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Critical Approaches Important in the Study of Literature

I number of critical theories or approaches for understanding and intt'r llpreting literature are available to critics and students alike.l Many t'l
tltese were developed cluring tl-re twentieth century to create a discipline of lit

with disciplines in the natural and social scienct's l,iterary critics have often borrowed liberally from other disciplines (e.g', his tory, psychokrgv', politics, anthropology) but have primarily aimecl at devt'l oping literature as a study in its own right. At tl-re heart of the various critical approaches are many fundamcnt.rl questions: What is literature'? What does it do? Is its concern only to tell sttr ries, or is it to express emotions? Is it private? Public? How does it get its idea:' across? What rnclre does it dcl than express ideas? How valuablc was literattrn' in the past, and how valuable is it now? Wl'rart can it contribute to intellectrr al, artistic, and social history? To what degree is literature an art, as oppost'(l to an instrument for imparting knowledge? How is literature used, and horl and why is it misused? What theoretical and technical expertise may be in voked to enhance literary studies? Questions such as these inclicate that criticism is concerned not only witlr reading and interpreting stories, poems, and plays but also with establishing theoretical understanding. Because of such extensive aims, you will understand that a full explanation and illustration of the approaches would fill tht' pages of a long book. The following descriptions are therefore intended as n0 more than brief introductions. Bear in mind that in the l-rands of skilled critics, the approaches are so subtle, sophisticated, and complex that they are nol only critical stances but also philosophies. Although the various approaches provide widely divergent ways to studv literature and literary problems, they reflect major tendencies rather than absolute straitjacketing. Not every approach is appropriate for every work, nclr are the approaches always mutually exclusive. Even the most devoted practitioners of the methods do not pursue them rigidly. In addition, some of tht'
t'rarry studies comparable
lr.rsic sttrcly techniclucs for

.rlrlrro.r(1r,",,rr,'rnorr"'u:.('r lrrt'n,lly"llt,rttolltt'tslot tt'ttititttVlrt'sol tltst,'t tr'\,. lir,rrlt'r',rr,r',rl lt',r:;1,rrrosltt'itit'sIlrt'r't'lorctakcaParticlrlitritl-rproat'hlrttI ulilizt'nrt'llrotls llr,rl 1t't'lrrrit'ally bclrlng to one or rrlore of thc othcr aplrlo,rt ht's. A t ritic strcssing the topical/historical approach, for example', rrriglrt intnrrltrcc the closc stucly of a work that is associated witl'r the nlethod ol tlrc Ncw Criticism. Similarly, a psychoanalytical critic might include det.rils about archetypes. In short, a FTeat deal clf criticism is prngmatic or cc/trc/lt' rtrther than rigid. The approacl-res to be cor-rsic'lered here are these: moral/intellectual, topical/historical, New Critical/formalist, Structuralist, feminist, economic determinist/Marxist, psychological/psychoanalytic, archetypal/symbolic/ rnythic, deconstructionist, and reac-ler-response. The object of learning about the.se appnraches, like everything else in this book, is to help you develop yollr own reacling and writing. Accordingly, followinp; each of the descriptiorrs is a l-rricf ptrragraph showing how Hawthorne's story "Young Clooclnran llrowtr" (Appcndix C) might be considered in the light of the partic-ular a1-,;''r'1r.1.1r. l lrt' illustrativc pirrtrgraph following the discussicln of strttctttralisrrr, lirr t'ritttrlrlt', sltows arr applicatittn of the structuralist approach to Coorlnran Ilrorvrr irrrtl lris sloly, ,rrttl so itlso with the feminist approacl-r, the economic dctclrninis[ ,rpp11v.11 lv, ,rtrrl (lrt' olht'rs. Wheneveryouaredoingyourownwritingalrotrtlitt'r'.rtu11',v()u,rlt'lt't'r'lottst' the various approaches as part or all of yottr assipttrnt'ttt, il yott lx'lit"',t' Ilrt'irpproach may help you.

Moral/Intellectual
The moral/intellectual critical approach is concerned with coutent irncl val ues (see also Chapter 8). The approach is as old as literature itself, for litcrature is a traditional mode of imparting morality, philosophy, ancl religion. The concern in moral/intellectual criticism is not only to discover meaning btrt also to determine whether works of literature are both true and significntrt. To study literature from the moral/intellectual perspective is thcrcforc 1o determine whether a work conveys a lesson or a message arrd whcthcr iI carr help readers lead better lives and improve their understanding of thc worlt'l: What ideas does the work contain? How strongly doers the work brirrg lorth its ideas? What application do the ideas have to the work's charirctcrs ancl situations? How may the ideas be evaluated intellectually? Morally? l)iscussions based on such questions do r-rot imply that literattrrc is prir.narily a medium of moral and intellectual exhortation. Ideally, rnoral/irrtcllcctual criticism should differ from sermonizing to the degree that rcirtlcrs should always be left with tl-reir own decisions about whether to assinrilatc the ideas of a work and abclut whether the ideas-and values-arc pcrs()ltally or moral-

rsomt of thc approaclres dcscribed in this chapter are prcsentcd more simply in Chapter 1 as writing about literary works.

ly acceptable.

