AN EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF RUBBER SUSPENSION

Xinyi Chen Finn Jacobsen, Mogens Ohlrich (DTU) Martin Larsen, Sren Halkjr (OTICON) Feburary, 2008

Auther:

Supervisors:

Abstract
Rubbers are very important material with versatile engineering applications. One of the main purpose of the applications is to isolating vibration that might cause damage to the mechanical system. When a rubber material is used for this purpose, the elastic modulus and the damping property of the rubber is the main concern. The elastic modulus determines how much vibration is transmitted through the rubber and the damping property determines how much is absorbed and dissipated. A rubber suspension in the hearing aid apparat is such a product. It serves as a receiver holder as well as avoiding the transmission of the vibration from the receiver to the shell of the hearing aid. Since a hearing aid is used as a sound transmitting media. The interesting frequency range is broad (up to kilohertz range). The modulus and the damping properties of this range is called the dynamic property, i.e. dynamic modulus or damping, which is a dierent concept to the static modulus or damping. However, in hearing aid industry, the rubber material for the suspension is chosen more empirically. Neither the static modulus or damping nor the dynamic modulus or damping of the material is clear. It is therefore an interesting topic for the industry to investigate the rubber material more theoretically. This motivates the investigation of this report. The rubber suspension is investigated both from a material point of view and a structural point of view. The dynamic elastic modulus (Young's modulus here) and the damping are derived for the rubber suspension by dierent methods. The results deviate with each other because of the inherent feature of the method itself as well as the uncertainty caused by the experiments. However, a common conclusion is that both the Young's modulus and the damping of the rubber suspension are frequency dependent in the frequency range of concerned.

Chen Xinyi

February 29, 2008

Contents
Abstract Contents List of Figures List of Tables Preface 1 Introduction 2 Hearing Aids 3 Project Description
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 Background of the project Description of the project Test method . . . . . . . . Expected approach . . . . Project initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

i iii vi xi xiii 1 3 6
6 7 8 9 9

4 Rubber Material: Modulus and Damping

4.4 5.1

Structure of rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanical property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modulus and damping model . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Maxwell and Kelvin-Voigt models . . . . 4.3.2 Zener model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Frictional model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 The generalized model . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.5 Fit the model to the experimental data summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11
11 13 22 23 24 25 27 28 32 33 33

5 Relaxation experiment

Compression test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Experiment setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . February 29, 2008

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5.1.2 Experiment result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tension test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Experiment setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Experimental result and tting with 13 parameters 5.2.3 Fitting with 5 and 3 parameters model . . . . . . . Summery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 39 39 40 45 47

5.2

5.3 6.1

6 Structure: Theoretical Model of Suspension

6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7

Analytical model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Bernoulli-Euler theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Timoshenko beam theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Finite element model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of analytical model with nite element model using simple rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analytical model with mass at one end of the beam . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Bernoulli-Euler Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Timoshenko Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of analytical model to nite element model in mass case 6.4.1 Finite element model with real mass and with point mass . 6.4.2 Analytical model vs. nite element model . . . . . . . . . . Shell theory consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experiment and simulation setup . . . . . . . . . . Some prechecking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary conditions and test setup considerations Resonance method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Short tube with constant cross section . . . 7.4.2 A full tube with or without mass . . . . . . Non-Resonance method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Verication with other measurements . . . . . . . . 7.6.1 The second short tube . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.2 Tubes of full length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49
50 50 52 54 56 59 59 60 60 60 63 65 67

7 Forced Vibration Experiments

68
68 70 72 76 76 82 86 90 90 93 96

8 Conclusions 9 Step Forward Appendices A Technical drawing of the suspension

97 99 101 101

A.1 Suspension type FK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 A.2 Suspension type FH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 February 29, 2008

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B MATLAB programs for nding E and

B.1 MATLAB program for nding E modulus when the loss factor is dened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 B.2 MATLAB program for nding complex E modulus . . . . . . . . . 105

