected in the melting point trend of the oxides Oxide Na2O 1132 MgO 2852 Al2O3 2054 SiO2 1650 P4O6, P4O10 23.8, 340 SO2, SO3 75.5, 16.8

Across the period,

Melting point / C Melting point of oxides

Na2O Na2O, MgO & Al2O3:

MgO

Al2O3

SiO2

P4O10

SO3

Giant ionic structure where strong electrostatic attraction exists between oppositely charged ions. Large amount of energy required to break strong ionic bonds hence they have high melting points. MgO has higher melting point than Na2O. Lattice energy of MgO is more exothermic than Na2O as Mg2+ has greater charge and smaller ionic radius than Na+. Al2O3 has lower melting point than MgO. Lattice energy of Al2O3 is less exothermic than MgO as it has a marked degree of covalent character due to high charge density of Al3+ ion and polarised the O2 ion.

SiO2: Giant molecular structure where strong covalent bonds exist between Si and O atoms in a rigid 3d network. Large amount of energy required to break the strong covalent bonds.

P4O6, P4O10, SO2, SO3: Simple molecular structure where weak dispersion forces exist between molecules. Small amount of energy required to break these forces and melting points are generally very low.
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3.4.1 Nature of oxide

The nature of an oxide (MOx) depends on the electronegativity of M. Metals with low electronegativities usually form ionic oxides which are basic in nature. Non-metals form covalent oxides which are acidic in nature. Al forms an ionic oxide with covalent character, hence exhibits amphoteric properties. Hence across the period, the oxides change from basic to amphoteric to acidic.

Oxide

Na2O

MgO

Al2O3 Ionic with covalent character Amphoteric

SiO2 Giant molecular

P4O6 P4O10

SO2 SO3

Structure Type of oxide

Giant Ionic Basic

Simple molecular Acidic

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3.5

Reactions of Oxides with water

Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O6 P4O10 SO2 SO3 SO2 dissolves in water to form weakly acidic solution SO3 dissolves in water to form strongly acidic solution

Reaction with water

Dissolves readily to form strongly alkaline solution

Dissolves slightly to form weakly alkaline solution

Insoluble

Dissolves in water to form acidic solution

Equation

Na2O(s) + 2NaOH(aq)

H2O(l)

MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq)

P4O6(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO3(aq) P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq)

SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

Explanation

Energy evolved from iondipole interactions between ions and water (hydration energy) is able to overcome the ionic bonds.

Hydration energy evolved is not enough to overcome the strong ionic bonds.

Hydration energy evolved is not enough to overcome the strong ionic bonds.

Weak dispersion forces with water molecules do not evolve enough energy to break the strong covalent bonds. 7

Interactions with water molecules evolve energy which easily breaks the weak pd-pd forces between the molecules.

pH of aqueous solution Action of Litmus Action of Universal Indicator

13

3 (for H3PO3) 2 (for H3PO4)

2 (for H2SO3) 1 (for H2SO4) Red

Blue

Blue

Purple

Red

Violet

Blue

Green

Orange (pH 3)

Red (pH 2)

Red

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3.6

Acid-Base Behaviour of Oxides and Hydroxides

Na Mg MgO Al Al2O3 Si SiO2 P P4O6 P4O10 S SO2 SO3

Oxides

Na2O

Reaction with Acids e.g. HCl(aq)

Reacts vigorously with acids to give salt & water: Na2O(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Reacts readily with acids to give salt & water: MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Reacts slowly with acids to give salt & water: Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l) Reacts slowly to form a complex salt: No reaction with NaOH(aq) Reacts slowly conc NaOH with heating to form salt and water: SiO2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SiO3(aq) + H2O(g) Reacts readily with NaOH to form salt and water: P4O6(s) + 12NaOH(aq) 4Na3PO3(aq) + 6H2O(l) P4O10(s) +12NaOH(aq) 4Na3PO4(aq) + 6H2O(l) Reacts readily with NaOH to form salt and water: SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) SO3(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Reaction with Alkalis e.g. NaOH(aq)

Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) 2NaAl(OH)4(aq) sodium aluminate

Hydroxides

NaOH

Mg(OH)2

Al(OH)3

Si(OH)4

H3PO3 H3PO4

H2SO3 H2SO4

Reaction with Acids

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Reacts readily: Al(OH)3(s) + 3H+(aq) Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s) + Al(OH)4(aq) OH-(aq)

Reaction with Alkalis

H3PO3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Na3PO3(aq) + 3H2O(l) H3PO4(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Na3PO4(aq) + 3H2O(l)

