Useful Scientific Definitions

The following descriptions, explanations and definitions are useful for the teaching and learning of Physical Science in Grades 10, 11 & 12. Some of them are not necessarily applicable to the work done in each Grade.

Vectors:
1. 2. 3. 3. 4. 5. A VECTOR is a physical quantity that has magnitude and direction. DISPLACEMENT is the change in position of an object. SPEED is the rate of change of distance with time. (Rate means divided by time). VELOCITY is the rate of change of position with time. ACCELERATION is the rate of change of velocity with time. RESULTANT FORCE. When two or more forces act concurrently at a point, the resultant force is that single force, applied at the same point, that would produce the same effect as all the forces taken together. EQUILIBRANT. When two or more forces act concurrently at a point, the equilibrant is that single force, applied at the same point, that produces equilibrium. TRIANGLE LAW OF EQUILIBRIUM. If three or more concurrent forces are in equilibrium, the vectors representing these forces, taken in order, form a closed triangle. CONSTANT VELOCITY. A body is said to be moving with a constant velocity if it covers equal displacements in equal time intervals, no matter how short the latter.

6. 7. 8.

Newtons laws:
1. 2. INERTIA is the resistance of an object to change its velocity. NEWTONS FIRST LAW. The law of inertia: If an object is at rest or is moving with constant velocity, it will continue in this state unless acted upon by some resultant external force. NEWTONS SECOND LAW. When a resultant force acts on a body, it will accelerate in the direction of the resultant force with an acceleration which is directly proportional to the resultant force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. NEWTONS THIRD LAW. If a body A exerts a force on body B then body B exerts a force on body A which is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

3.

4.

Gravitation:

1. 2.

MASS is the quotient of the resultant force acting on a body and the acceleration produced in that direction. NEWTONS LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. Every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart.

Work and energy:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY is stored up energy by virtue of the position of the mass of the object in the gravitational field KINETIC ENERGY is the energy by virtue of the motion of the mass of a body. WORK DONE is the product of the force acting and the displacement in the direction of the force. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. The total energy of a closed system remains constant as we cannot create or destroy energy. A JOULE is the amount of work done when a force of 1N moves its point of application one metre in the direction of the force. ENERGY is the ability to do work. POWER is the rate of doing work or the rate at which energy is transferred. A WATT is the rate of working or energy transferred.

Momentum:
1. 2. MOMENTUM is the product of mass and velocity. NEWTONS SEOND LAW: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting upon it, and is in the direction of the resultant force. FORCE is the rate of change of momentum with time. IMPULSE is the product of force and time. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM. The total linear momentum of a closed system of moving bodies interacting only with each other, remains constant in any direction.

3. 4. 5.

Electrostatics:
1. 2. THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGE. In a closed system the sum of positive and negative charges is zero COULOMBS LAW. Two stationary charged particles exert a force of attraction or repulsion on each other which is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart. An ELECTRIC FIELD is a region in space in which a stationary charged object experiences an attractive or a repulsive force. (This distinguishes it from a magnetic field which exerts forces on moving charges).

3.

4. 5.

The ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY at a point in the electric field is the quotient of the force acting on a positive test charge at that point and the magnitude of the charge. The POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE between two points A and B in an electric field is the quotient of the work done in moving a positive test charge from one point to the other and the magnitude of the test charge.

Current Electricity:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. An AMPERE is the current strength when one coulomb of charge passes a point in the circuit in one second. A COULOMB is the quantity of charge which passes a point in a conductor in one second when carrying a current of one ampere. The POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (p.d.) between two points A and B in an electric field is the work done per unit positive test charge moved between the two points. E.M.F. is the amount of energy supplied per unit of charge passing through the cell or e.m.f. is the power per unit current passing through the cell. OHMS LAW. At constant temperature the potential difference across a resistor is directly proportional to the current in the resistor. The RESISTANCE of a conductor is the quotient of the potential difference across its ends and the current in the resistor. ELECTRICAL ENERGY is the ability to do work in an electrical circuit. The AMPERE is that constant current which, if maintained in two infinitely long parallel conductors that are 1 metre apart in a vacuum, will produce between them a force of 2 x 10-7 N per metre of their length.

Bonding/Solids/Liquids:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. ALLOTROPES are due to the same element having different physical structures. LONDON FORCES are forces of attraction between fluctuating dipoles in atoms and molecules that are close. COVALENT BONDING is the attraction between two atoms that share electrons equally. POLAR COVALENT BONDING is the attraction between atoms of elements that share electron pairs unequally between them. SATURATED VAPOUR PRESSURE is the pressure due to the maximum number of vapour particles that can evaporate at a certain temperature, in a closed system. The BOILING POINT is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid, in an open container, equals the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the liquid. IONIZATION ENERGY is the energy needed to be supplied to an electron in order to remove the electron completely from an atom. ELECTRON AFFINITY is the energy liberated when an electron is added to an isolated, neutral gaseous atom.