104

References

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List of Figures
2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 Types of hearing aids and their location in the ear. a)BTE; b)ITE; c)ITC; d)CIC. 8,9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic structures of hearing aids (ITE). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic illustration of feedback path in an ITE hearing aid. 10 . Suspension. Left: type FK. right: type FH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A schematic representation of polymer chains. . . . . . . . . . . . . A schematic representation of carbon black lled rubber. . . . . . . An illustration of volume deformation.18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An illustration of tensile deformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An illustration of shear deformation.18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An object under compression with Poisson's ratio around 0.5.18 . . A spring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A damper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hysteresis loop shown for viscoelastic materials under static load. . Hysteresis loop shown for viscoelastic materials under dynamic load. Static and dynamic stress and strain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Creep phenomenon.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relaxation phenomenon.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperature dependence of modulus of rubber material and the three physical states. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency dependence of modulus of rubber material. . . . . . . . Maxwell model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kelvin-Voigt model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relaxation behavior of the Maxwell model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zener model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relaxation behavior of the Zener model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frictional element. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanical behavior of frictional element. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frictional model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanical behavior of frictional model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Combined viscous and frictional model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of applying strain at dierent levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . February 29, 2008

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4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 Examples of relaxation test results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example of the relaxed loading curve and its tting process. Example of the visco-relaxed modulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . The tting process of a visco-relaxed modulus curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 30 31 31 34 34 35 35 36 37 38 38 39 40 40 41 41 42 43 44 44 45 46 47 50 55 55 56 58 59 61

Experiment setup of a compression test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experiment setup of a compression test in real situation. . . . . . . Relaxation test result of the compression test. . . . . . . . . . . . Relaxation modulus of the rubber in the compression test. . . . . . The loading curve of the rubber in the compression test. . . . . . . The visco-relaxed modulus of the rubber in the compression test. . Visco-elastc model for the rubber in compression test. . . . . . . . Comparison of the combined model and the test. Solid line: test; dashed line: model behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The complex modulus model derived from the compression test. . . Illustration of a tension test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The tension test setup in the real situation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The relaxation test result of the tension test. . . . . . . . . . . . . The relaxation modulus of the rubber in the tension test. . . . . . The loading curve of the rubber in the tension test. . . . . . . . . . The visco-relaxed modulus of the rubber in the tension situation. . Comparison of the combined model behavior and the test result. Solid line: test result; dashed line: model behavior. . . . . . . . . . Complex modulus model derived by the tension test. . . . . . . . . The combined model with one frictional element and one Maxwell element. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of the 13-parameter model (green dashed), 5-parameter model (red dashed), 3-parameter (black dash-doted) model and the test result (blue solid). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The comparison of the complex model behavior derived from the 13-parameter model, the 5-parameter model and the 3-parameter model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A vibrating beam with free-sliding boundary condition. . . . . . . . The meshed steel rod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The comparison of the transfer function between the two ends of the steel rod using nite element model and from the Bernoulli-Euler theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Bernoulli-Euler, Timoshenko theory and Finite element model in a solid rod case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Bernoulli-Euler, Timoshenko theory and Finite element model in a hollow rod with cylindrical cross section. . . . . . A beam with a mass on the free end. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A mesh of the tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . February 29, 2008

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7

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6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 Cylindrical tubes with free hanging mass (up) and a concentrated point mass (down) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A comparison of the response of the beam of a mass to a concentrated point mass. The mass is a solid rod with diameter of 1mm and length of 6mm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of point mass to mass, 8 mm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A comparison of the response of a cylindrical solid beam with a hanging mass. The mass has the same diameter of the rod and a length of 1mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A comparison of the response of a cylindrical hollow beam with a hanging mass. The mass has the diameter of 1mm and a length of 6mm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The deformation seeing from the cross section for a light damped ring shaped beam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A comparison of the response of a ring shaped beam using the shell theory and using the other theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A comparison of the response of a ring shaped beam with a hanging mass using the shell theory and using the other theories. . . . . . . Experiment setup of a forced vibration test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experiment setup of a force vibration test in the real situation. . . Transfer function measured at 10 Hz to 1 kHz (left) corresponding to dierent input levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transfer function measured at 1 kHz to 10 kHz (right) corresponding to dierent input levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transfer function measured for two FK suspension sample sets. . . Experiment setup of a forced vibration test with a xed boundary condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A setup photo from the real experiment of a forced vibration test with a xed boundary condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The transfer function between the midpoint of the tested tube and the driving point in the vibration test with a xed boundary condition. The input mobility measured from the vibration system with a free boundary condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The transfer function between the point at the free end and the force driving point of the same vibration system as in g 7.9. . . . The transfer function of the short tube between a point near the free end and the force driving point from 10 to 10kHz. w: displacement (applied also to the gures in the following for every |w(x)/w(L)|) shown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The transfer function of the short tube between a point near the free end and the force driving point from 10 to 1kHz. . . . . . . . . Nyquist diagram of the transfer function in g 7.12. . . . . . . . . . A replot of the Nyquist diagram of g 7.13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . February 29, 2008