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Example
"Young Cicrodman Brown" raises the issue ttf how an institution designccl for human ele.vation, such as the religious system of colonial Salem, can bc so ruinous. Docs the faiiure result from the system itself or from the people who misunclcrstand it? Is what is true of religion as practiced by Brown also true of social and political institutions? Should any religious or political philosoplry be given greater credence than good will and mutual trust? One of the nra jor virtues of "Yrung Goodman Brown" is that it provokes questions like these but at the same time provides a number of satisfying answers. A particularly important one is that religious and moral beliefs should not be used to justify the condemnation of others. Another important answer is that attacks made from the refuge of a religion or group, such as Brown's Puritanism, are dangerous becausc the judge may condemn without thought ancl without personal responsibility'.

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()l r\r'n()l(l'., "l )ovt'r'lit,,rt'1r," lor t'xaurplc, somertinrcs find it difficlrlt to folIorv llrt' rrrtirrrirrr3 ol Arrroltl's statcme.nt "Thc Sea of Faith/Was once, too, at the Irrll." I lislorital Lrackgror-rrrd has a definite role to play here. InArnold's time lhcrc cle veloped a rnethod of treating the Bible as a l-ristorical document rather thirn divinely irrspired revelation. Tl-ris approach has beer-r called the Higher ('riticism of the Bible, and to many tl-roughtful people of the time it unde.rrnitred the concept that the Bible was divine, infallible, and inerrant. Thc.re.frtre the "Sea of Faith" was thought to be not at full but rather at ebb tide. Because the introduction of such historical material is designed to facilitate the reacl-

rvillr llrt'tttttlt'tslitntlirrt ol p.rrtit'ular tt'xts. Iit'.rtl-

ing of the pclem-and also the reading of other literature of the periocl-tl-re New Historicism represents an integration of knowledge and interpretation. As a principle, New Historicism entails the accluisition of as much historical information as possible, because onr knowlerdge of the relationship of literature to its historical period carl never be conrpk'tc. Tlre. practitioner of New Historicism must always seek new infornrirtiorr orr thc gnrunds that it will be found to be relevant to literary works.
Example "Young Coodman Brown" is an allegorical stolv Irv Nirtlr,rrrit'l I l,rn,llrorrrt' (1804-1864), a New England writer who probctl tlt,t'plv irrto tlrt' r't'l,rtionship between religion arrtl guilt. His ancestors hacl bt't'rr irrvolvt'tl irr rt'ligious persecutions, including the Salem witch trials, antl ht', livine l5() ycars afterward, wanted to analyze the weaknesses aucl unccrtaintit's ol tht' sindominated religion of the earlier period, a traditiorr of wlrich lrt' lvas a rc-

Topical/Historical
The topical/historical critical approach stresses the relationship of literature to its historical period, and for this reason it has had a long life. Although much literature may be applicable to many places and tirnes, much of it also directly reflects the intellectual and social worlds of the authors. When was the work written? What were the circumstances that produced it? What major issues does it deal with? How does it fit ir-rto tl'Le author's career? Keats's poem

"On First Looking into Chapman's Homet" for example, is his excited response to his reading of one of the major literary works of Western civilization. Hardy's "Channel Firing" is an acerbic response to continued armament

sentful heir. Not surprisingly, therefore, "Your-rg Gooclmatr lJrolvrr" ttrkes place in Pnritan colonial Salem, ancl Flawthon-rc's impliecl jtrtlgntcnts are thosc of a severe critic of hort' the harsh olcl religion destnryed pcrsonal and family relationships. Although the immecliate concerns of the story bekrng to a vanished age, Htrwthorne's treatment is still valuable because it is still timely.

and preparation for war during the twentieth century. The topical/historical approach investigates relationships of this sort, including the elucidation of words and concepts that today's readers may not immediately understand. Obviously, the approach requires the assistance of footnotes, dictionaries, library catalogues, histories, and handbooks. A common criticism of the topical/historical approach is that in the extrcme, it deals with background knowledge rather tharl with literature itself. It is possible, for example, for a topical/historical critic to describe a writer's I i lt', the period of the writer's work, and the social and irltellectual ideas of the tirrrt'-all without ever considering the meaning, importance, or value of the lvork itself. A rcaction against such an unconnected use of historical details is the so, ,rllt'tl Ncw Historicism. This approach justifies the introduction of historical

New Critical/Formalist
New Criticism has been a clot.nitrant forcc in contemprorary literary sttrrl ics. lt focuses on literary texts as frtrrlirl works of trrt, ancl for this rcasorr it can bc seen as a reaction against thc topic.rl/historical a;rpnr.rch.'['lre rlbjtttiorr raised by New Critics is that as topical/historit'irl tritit's consitlt'r litt'rary history, they evade direct contact with actrrirl It'xls. The inspiration for tl're New Criticirl/fornr.rlist criticirl itpproach was the French practice of explicttiott dc tct'lt,.r rrrt'tlrotl that crrrPlr,rsizcs detailed examination and explanation. Thc New ('ritit'isnr is .rI its rltrst bril]iant in the formal analysis of smaller units such as t.ntilt'l)()('nrs ancl short passages. For the analysis of larger structlrrcs, tho Ncw ('riticisrn also utilizes