9. 10.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY is the pull of each of the two atoms on a pair of shared electrons forming the bond between them. SURFACE TENSION of a liquid behaves as if it is a stretched sideways and thus has a skin or membrane.

Gases:
1. 2. 3. An IDEAL GAS obeys Boyles law under all conditions. AVOGADROS LAW. Equal volumes of gases measured under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, contain equal number of molecules. BOYLES LAW states that at constant temperature the volume of a fixed mass of dry gas is inversely proportional to the pressure exerted on it.

Solubility:
1. 2. 3. A MOLE is the number of anything equal to the Avogadros constant (or number = 6.02 x 1023). A STANDARD SOLUTION is one of precisely known concentration, which remains stable. A SATURATED SOLUTION. The amount of dissolved solute is in equilibrium with the undissolved solute at a given temperature. (All the open spaces between the solvent molecules are filled). A PRECIPITATE is a solid which forms during a reaction in solution. A CLOSED SYSTEM is not affected by any outside factors or agencies. DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM. The rate at which the solid dissolves is equal to the rate at which the solution precipitates.

4. 5. 6.

Redox:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. REDUCTION is the gain of electrons. OXIDATION is the loss of electrons. (Pneumonic: OILRIG) REDUCTION is also any process in which oxidation numbers decrease in a reaction. OXIDATION is the process in which oxidation numbers increase in a reaction. The REDUCTION POTENTIAL is the ability of a chemical species to be reduced. A REDUCING AGENT is an atom, molecule or ion that causes a decrease in the oxidation state of another substance and is itself oxidized. An OXIDIZING AGENT is an atom, molecule or ion that causes an increase in the oxidation state of another substance and is itself reduced. REDOX REACTIONS are chemical reactions in which oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously. A HALF CELL is an electrode which can conduct electricity and has a chemical in two different oxidation states.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

CELL POTENTIAL (E) is a measure of the potential difference between two half cells. An ANODE is the electrode at which oxidation occurs. A CATHODE is the electrode at which reduction takes occurs. ANIONS are negatively charged ions. (Usually non-metals). CATIONS are positively charged ions. (Usually metals). A GALVANIC or VOLTAIC CELL generates electricity from a spontaneous redox reaction. An ELECTROLYTIC CELL uses electrical energy from outside the cell to cause a redox reaction to occur. ELECTROLYTES are pure substances or substances in solution that conduct electricity by the movement of ions. ELECTROLYSIS is the process of driving a non-spontaneous redox reaction to occur by means of electrical energy.

Reaction Rates:
1. 2. 3. ACTIVATION ENERGY is the minimum energy that reactants must have for a reaction to occur. An ACTIVATED COMPLEX is the short lived combination of reacting atoms, molecules or ions that is intermediate between reactants and products. A CATALYST is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction but can be recovered chemically unchanged after the reaction is complete.

Equilibrium:
1. 2. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM exists when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are the same and the amounts of the species present do not change with time. LE CHATELIERS PRINCIPLE states that if a closed system at equilibrium is subjected to a stress, the system will react in a way that tends to relieve the stress.

Acids and bases:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. LOWREY-BRONSTED acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors. AMPHOTERIC means capable of acting either as an acid or a base. TITRATION means to measure the volume of a solution of one reactant that reacts exactly with the measured amount of another reactant. An INDICATOR is a compound which changes colour in a specific pH range. The END POINT is the point at which an indicator changes colour.

6. 7. 8. 9.

NEUTRALIZATION is the reaction of an acid with a base. HYDROLYSIS means the reaction in which the water molecule is split. A COMMON ION is an ion added to a solution that already contains some of that ion. The COMMON ION EFFECT is the displacement of an ionic equilibrium by an excess of one or more ions involved.

Organic Chemistry:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. A FUNCTIONAL GROUP is a chemically reactive atom or group of atoms which determine the characteristic properties of that family of organic compounds. ISOMERS are compounds that differ in molecular structure but have the same molecular formula. SATURATED hydrocarbons contain only covalent single bonds. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS are organic compounds that contain a carboxyl group (-COOH). ALCOHOLS are organic compounds that contain a hydroxyl group (-OH). A HOMOLOGOUS SERIES is a series of organic compounds which have a common functional group and can be represented by a general formula. HYDROGENATION is the adding of hydrogen atoms to saturate a compound. ADDITION REACTIONS are the addition of atoms or groups to the carbon atoms in a double or triple covalent bond. SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS occur when one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced in a carbon compound.