62 62 63 64 64 65 66 67 69 69 71 71 72 73 73 74 75 75

7.12 7.13 7.14

76 77 77 79

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7.15 The comparison of the prediction from the three models to the measurement using a constant Young's modulus and a constant loss factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16 The transfer function of a point between the free end of the vibrating tube and the force driving point from 10Hz to 5kHz for the tubes in dierent length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17 The transfer function between a point near the center of the vibrating tube and the force driving point from 10Hz to 10kHz. . . . . . 7.18 The Nyquist diagram of the transfer function in g 7.17. . . . . . . 7.19 The transfer function between a point near the center of the vibrating tube with a mass hanging on the free end and the force driving point from 10Hz to 10kHz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20 A collection of the Young's modulus and the loss factors calculated from the resonance frequencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.21 The Young's modulus calculated from the measured transfer function in g 7.12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.22 The loss factor assumed in the calculation of a frequency dependent Young's modulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.23 Comparison of predictions with the three models using the nonconstant Young's modulus to the measurement data. . . . . . . . . 7.24 Real part of the complex modulus calculated from the measured transfer function in g 7.12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.25 Imaginary part of the complex modulus calculated from the measured transfer function in g 7.12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.26 The loss factor calculated by dividing the imaginary part of the complex modulus by the real part of the modulus. . . . . . . . . . 7.27 The predictions of the transfer function from the three models compared to the measurement data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.28 The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using a constant Young's modulus and a constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement when a tube has a length 11.25mm. 7.29 The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using the non-constant Young's modulus and a constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement with a 11.25mm tube. . . . . . . . 7.30 The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using the non-constant Young's modulus and a non-constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement with a 11.25mm tube. . . . . 7.31 The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using the non-constant Young's modulus and a constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement of the FK type suspension. . . . . 7.32 The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using the non-constant Young's modulus and a non-constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement of the FK type suspension. . Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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81 82 83

84 85 86 87 87 88 89 89 90

91

92

93

94

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7.33 The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using the non-constant Young's modulus and a constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement of the FH type suspension.. . . . . 7.34 The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using the non-constant Young's modulus and a non-constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement of the FH type suspension.. .

95 95

A.1 A technical drawing of the suspension of type FK. . . . . . . . . . 102 A.2 A technical drawing of the suspension of type FH. . . . . . . . . . 103

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List of Tables
6.1 6.2 7.1 Table of natural frequency nite Element models. . . . Table of natural frequency nite Element models. . . . in Bernoulli-Euler, Timoshenko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in Bernoulli-Euler, Timoshenko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and Fi. . . . . and Fi. . . . .