H2SO3(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO3(aq) + 2H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

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3.7

Structure and Bonding of Chlorides

Across the period, Electronegativity of elements increases. Electronegativity difference between element and chlorine decreases. Bonding changes from ionic to covalent. Hence, the chlorides show a change in structure from giant ionic (NaCl, MgCl2) to simple molecular (AlCl3, SiCl4, PCl3, PCl5). This change in structure is reflected in the melting point trend of the chlorides Chloride Melting point / C Boiling point / C Type of structure NaCl 801 1413 MgCl2 714 1412 AlCl3, Al2Cl6 178 (sublime) 120 SiCl4 68.7 57.65 Simple molecular PCl3, PCl5 93.6, 167 76.1, 160 (sublime)

Giant ionic

PCl5 has molecular structure in the liquid state, but the solid is ionic (it exists as PCl4+.PCl6-, a white solid). The ionic structure is responsible for the melting point of PCl5 being higher than expected. In the vapour phase, aluminium chloride dimerises and exists as Al2Cl6 molecule which consists of AlCl3 molecules joined by dative bonds.

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3.8

Reactions of Chlorides with water

NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 Al2Cl6 SiCl4 PCl3 PCl5 Undergo complete hydrolysis to give strongly acidic solutions

Reaction with water

Readily dissolves to form hydrated ions to form neutral solution.

Readily dissolves to form hydrated Mg2+ ion which undergoes slight hydrolysis

(i) Readily dissolves to form hydrated Al3+ ion which undergoes hydrolysis in large amount of water. (ii) White solid and white fumes formed with limited amount of water.

Equation

NaCl(s) + aq Na+(aq) + Cl (aq)

MgCl2(s) + 6H2O(l) [Mg(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2Cl (aq)

(i) AlCl3(s) + 6H2O(l) [Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3Cl (aq)

SiCl4(l) + 4H2O(l) Si(OH)4(s) + 4HCl(aq)

PCl3(l) + 3H2O(l) H3PO3(aq) + 3HCl(aq) PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(aq) Limited amount of water / cold condition: PCl5(s) + H2O(l) POCl3(l) + 2HCl(g)

[Mg(H2O)6]2+(aq) + H2O(l) [Mg(H2O)5(OH)]+(aq) + H3O+(aq)

[Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + H2O(l) [Al(H2O)5(OH)]2+(aq) + H3O+(aq) (ii) AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(g) or 2AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(g)

Explanation

Na+ has low charge density hence it does not undergo hydrolysis. 7 Purple Green

Mg2+ has relatively high charge density, hence it undergoes slight hydrolysis.

Al3+ has high charge density and is able to polarise the water molecules, resulting in breakage of OH bond to form H3O+ ion, which is acidic. 3 Red Orange

When SiCl4 (PCl3/PCl5) dissolves, the slightly positive Si (P) atom attracts the slightly negative O atom from water, breaking the OH bond and releasing a H+ to make the solution acidic. 2 Red Red 12 Red Red

pH of aq solution Action of Litmus Action of Universal Indicator

6.5 Purple Yellow

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Diagonal Relationship
Electronegativity increases across the period, but decreases down a group. The nature of the compound formed depends on the electronegativity difference between the 2 atoms in the compound.

Electronegativity increases

Group I Li Na

Group II Be Mg

Group III B Al

Group IV C Si

Electronegativity decreases

Hence, it can be deduced that Be and Al have very similar electronegativities and hence exhibit similar physical and chemical properties. In fact, the behaviour of Be resembles that of Al more than those within the same group.

For example, Group II oxides are basic in nature.

However, BeO exhibits amphoteric characteristics, similar to that of Al2O3. BeO(s) + 2HCl(aq) BeCl2(aq) + H2O(l) BeO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) Na2Be(OH)4(aq) BeCl2 undergoes hydrolysis in water, similar to that of AlCl3. BeCl2(s) + 4H2O(l) [Be(H2O)4]2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) [Be(H2O)4]2+(aq) + H2O(l) [Be(H2O)3(OH)]+(aq) + H3O+(aq)

References
Chemistry for Advanced Level, Peter Cann and Peter Hughes, John Murray (2002) http://www.periodictable.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page http://www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/index.htm

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Summary of Period 3 Oxides

Oxide
Oxidation no. Structure Type of oxide Reaction with water pH of aqueous solution Acid-Base Behaviour Readily dissolves