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Example
A major aspect ctf Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown" is that the details or" ,o .rog.r" and dreamlike that manv readers are uncertain about what is happening. The action is a nighttir.ne walk by the protagonist, Young Goodmin Brown, inkr a deep forest whcre he encounte'rs a mysterious satanic ritual that leaves him bitier arrd misanthropic. This much seems clear, but the precise nature of Brown's experience is not clear, nor is the identity of the ,tr,,ng". (father, village elder, devil) who accompanies Brown as hebegins his u,alk. At the story's end Hawthorne's narratot stt.ttcs that the whole episode may have been n() ntore than a dream or nigl'rtmare. Yet when morning comes/ Bftiwn walks back into town as though retr.rrning ftotn an overnight tripr, and (parahe receils in h6rror frgm l'ris fellow villagc-rs, inclucling his wife Faith than a nightrnare? grapir 70). Could his attitude result from nothing t.nore Even at the story's encl these uncertainties remairt. For this reason one may colclude that F{awthorne deliberately creates the trncertainties to reveal how people like Brorvn builcl defensive walls of judgrnent around themselves. The'story thus implies that the real source of Bror,t'n's anger is as vague as his nocturnil w.]lk, br-rt he doesr-r't unclerstand it in this way. Because Bror'r,'n's vision and juclgment are absolute, lre rejects everyolll'around him, cven if the cost is a life of bitter suspicion and spiritutrl isolation'

Struclur.rlist
llrt' P1 i111 il'1,' ,'l stlrrt lrrritlisnt stcn'ts fronr thc'attcnrpt to find relationships ,rtttl t ottttt't liotts,ttrtottg elcurents that appear to be separate and cliscrete. Just ,rs plrysir'al scicncc rcveals unifyiug universal principles of matter such as gravity .,rncl the forces of electromagnetism (and is constantly searchit-rg for a
"trnified field theory"), the structuralist critical approach attempts to discovcr the forms unifying all literature. Thus a structural descripticxr of Matrpassant's "The Necklace" stresses that the main character, Matl-rilde, is arr ttctirte protagonist who undergoes a fcsf (or series of tests) and emerges with t-r victory, though not tl're kind she had originally hoped fctr. The sarne might be said of Mrs. Popov and Smirnov in Che.khov's Tlte Beor. If this same kind
of structural view is applied to Biercer's "An Oc'currerrce at Owl Creek Bridge," the protap;onist is clefeatc.cl in the tcst. (lcncrrrlly, the structural trpproach applies such configurations to other works ol'litt'raturc to clcte.rmine that certain protagonists are active or subnrissivc, th.rt tlrt'y P15,5 or iail their tests, or that -l'ht' they succeed or fail at othcr eucotrntr'rs. kt'y is lltirI rnirrrv irp]rirrctrtly Lln-

related works reveal malty comnton Lrattcnrs or torrt.rirr sintilirr-stntcttrres r,t'ith importarrl v.rria Iiorrs. The structural approach is important lrccirtrst' iI t'rrirlrlt's t lilit s to rliscuss works from widely disparate cultlrres and historit'irl lrt'riotl*. lrr lhis 11'sl)('ct, critics have follclwed the leads of modem irnthroPologists, rrrosl rrotalrly Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-1990). Along sttch lirres, critics h,rrrt' untlt.rt.rkerr the serious cxamination of folk and fairy tales. Sonrc of the rrountlLrrcaking
structuralist criticism, for example, was dev()ted to thc strtrctrrr.rl principks underlying folktales of Russia. Ther method also bridges poptrlar ancl scrior-rs literature, making little distinction between the two insofar as thc clescription of tl-re structures is concernecl. lndced, structuralism fr-rrnishes an ideal approach for comparative literature, and the metl-rod also enables critics to cclnsolidate gellrLrs such as moclern romances, cletective talc.s, soap operas, and film. Like the New Criticism, structuralism aims at comprehensiveness of description, and many critics woulcl insist that the two are complernentary and not separate. A distirrction is tlrat tlrc. New Criticism is at its best in dealing with smaller units of literature, r,vhcrcas structuralism is best in the analysis of narratives ancl therefore largcr trrrits strch as novels, myths, stories, plavs, arrcl films. Because structuralisnr slrorvs lrow fiction is organizccl irrto v.rrious typrical situations, the approirch nr('rs('s with thc nrclrtt.tl|tl appnrach (scc page 274), and at times it is difficrrlt to l'ind .rnv tlistirrctions lrt'twt.t'n stnrr'turirlism and archetypalism. Structuralism, however, cleals rrol jrrst rvitlr rrirrr,rlil,t' strut'turcs btrt also with structures of any type, where vcr tht'y ot t r rr'. Ii rr t'x.r rrr plt', structuralism makes great use of linguistics. Moc.lcrrr lingrristir' st'lrolars lravc cletermined that there is a difference between "clcep strut'ttrrt's" .rrrrl "srrrl-rtcc structures" in language. A structuralist analysis of stylc, tht'rclort', t'nrph;11;i7ss how writers utilize such structures. The struc-turirlist intcrprctation of language also

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It'tlt''

Early that morning, Alan had found himself thinking about Anne. He harl bc.li0r't'tl lrcr when she strid shc krved him, but his feelings about her werc not ccrtairr, arrcl l-ris thinking had left him still Llnsure.