57 58 85

Table of natural frequency and the corresponding Young's modulus and loss factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Preface
This report is presented to Technical University of Denmark (DTU) as partial fulllment of the requirements for obtaining the Master's Degree in acoustic engineering. The project has been carried out in Oticon A/S and DTU in the past eight months. The thesis has been written under the supervision of Finn Jacobsen (Acoustic Department, rstedDTU), Mogens Olrich (Acoustic Department, rstedDTU), Martin Larsen (Oticon A/S) and Sren Halkjr (Oticon A/S). Taking this opportunity, I would like to oer my enormous thanks to all my supervisors for all your great patience in answering my questions and helping me out of every trouble, for you spending your precious time and spirit in valuable discussions and suggestions and for you teaching me with your knowledge and experience without any reservation. There are a lot more people that I should send my thanks. Just to name a few here. I wish to express my gratitude as well to many other people that has been dedicated their eorts during this project. To name just a few: Andreas Schousboe who had led me to the project; Christian C. Brger who helped to purchase COMSOL Multiphysics; Thure Ralfs who helped me with the application of the COMSOL Multiphysics; Jens T. Balslev gave me a lecture of the structure of hearing aid; Liu Yang who helped me with the mathematics and always gave me good advise in any other aspects; Ren Christensen who helped me on curve tting problems; Hans B. Nielsen who kindly oered his application iteration package on Levenberg-Marquadt method in MATLAB although it has not been chosen because of its inability in solving two dimensional problems; Zhang Yang who have given me a good image of rubber material; Poul H. Henriksson and Anders H. Nielsen who had helped me with the relaxation tests; Karsten B. Rasmussen who had given me very valuable critic and support. Besides, I am willing to oer my appreciation to all the friends that had spend their time with me. Irma, congratulations of becoming a mom although I couldn't nd time to visit your precious Kirsten Maria. But the time I had spend with you is one of my happiest time I have in Denmark. Gigja, you always believe me and give me support. Your positive altitude always opens my mind. Strang, Adam, Oli, Gabriel, Nate, Adrian, Jody, Lars, Hjrdis, Karen, Rachel, Laetitia, Niels Erik, Karsten, Jens-Christian, Klaus, Jacob, Simon, Marinus, Ravi, talking to you is always a pleasant experience and Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Preface
thank you for having time with me during lunch and break times. Team Special Care, you have given me a very comfortable and friendly working environment. Roommates in Kitchen 18 of Kampsax Kollegiet, I wish I could have more time to party with you. Shneke, thank you for talking to me during all the boring evenings and holidays. Furong, Zhangjiang, Zeizei, I enjoy every minute we spent together. Astrid and Arturo, you are the most perfect couple I have ever met. I wish I could have more time visiting you. Kumudini, Sanja and Fatimar, I am very pleased having been worked with you. Paul and Diane, I love your food. Finally, I would like to give my special thanks to family Halbye. Valdemar, Victoria, William, Villads and Viola, I am so glad that I have taken a tiny part in your lives and experienced your gradually growing up. Pernille and Michael, you will never know how much it means to me of all your unconditional and invaluable helps and supports. My project would never have been accomplished without you. Thank you! Chen, Xinyi, Feburary 2008

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Chapter 1

Introduction
Dynamic modulus and damping are two of the most important properties in determining the response of a structural vibrating system. However, many literatures that deal with structure vibration are focusing on light damped materials such as steel. The vibration theories that have been developed for the system has thereby such an implied assumption. Although rubber, the object in this project, is a main source as a vibration isolator, its dynamic properties that have the most attention by the structural vibration engineers are not clear enough. Rubber as a material has a wide investigation in material engineering science. But the major concerns are mostly on static or quasi-static properties, such as hardness, elongation, compressibility, etc. The investigations of the dynamic properties are quite vague. Especially when dynamic modulus and damping properties are of concerned, most of the literatures shows a frequency dependence of both but the relationship of them are not fully clear. One of the reasons might be that there are enormous types of rubbers that dier with each other enormously in their properties and therefore make it dicult to give a general layout of the properties. Another reason might be the complexity of the experiments and their uncertainties. This report is focusing on one type of rubber material that is currently used in certain type(s) of the hearing aid products in sustaining the receiver. The rubber has an abbreviated name of FKM which belongs to one of the rubber family called uoroelastomer. The product is more or less a tube shape with cylindrical cross-section serving as a suspension to hearing aid receivers. The main purpose of using the suspension is to hold the receiver in position as well as isolating the vibration from the receiver to the shell body of the hearing aid which might result in an unpleasant feedback problem that annoys the hearing aid wearer. It is therefore important to be aware of the dynamic properties of the rubber suspension that determine the transmission property of the rubber suspension. In this report, dierent methods are examined in order to nd out the dynamic elastic modulus and the damping property of the rubber suspension. The report begins with an introduction to the hearing aid. A general idea of hearing aid in its development and its structure are presented. The feedback problem Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