IMPORTANT ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

VALENCIES OF ELEMENTS AND POLY-ATOMIC IONS:
N.B. The following table gives some of the more common valencies of the elements and the polyatomic ions (radicals).

VALENCY 1

ELEMENTS
NAME Hydrogen Sodium Potassium Silver Copper-IMercury -IChloride Bromide Iodide Fluoride VALENCY 2 SYMBOL H Na K Ag Cu Hg ClBr IF-

POLY-ATOMIC IONS
NAME Hydroxide Nitrite Nitrate Chlorate Ammonium Permanganate Hypochlorite Acetate Bicarbonate Bisulphite Bisulphate SYMBOL OHNO2NO3ClO3NH4+ MnO4OClCH3COOHCO3HSO3HSO4-

ELEMENTS
NAME Calcium Magnesium Zinc Copper-IIMercury-IIIron -IIManganese Barium Lead -IITin-IISulphide Oxide VALENCY 3 Aluminium Antimony Iron- IIINitrogen -IIIPhosphorus -IIIVALENCY 4 Carbon SYMBOL Ca Mg Zn Cu Hg Fe Mn Ba Pb Sn S2O2Al Sb Fe N P C

POLY-ATOMIC IONS
NAME Carbonate Sulphite Sulphate Chromate Dichromate SYMBOL CO32SO32SO42CrO42Cr2O72-

Phosphate

PO43-

Silicon Tin-IVSulphur-IVLead -IVManganese -IVVALENCY 5 Nitrogen-VPhosphorus-VVALENCY 6 Sulphur-vi-

Si Sn S Pb Mn N P S

PREFERRED SI PREFIXES:
FACTOR 1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 10 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15 10-18
-3

SI exapetateragigamegakilomillimicronanopicofemtoatto-

SYMBOL FOR SI PREFIX E P T G M k m n p f a N.B.

THE SEVEN BASE UNITS OF THE SI

PHYSICAL QUANTITY length time mass electric current temperature luminous intensity BASE UNIT metre second kilogram ampere kelvin candela SYMBOL m s kg A K cd

amount of substance

mole

mol

USEFUL PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

NAME
Acceleration of gravity Gravitational constant Speed of electromagnetic waves (eg light) in vacuum Plancks constant Rest mass of electron Charge of electron Coulombs constant Avogadros constant Molar gas constant Standard temperature Standard pressure Molar gas volume at STP Ionic product of water

SYMBOL VALUE
g G c h me e k NA or L R T p Vm Kw 9.8 m.s-2 6,7 x 10-11 N.m2.kg-2 3,0 x 108 m.s-1 6,6 x 10-34 J.s 9,1 x 10-31 kg 1,6 x 10-19 C 9 x 109 N.m2.C-2 6,02 x 1023 mol-1 8,31 J.K-1.mol-1 273 K 101,3 kPa 22,4 dm3.mol-1 10-14 mol2.dm-6

Electrode Potential Table

MATHS FOR VECTORS

I. RIGHT - ANGLED TRIANGLES

PYTHAGORAS A2 = (30)2 + (40)2 A = (30)2 + (40)2 = 50N SIMPLE TRIG: SIN COS TAN II A. b2 = = = H A H O A 0 = = = 50 40 50 30 40 30 = = = 36,8

36,8 36,8

TRIANGLES THAT ARE NOT RIGHT-ANGLED: LENGTH OF SIDE (cosine rule) a2 + c2 - 2a c Cos b (600) 2+ (80) 2 - 2(600 x 80 Cos 135) 659

= = b = B.

SIZE OF ANGLE (sine rule) c = Sin c b Sin b 659 Sin 135 = 4,92

1.

80 = Sin c

UNITS OF LENGTH:
10 10 10 10 10 10 mm cm dm m Dm Hm = = = = = = 1 1 1 1 1 1 cm dm m Dm Hm km

CONVERSIONS
1000 mm3 (or 103 mm3) 1 000 000 000 mm3 (or 109 mm3) 1000 000 cm3 (or 106 cm3) 16.13 = 1 cm3 = 1 m3 = 1 m3

PREPARATION FOR THE FINAL EXAMS AT THE END OF THE YEAR: In order to achieve your full potential you should try to do all of the following: 1. Listen carefully in class and take down additional information provided by your teacher. 2. Work steadily throughout the year. 3. Prepare diligently for all tests and exams throughout the year. 4. Do as many sample questions as you can on each section of work, using textbooks, worksheets and past exam paper books. 5. Ask questions and seek assistance if you dont understand something. 6. Particularly for Matric, try to do at least 6 - 12 past physics and 6 - 12 past Chemistry papers before finals. 7. The more past papers you do, the better your marks will be in the finals. 8. Do not start your past paper programme until about the 1st May of your Matric year - otherwise you will lose interest, become bored and not complete the programme.