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i,r,orcls oi these two passages create different and distinct frames of rt'fcr enc,t'. ( )rre is a fairy tale of the past, the other a modern internalized reflection

lronr tlrt'starrrlpoirtt of the presentation of women. For works such as "The Necklace" (story) "I'atterns" (poem), and The Benr (play), a feminist critique Iocuses on how such works treat women and also on either the shortcomings or enligl'rtenment of the author as a result of this treatment: How important are the female characters and how individual in their own right? Are they credited with their own existence and their own character? In their relationships with men, how are they treated? Are they given equal status? Ignored? Patronized? Demeaned? Pedestalized? How much interest do the male characters exhibit about women/s concerns?
Example

ol' lt't'lirrg. The passages therefore demonstrate how language itself fits inttr prt.tlctermined patterns or structures. Similar uses of language strtlctures call bt' associated with other types of literature.
Example
Your.rg

At the beginning of "Young Cottclnrarr llrowtr," Brown's wife, Faith, is only

peripheral. In the traditiont-rl patrii'rrchal spirit o[ wifc-as-adiunct, she asks
her husband to stay at home arrd takc his jotrnrcy irt anothcr tir-rrc. Flt-rwthorne does not give her the intelligence or ciigrritv, ltolvt'r,t'r, to lt't ht'r cxpliritr hcr concern (or might he not h;rve been intcrt'stt'tl in wlr,rt sltt' hirrl to sav?) arrcl she therefore remains in the backgrourrd witlr Ircr pink lt.ril riblrtttt its ht'r tlis tinguishing symbol of submissive inferiority. Dtrrirtg tltt' rrritl lort'sI s.tt,tttit ritual she appears again and is given powcr, but only Iltt'p1;11'1'1' (o titttst'ltt'r husband to go astray' once she is led in as a ttovict'itt tht'Pr'tttit't'ol tlt'monism, her husband falls right in step. Unforttrnately, lry following hcr, Brown can conveniently excuse himself from gr-rilt by clirinring that "shc" had made him do it, just as Eve, in some traditional vicws 0f tht' fall of humank:ind, compelled Adam to eat the apple (Genesis 3:16-17). Hawtlrorne's attention to the hero, in otirer words, permits him kr neglect thc possibility of a heroine.

Goodman Ilrown is

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hero r,vho is passive, not active. He is a zLtitnt'ss,

aracciucr rather than a doer. His

only action-taking his trip in the forest-oc-

curs at the story's beginning. After that point, he no longer acts but instead is acted upon, and i'ris reactions to what he sees around him put his life's beliefs to a test. Of course, marly protagonists undergo similar testing (such irs

rescuing victims and overcoming particularly terrible dragons), and ti-rey emerge triumpl-rant. Not so with Goodman Brown. He is a responder who allows himself kr be victimized by his own perceptions-or misperccptions. Despite all his previotts expericnces with his wifc and with tl-re good people of his village, ire generalizes too hastily. He lets the single disillusioning erperience of his nightmare govern his entire outlook ttn others, and thus he fails his test and turns his entire life into failure.

Economic Determinist/Marxist

Feminist
The feminist critical approach holds that most of our literature presents a masculine-patriarchal view in wl'rich the role of women is negated or at best rnirrimized. As an adjunct of the feminist movement in politics, the feminist critique of literature seeks to laise consciousness about the importance and ulriclue nature of women in literature. Specifically, the feminist view attempts (1) to show that wliters of tradilionirl literature have ignored women and have also transmitted misguided ,rntl prcjudiced view-s of them, (2) to stimulate the cleation of a critical milieu llr,rt n'flccts a balalced view of the lature and value of women, (3) to recovt,r' llrt. rvorks of past women writers and to encourage the publication of pre:;t,rrl rvorrlt'lr writers so that the literary canon can be exPanded to recognize' \\'( )r n('n .rs thinkers and artists, and (4) to urge transformations in the language

The concept of cultural and economic determinism is one of the major political ideas of the nineteenth cerltury. Karl Marx (1818-1883) emphasized that the primary influence on life w.ts ccotlomic, and he saw society as an opposition between the capittrlist arrd working classes. The literature that cmcrgcd from this kind of analysis featrrrcs incliviclurrls in the grips of thc class struggle. Often called proletarian literirturc, it enrph.rsizt's pcrs()lrs ol' thc lower class-the poor and oppressed who spcrrrl tlrt'ir livt's itr t'rtcllt'ss tlrutlgcry and misery, and whose attempts to risc irbovt'tlrt'ir tl isirtlv(lrttilg('s Ltstlally result in renewed suppression. Marx's political ideas were never wiclely.r(('('pt('(l irr the Urrited States and have faded still more in the aftennath oi thc political breirkup of the Sclviet Union, but the idea of economic clctcrnrinist.tr (antl the rclated term social Darrttinisrtt) is still credible. As a result, llLrch litcrirtLrrc calt be judged from