Chapter 1

is explained briey. This is Chapter 2. Chapter 3 gives detail image of the project, what it is about, how it will be carried on, what should be expected, etc. The stem of the report contains four chapters with two main topics. Chapter 4 and chapter 5 deal with the rubber material and its properties. Chapter 4 gives a general introduction to the rubber material in a molecular structural level. Its mechanical properties are discussed related to its inherent structure. The modulus and damping properties are specially pointed out with a description of dierent models that describe the properties. In the following chapter, chapter 5, relaxation tests are carried out to the rubber material in order to investigate the modulus and damping properties of the material. Chapter 6 and chapter 7 are mainly dealing with structural vibration mechanism of the rubber suspension. Chapter 6 introduces the theories in exural vibration beam problems. Analytical models as well as nite element model are presented with a comparison of the models. Chapter 7 follows by vibration experiments presented to the rubber suspensions. Young's modulus and damping properties are derived from the experiment results through resonance analysis and non-resonance analysis. The results are compared and veried with other experiments. A overall comparison of the properties that derived by the two dierent kinds of experiments, relaxation and vibration, is presented. The report is ended by a conclusion and a prospect of the possible future work. KEY WORDS: rubber, suspension, hearing aid, dynamic properties, modulus, damping, loss factor, relaxation, vibration, frequency dependence.

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Chapter 2

Hearing Aids
The hearing aids industry has a history of more than 100 years.6 From the rst electronic hearing aid that was invented in USA in the late 19th century to the modern hearing aids, the hearing aids have experienced signicant changes. The most obvious change is the size. The rst hearing aid on the market was big, heavy and troublesome to use. It consisted of a separated microphone, an amplier, headphones and a bulky battery. The size was like a small suitcase and it had to be put on a table when used. However, a short time later right after the beginning of the 20th century, a smaller size of hearing aid was born which people could wear on the body. But still, this kind of hearing aids gave the wearers much trouble in use both in personal usage (because they should carry it on the hands or hang it around the neck) and public exposure (because it was easy to notice by other people and not favorable for the wearer). It was not until the transistor was invented in 19475 that a hearing aid could be made so small that it could place directly behind or in the ear. This was an important improvement and the hearing aid wearing people become less noticed as hearing impaired people. Nowadays hearing aids can be made totally invisible to other people and there is also special hearing aid that can even be implanted, cochlear implants, and become a part of the body. Another signicant change is the digitalization in hearing aids. Digitalization makes the hearing aids more user friendly. Traditional hearing aids use analog circuits. An analog hearing aid will more or less distort the input sound signal when it is sent into the wearers ear. However, the introduction of the transistor brought hearing aid industry into digital era. The distortion which is likely to happen in an analog hearing aid can be reduced to a large extent in a digital processor. Although human's hearing mechanism is not totally understood, people can easily understand that a normal hearing person has some kind of selective mechanism to be able to concentrate on what he/she wants to hear, like listening to a person giving a speech, talking on the telephone or talking to other people on a party, etc. A hearing aid designer takes this eect into account as well and successfully implement it in a digital processor in suppressing wind noise, emphasizing sound coming from the front side of the wearer, increasing speech intelligibility, and so Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

Chapter 2

on. Nowadays hearing aids are more specically designed to meet individual requirements due to ongoing renovated digital technology. The most used hearing aids are categorized according to their location on the wearer and named in the corresponding way: behind-the-ear (BTE), in-the-ear(ITE), in-the-canal (ITC) and completely-in-the-canal (CIC) hearing aids. Fig. 2.1 shows these four types of hearing aids.

Figure 2.1: Types of hearing aids and their location in the ear. a)BTE; b)ITE; c)ITC; d)CIC. 8,9 A BTE hearing aid puts all the electronics into a curved shape housing that ts the shape behind the ear. The sound after the amplication process is directed into the ear by a tube and a customize earmold. BTE hearing aids are robust and not sensitive to the size of the ear canal. They are able to provide larger power input for larger amplication needs compared to other types of hearing aids. It is recommended therefore to hearing impaired children because the ear of a child keeps developing and to severe hearing impaired people because of its strong possible input power. An ITE, ITC or CIC hearing aid changes the shape of the housing to t the shape of the ear canal at dierent positions and therefore can be put into the ear. ITE hearing aids are located just at the entrance of the ear canal. ITC hearing aids is put deep into the ear canal and CIC hearing aids are located even deeper so that they are hardly seen by other people. The size is smaller and smaller from ITE to CIC type of hearing aids. While ITE hearing aids can still serve for a wide range of hearing loss, a CIC hearing aid is not suitable for a person with severe hearing loss because it is too small to accommodate components that provide enough power for high sound amplication. The structure of a hearing aid consists basically of four parts: a microphone to pick up sound signals, an amplier to make the sound louder, a loudspeaker to

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Section 2.0

send the amplied sound into the ear canal and a battery for giving power. Figure 2.2 shows such a typical structure taking an ITE hearing aid and a BTE hearing aid as an example.