Na2O
+1 Giant ionic Basic

MgO
+2

Al2O3
+3 Ionic with covalent character Amphoteric

SiO2
+4 Giant molecular

P4O6, P4O10
+3, +5

SO2, SO3
+4, +6

Simple molecular Acidic

Slightly soluble

Insoluble

Insoluble

Readily dissolves 3 (H3PO3) 2 (H3PO4)

Readily dissolves 2 (for H2SO3) 1 (for H2SO4)

13

7 Reacts with both acids and alkalis

Reacts readily with acid to give salt and water

Reacts with alkali to give salt and water

Reaction with water Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq)

Acid-Base Behaviour of Oxide Na2O(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l) Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) 2NaAl(OH)4(aq) SiO2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SiO3(aq) + H2O(g)

Acid-Base Behaviour of Hydroxide NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s) + 3H+(aq) Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s) + OH(aq) Al(OH)4(aq) H3PO3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Na3PO3(aq) + 3H2O(l) H3PO4(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Na3PO4(aq) + 3H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO3(aq) + 2H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Al2O3 and SiO2 are insoluble.

P4O6(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO3(aq) P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq) SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

P4O6(s) + 12NaOH(aq) 4Na3PO3(aq) + 6H2O(l) P4O10(s) + 12NaOH(aq) 4Na3PO4(aq) + 6H2O(l) SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) SO3(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) 17

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Summary of Period 3 Chlorides Chloride

Oxidation no. Structure Reaction with water Readily dissolves to form neutral solution 7

NaCl
+1 Giant ionic

MgCl2
+2

AlCl3
+3

SiCl4
+4 Simple molecular

PCl3, PCl5
+3, +5

Readily dissolves. Undergoes slight hydrolysis to give slightly acidic solution 6.5

Hydrolyses readily in water to give strongly acidic solution. Fumes of HCl produced. 3 2 12

pH of resulting solution

Reaction of Chlorides with water

NaCl(s) + aq Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) MgCl2(s) + 6H2O(l) [Mg(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2Cl (aq) [Mg(H2O)6]2+(aq) + H2O(l) Large amount of water (i) AlCl3(s) + 6H2O(l) [Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3Cl (aq) [Al(H2O)6] (aq) + H2O(l)
3+ 2+ +

[Mg(H2O)5(OH)]+(aq) + H3O+(aq) Limited amount of water (ii) AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(g) or 2AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(g)

[Al(H2O)5(OH)] (aq) + H3O (aq)

SiCl4(l) + 4H2O(l) Si(OH)4(s) + 4HCl(aq) PCl3(l) + 3H2O(l) H3PO3(aq) + 3HCl(aq) PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(aq) Limited amount of water / cold
PCl5(s) + H2O(l) POCl3(l) + 2HCl(g)

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Appendix A Why is the atomic radius of Argon exceptionally large?

The radius of an atom can only be found by measuring the distance between the nuclei of two touching atoms, and then halving that distance:

Radius = d

d 2

The diagram below shows two bonded atoms where the atoms are pulled closely together.

d
This is what you would get if you had metal atoms in a metallic structure, or atoms covalently bonded to each other where the atoms are bonded by relatively strong metallic or covalent bonds. The type of atomic radius being measured here is called the metallic radius or the covalent radius depending on the bonding. The radius measured is the radius after bonding has taken place. The first diagram shows atoms that are bonded very weakly to each other e.g. only van der Waals forces exist between the two atoms. This measure of atomic radius is called the van der Waals radius. The radius measured here is the unbonded radius. The figures used to construct the above graph are based on the metallic radii of Na, Mg and Al; covalent radii for Si, P, S and Cl; van der Waals radius for Ar (which does not form bonds). While it is fair to compare metallic radii to covalent radii, it is not fair to include van der Waals radii in the comparison. Hence, Ar is usually not included in the trend.

Appendix B Universal Indicator Chart

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Appendix C Mechanisms (1) Reaction of oxide with water

Na2O(s) + H2O Na2+(aq) + O2-(aq) O2 ion attracts the slightly positive H atom from water towards itself and the HO bond breaks, resulting in formation of 2 OH ions which are alkaline. O2(aq) + H2O(l) 2OH(aq)

+
H

2-

+
H

2OH-

:
(2) +
S

Hydrolysis of SO2 with water +

H H O S H O O
+

H O S O O H

:
O

+ (3)

Hydrolysis of AlCl3 with water

H2O H2O

3+

:
+
H

H2O O H2O H H2O O

H H H O
+

Al
H2O

Al3+
H2O H2O

H2O

H2O

(4)

Hydrolysis of SiCl4 with water

Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl Cl Si O H Cl Cl Si Cl

:
Si Cl Cl Cl

H+
OH Cl-

:
20