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,rrr':rrrllol llrissl,rlrrs?llolvtlotlrt'_ylitrt,,rr',,rrrr:.1 ('(()n()nli(,trttl ;rrtlilit,rl o,l,l:,,' Wlr,rl ollrt,r torrrl itiorrs stt'r)ll1i11g frtlnr tltt'il t'l.tss tlot's tltt'lvlilt'r t'tttlrltitsizt' (t'.ri., ]roor t'cltrcirtion, poor nutrition, po()r hcrrltlr r'arr', irt.tcletlttirtt'o1.r1xrt'[11 nitv) I 'lir wltat extent cloes the work fail by overlookirrg the ec()llorttic, s()e i.ll, irncl political implications of its material? ln what other ways does ccottotlir' tlt'terminism affect the work? How should readers consider the story irr toclay's developed or underdeveloped world? Seemingly, Hawthorne's storv "Young Goodman Brown," which we have used for analysis in these discus sions, has no economic implications, but an economic determinist/Marxist critical approach migl-rt take the following turns:
Example "Yourrg Goodman Brown" is ;r fine story just as it is. It deals with the false values instilled by the skewed acceptance of sin-dominated religion, but it overkroks the economic implications of this situation. One suspccts that the real story in the little world of Goodman Brown's Salem should be about survival and the disruption that an alienated member of society can procltrce. After Brown's condemnation and distrust of others forces him inttr his own shell of sick imagination, Halvthorne docs not consicler how such a disaffected character would injure the economic and public life of the town. Consider this, just for a rnoment: Why would the people frorn whom Bror,vn recoils in disgust want to deal with him in busirress or personal rnatters? [n towtr meetings, r,vctuld they want to follow his opinitns on crucial issues of public concern and invcstmer-rt? Wotrld his preoccupation with sin and damnation make hinr anything morer than a horror in his clornestic life'? Would his r'vife, Faith, be ablc to cliscuss lrousehold managcrnent it'ith him, or how to take care of thc. children? All these questions of course are pointecl toward anotlrer story-a skrry tlrat Hawthorne dicl not rvrite. They also indicate the shortcomings of Flawthorne"s approach, bc'cause it is clear thtrt thc- major result of Young Goodman Brown's selfisl'r preoccupation with evil would be a serious disruption of thc- economic and poiitical affairs of his small communitv.

l)r'o,rt lr lo r rrlrr r:,nr.' sorlrt't ritit's use the approach to explain fictional char,rt lt'r's, ,rs rn llrr, lirrrtl urirrk interpretation by Freud and Ernest Jones that ShirkcsPt',rt,'s I lar.rrlet suffers from an Oedipus complex. Still other critics use it as a wiry of analyzing authors and the artistic process. For example, |clhn Livirrgstirn Lowes's stwdy The Rosd to Xanndu presents a detailed examination of

lrr,r,l,lrlron. rl,, l,r'l'rrl,rlily prorlttt't'rl il l-rsyr'holtlgicirl,/psycho;uralytic ap-

tlrc mind, reading, and neuroses of Coleridge, the author of "Kubla Kl-ran." Critics using the psycl-roanalytic approach treat literature somewhtrt like: ir.rformation about patients in therapy. In the work itself, what are tl-re obviotrs and hidden motives that cause a character's behavior and speech? FIow much background (e.g., repressed cl-rildhood trauma, adolescent memories) does the author reveal about a character? How purposeful is this information with regard to the character's psychokrgical condition? How much is important in the analysis and understanding of thc character? In tl-re consideration of autlrors, critics utilizing the psychoanalytic model consider questions like these: What pirrtir'rrlar lifc cxperiences explain characteristic subjects or preoccupations? Wirs lht'ittttltor's lifc happy? Miserable? Upsetting? Solitary? Social? Can thc clcirth oi s()nr('()n(' in thc atrthor's family be associated with melancholy situt-rtirlns in tlrat iruthor's work? All cleven brothers and sisters of the English poct Thotnirs (irity, lor t'xittnplt', clicc'l before reaching adulthood. Cray was the only orrc to srtrvivt'. lrr his grot'lry, (l1ny often deals with death, and he is therefore consiclcrcd ottc ol tlrt' "( iravt'yitrd School" of eighteenth-century poets. A psychoanalytical critit' nrighl rlirkc much of this connection.
Example At the end of "Young Coodman Brown," Hawthorne's mtrjor character is no longer capable of normal existence. His nigl-rtmare should be read as a symbol of what in reality would have been lifekrng mental subjection to the type of puritanical religion that emphasizes sin ancl guilt. Such preoccupation with sin is no hindrance to psychological health if the preoccupied people are convinced that God forgivc's them and grants them mercy. In their dealings with others, they renrain hcalthy as long as they believe that other people have the same sincere trust in tlivine forgiveness. If their own faith is weak and uncertain, however, ancl if they cattuot believe in forgiveness, then they are likely to transfer their own gtrilt re.rlly ir fonn of pcrsonal tertrr-to othcrs. They remain conscions of their owr.r sirrs, btrt they fincl it e'asy to c'lainr that otlrers are sinful-even thosc n'ho arc sPirittritlly spotlcss, ittttl t'vt'u tht'ir owtr family, wl-ro should be dearest to tlrt'nr. Wlrt'n this pr()c('ss of plojt'ction or transference occurs, such peoplc havt' r'rt'att'tl tlrt' ratiortalt' ol' r'tttrrlcttrtritrg -l-he prit'r'that tht'y piry is a lilt'of gloom, others because of their own guilt. a fate that Hawthorne designates for (itxrtlnran lllown alter tlrt'nightmare about demons in human form.
rScc also Chapter 4,

Psycholo gical/Psychoanalytic
The scientific study of the mind is a product of psychodyllamic theory as established by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) arrd of the psychoanalytic method practiced by his followers. I'sychoanalysis provided a new key to the understanding of character by claiming that behavior is caused by hidden and unrrlrsc-ious motives. It was greeted as a revelation with far-reaching implications

Ior all intellectual pursuits. Not surprisingly it had a profound and continuirrq t'l.l't'ct on post-Freudian literature.

"Writing About Character: Thc I'coplt' itt l.itt'r.ttttrt'

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'l'hc archetypal/symbolic/mythic critical .rppro.rt'lr, tlt'r'ivt'tl llorrr llrt' n,or l. ol theSwisspsychoanalystCarl Jung(1875-l9(rI),pn'srrppost'sth.rIhrrrrr.rrrlilt' is built up out of patterns, or archetypes ("first molds" ()r "l i rst pa ttt'rns" ) t lr,r l are similar througl-rout various cultures and historical times.rlTht'rrpproat h is similar to the structuralist analysis of literature, for both approachcs str('ss the connections that may be discovered in literature written in differerrt tinrt's and in vastly clifferent locations in the world. h-r literary evaluation, the archetypal approach is used to support the clainr that the vcry best literature is grounded in archetypal patterns. The archt' typal critic therefore looks for archetypes such as God's creation of human be irrgs, the sacrifice clf a hero, or the search for paradise. How does an indi vid rra I story, poem, or play fit into any of the archetypal patterns? What truths docs this correlation provide (particularly truths that cross historical, national, irnd cultural lir-res)? How closely does the work fit the archetype? What variations can be seen? What meaning or meanings do the connections have?
The most tenuous aspect of archetypal criticism is Jung's assertion that thc

(lr'nrol',lr.rll llrr'rr rvorllunt':,:, lo ltt'r'onlt'lrrll llt'tlgt'tl tttt'ttt[rt'ts ol so1 11'1y. lllr.rrr.r, lrrr', rrr I l,'rn,.r '. I )rl.tl:;:.r'.tl,lor t'xanrplt', is a yotrng nran who itr the (('lri,r.ol llr,,t'1tr, r',ot'sllrrrlrththcinitiationritualsof travel,discussion,and lr,rtllt'. ltrrl irr "\irtrrrg (looduran Brown" we see initiation in reverse, for just .rs Ilrt'rt, is ln arthetype of successful initiation, Brown's initiation letrds him in[o lailrrre. In the private areas of life on which happiness clepencls, he falls short. Hc sces evil in his felkrw villagers, condemns his ministet and shrinks cvcn from his own family. His life is one of despair and gloom. His suspicions are those of a Puritarr of long ago, but the timeline'ss of Hawthoruc's story is that tl-re archetype of misunderstandirrg and condcmnation has not changed. Today's headlines of r.niscry and war are prodtrced by the san.rc kind of intolerance thart is exhibitecl by Coodrlan Brown.

Deconstructionist
The deconstructionist critical approi.rch lt, lr it'h tlt'constructionists explain not as an approach but rathcr as a l-rt'rlornrarrt t' w'.rs tlt'r,r'lopc'cl lry the French criticJacquesDerrida (b. 1930). Irr tlrt' l()70s,rrrtl l()li{)s iI lrt't.rntt'ir nrajorbut also controversial mode clf criticisnr. As a litt'r',rly Ilrt'oly, tlr't orrsllrrr'lionisnr produces a type of analysis tha t stresst's a rrrlrigrr i t y,r rtl t ort l r.,rtl it l iott. Amajorprincipleof deconstructionisur is that Wt'slt'r'rr tltorrrilrl lt,ts [rt't'tr Iogocantric; that is, Western philosopl-re'rs have bast'tl tlrt'il irlt',rs ort lltc assumption that central truth is knowable and elrtirc (this vit'lv is irtr'or'rct'[, irt'cording to a deconstructionist). The deconstructionist vicw posits instt'.rtl tltaI there is no central truth because circumstances and time, which .tlc t'lt.tngt'able ar-rd sometimes arbitrary, govern the world of the intellect. 'l'his irn.rlysis leads to the declaration "All interpretation is misinterpretation." "fhat is, literary works cannot be encapsulated as clrganically unified entireties, anrl therefore there is not ond corract interpretation but only interltretntiLtns, each onc possessing its own validity. In "deconstructing" a work, therefore, the deconstructionist critic raises questions about what other critics have claimed about the work: ls a poem accepted as a model of classicism? Then it also exhibits qualities of romanticism. ls a story about a young Native American's flight from school cotlmonly taken as a criticism of modern urban life? Then it may also bc tirketr irs a story of the failure of youth. ln carrying out such criticism, derconslrttctiotrist critics place heavy emphasis on the ideas contained in terms strch is /trtlbirtalence, discrepnncy, enigma, unccrtuitrty, delusion, itrtlccisiotr, irnrl /rlck o/
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recurring patterns provide evidence for a "universal human consciousness" that all clf us, by virtue of our humanity, still retain in our minds and in our very blood. Not all critics accept the hypothesis of a universal human consciousnL.ss, but they nevertheless consider the approach impclrtant for comparisons anc'l contrasts (see Chapter 14). Many human situations, such as adolescence, dawning love, the search for success, the reconciliation with one's mother ancl father, and the encroachment of age and death, are similar in structure and carr
be analyzed as archetypes. For example, tl-re following situatior-rs can be seen as a pattern or archetype of initiation: A young man discovers the power of lit-

erature' and understarlding (Keats's "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer"); a man determines the importance of truth ancl fidelity amidst uncertainty (Arnold's "Dover Beach"); a man and woman fall in love despite their wislres to remain independent (Chekhov'sThe Besr); a woman g.rins strengtl'r and integrity because of previously unrealized inner resources (Maupassant's "Tlle Necklace"). The archetypal approach encourages the analysis of variations on the same theme, as in Glaspell's Trit'lcs and Hardy's "The Three Strangers" when important characters conceal details that are relevant to a criminal investigation (one sort of initiation) and also, as a result, assert their own individuality and freedom (another sort of initiation).
Example
In the sense that Young Goodman Brown undergoes a change from psychological normality to rigidity, the story is a reverse archetype of the iuitiation ritual. According to the archetype of successful initiation, initiatcs scck to
''ivrrrl,olisnr is llso considered in Chapter 10.

resolu t ion, among others.

The deconstructionist attack on "correct," "privileged," or "accepted" readings is also related to the principle that language, ancl thcrcfore literature, is unstable. "Linguistic instability" means that thc tnrtlcrstanding of words can never be exact or comprehensive because thcrc is it ncver-ending plarl between the words in a text and their many shaclcs oi nreaning, including possible future meanings. That is, the words do not rcntttitt constant and

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reaclings impossible.

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A number of critics have found the deconstructionist p()siti()lr cltrsivt' and vague. They grant that literary works are often ambiguclus, trncertirirr, and apparently contradictory, but they explain tl'rat the cause of these corr ditions is not linguistic instability but rather authorial intention. They also point out tlrat the deconstructionist linguistic analysis is derivative, ullori!,inal, ancl irrcorrect. In addition, critics claim that the deconstructionist lin guistic position does not support deconstructionist assertions about linguistir' instability. Critics also draw attention to the contradiction that deconstrtrc tionisrl cannot follow its major premise about there beirrg no "privilegetl rt'atlings" because it must recognize the privileged readings in order to invalidate or "subvert" them.
Example
There are many uncertainties in the details of "Young Coodman Brown." If one starts with the stranp;er on the path, one might conclucle that he could be Brown's father because he recognizes Brown immediately and speaks to him jovially. On the other hand, the stranger could be the devil (he is recognized as such by Coody Cloyse) because of his wriggling walking stick. After disappearing, the stranger also takes on the characteristics of an omniscient cu'lt leader and seer because at the satanic ceiebration he knows all the secret sins committed by Brown's neighbors and the community of greater New England. Additionally, he might represent a perverted conscience whose aim is to mislead and befuddle people by steering them into the holier-than-thou judgmentalism that Brown adopts. This method would be truly cliabolicalb use religion in order to bring people to their own damnation. That tl-re stranger is an evil force is thcrefore clear, but the pathways of his evil are not as clear. He seems to work his mission of damnation by reaching souls like that of Coodman Brown through means ordinarily attributecl to conscience. If the stranger represents a satanic corrscience, what are we to suppose that Hawtlrorne is asserting about what is considerec-l real conscience?

;\:,,r , ,)1r.,(,rlu{,n( ('ol llrt'1rlrt'ttotttr'ttologicalctttrccprt, rctrcicr-rcsp-rt)tlsc [llcv lrol,lr. llr,rl llrt' rt',rtlt't'is it trcccssary tlrirci party in the author-text-reader t'l,rlionslr iP Ilr,r I t orrstitutcs the literary work. The work, in other words, is not lr rlly t rcatt'tl trutil rctrdcrs make a translctiott with it by assimilating it and act ttrrlizirrg it in the light of tl-reir own knowledge and experience. The represent,rtivc rlucstions of the theory are these: What does this work mean to me, in nry preserlt intellectual and moral makeup? What particular aspects of my lil'c can help me understand and appreciate the work? How can the work improve my understanding and widen my insights? How can my incre.lsirrg trrlclcrstanding help me understand the work more deeply? The theory is that tlre free interchange or transtrction that such cluestions bring about leads towt-rrcl interest and growth so that rcadcrs (-an assimilate literary works and accePt thenr as part of lht'ir lives. As an initial way of reading, thc rcaclcr-response method rnay be personal and anecdotal. In adclitiorr, by strt'ssing rosp()nse rather thar-r interpretation, one of the leacliug expont'rrts ol.tht' rrtt'tlrocl (Sttrnley Fish) has raised the extrerne question about whcther [t'xls, lry tlrt'tttst'lvcs, havc objective identity. These aspects have bccn citerl as lrotlr.r sltorttotttittg altcl atr intrttttsequentiality of the method. It is therefore irnportant to strcss th.rt tlrt' rt';ttlct' 11'sl)()lls(' Iltt'ot'V i5 rr/rr'rl. It permits beginning readers to bring thcir owtt [rt'tsott,tl t't'.tr'tiotts lo litt'rature, but it also aims to increase their clisciplint'.rrrtl sl.ill.'lltt'tttolt'tlt.tt reaciers bring to literature tl-rrough tl'reir intercsts arrtl tl ist iPlilrt'tl slrltl it's' the more "competent" and comprehensive their rt.sponses w,ill [rt'. With t'umulative experience, the disciplined reader will habitually arlitrst Io ttt'w works and respond to them with increasing expertise. If the r,vorks rt'tlttirt' special knowledge in fields such as art, politics, science, pl-rilosophy, rt'ligiorl, or mclrality, tllen competent readers will seek out such knowledge trntl utilize it in developing their responses. Also, because students expericnce many similar intellectual and cultural disciplines, it is logical to conclude thnt responses will tend not to diverge but rather to coalesce; agreements result not from personal but from cultural sirnilarities. The reader-response theory, then, can and should be an avenue toward informed and detailed understanding of literature, but tl-re initial emphasis is the transacfirrn bctween readers and literary works.
Example "Young Goodman Brown" is worrisome because it shows stl clistrrrbingly that good intentions may cause harmful results. I think that a pt'rsorr witl'r too high a set of expectations is ripe for disillusionment, iust :rs (ltxrclman Brown is. When people clon't measure up to this persotl's staltclarcl of perfection, they can be thrown aside as thottS;h they are worthlt'ss. "['hey may be good, but their past mistakes make it impossiblc. for thc pcrsott witl'r high exper:ttrtions to endure them. I have seen this situation ()ccur artt()l1g sonte of my

Reader-Response
reader-response critical approach is rooted tn pthenomenolog,y, a branch oi pl-rilosophy that deals with the understanding of how things appear. The phenomenological idea of knowledge is that reality is to be found not in the extcrrral world itself but rather in the our perceptiln of the external world. That is, all tl-rat we human beings can know-actual knowledge-is our collective irrrtl personal understanding of the world and our conclusions about it.
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,til B

Ft,

The Use of References and Tenses

in Writing About Literature

establishing evidence for the points you make in your essays and essay Iexaminations, you constantly need to refer to various parts of stories, plays,

Jn

and poems. You also need to incltrde shorter and longer quotations and to keep the time sequences straight within thc works you are writing about. In addi-

tion, you may need to refer to biographical anc-l historical dctails that have a bearing on the work or works v()Lr irrc strrdying. So that yottr own writing may flow as accurately and naturally t.rs 1-rossilrlt', iI is nrosl inrPo11,lt'1 ior yot-t kt be able to integrate these references anrl tinrt'tl islint'lions clt'lrly alrcl t'.tsily.

Integrating Passages and ldeas into Your Essay

Your essays should reflect your own thought irs y()u str-rcly anrl analyzc thc characteristics, ideas, and qualities of an author's work. lrr a typical tl iscttssitlu of literature, you are constantly introducing paraphrase, cluotations, generarl interpretations, observations, and independent applications of everything you are discussing. It is not easy to keep these various elements integrated and to keep confusion from arising (see also Chapter 18, page 253).
Tread Carefully to Distinguish Your Thoughts from Those of Yout Author

Often the major problem is that it is hard for your reader to figure out when VOUr ideas have stopped and your rtrrtlrur's have begun. You must thereforc arrange your scntences to make the distinctiotls clcar, but yclu must also blencl ytlur materials so that your reader may folklw yorr casily. Let us sce itn cxi.tttrprlc of how such problems may be handlecl. I lcrc, tht' writcr lrt'ing c]isctrsscr'l is the Victorian poet Matthew Arrrold (1822-1uus)''l'ht' P'15s'1gt' rlr()vcs irotn reference to Arnold's ideas to the essay writer's ittclcl-rclltlctrt applicatitln of the ideas.
[1] In his poem "Dover Beach," Matthcw Artroltl statt's that in past times religious faith was accepted as absolutc trtrth. l2l 'lo sytnlrolize tl-ris idea he refers t9 the ocean, which surrounds all larntl, atrtl tltc srrrl', which constantly