Figure 2.2: Basic structures of hearing aids (ITE). The microphone picks up the sound signal and transfers this acoustical signal into electrical signal. It is more often now that a dual microphone system is used instead of single microphone in order to get better directionality. The amplier (connected between the microphone and the receiver, not shown on the gure) is a digital processor. It rst translates the electrical signal from the microphone, i.e. on analog signal, into a digital signal by a analog-to-digital converter. Then the digital signal is purposely selected and amplied by dierent scale in dierent frequency ranges in order to get the best sound quality that suits the individuals. Afterwards a digital-to-analog converter changes the outgoing digital signal back into electrical signal that can be feed into a loudspeaker. In hearing aids, the loudspeaker is usually called the receiver and it receives the amplied sound in electrical form and transfers it into an acoustical signal again and exposes it to the ear that wears the hearing aid.

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Chapter 3

Project Description
3.1 Background of the project
The main task of a hearing aid is to amplify sound signals. However, it is far more complicated than just amplifying all the sound signal it detects. It should suppress unwanted noise and give out only the sound that the wearer is interested in. It has been quite successful in suppressing many kinds of noise, like wind noise, ambient noise from a party. But there is a noise problem that has raised the interest of hearing aid people: the feedback problem. A hearing aid uses microphones to pick up the acoustic signal. The signal is enhanced by ampliers and sent to a receiver (loudspeaker). The signal from the receiver is further picked up by the ear of a hearing impaired person who wears the hearing aid. This one way transmission path is an ideal assumption in hearing aids. As we know and experience every day, sound, as long as it exists, goes in all directions. Therefore the sound and thereby caused acoustical vibration that comes out from a receiver may be further picked up by the microphone and goes through amplication process again. This is the feedback problem that can aect hearing aids' performance.

Figure 3.1: Schematic illustration of feedback path in an ITE hearing aid.

10

Figure 3.1 shows a schematic feedback path. The real situation is more complicated than the gure shows in that possibility of the signal returning to the receiver is

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Section 3.2

not unique. It can be an acoustical path or a mechanical path. Acoustically, the sound passes through the air in the ear canal and outside and inside the mold shell of the hearing aid, through the venting and back to the receiver. Mechanically, the sound induced vibration, e.g. acoustical vibration, is transmitted through the shell and other possible solid parts of the hearing aid and reach the receiver. The feedback problem is a normal problem and can be severe in hearing aids. The severity of the problem depends on the output sound level from the receiver, the media between the receiver and the microphone and the transmitting distance, etc. The louder the sound level is, the more the signal is picked up by the microphone. The shorter the transmitting distance is, the more the feedback gains. Simultaneously, according to the property of the transmission media, the feedback problem may be attenuated or exaggerated.

3.2 Description of the project

This project investigates the mechanical property of one of the components in the hearing aids, the receiver suspension and its mechanical properties.

Figure 3.2: Suspension. Left: type FK. right: type FH A suspension in hearing aids is used as an isolator between the hearing aid shell and the receiver. Figure 3.2 shows such a suspension structure. Its location in the hearing aid can be found in gure 2.2. The suspension in this project is basically a simply shaped rubber tube of which the receiver is hanged at one end and the other end is xed on the shell. This design is to avoid the direct contact of the receiver to the shell which might cause vibration transmission through the solid shell to the microphone. However, since the hearing aid wearer is always in a moving situation, the contact might still happen from time to time due to the bending of the suspension. In addition, acoustical and mechanical resonance might occur inside and through the tube. Therefore, it is important to nd out the material properties of the rubber tube and how it aects the propagation of the sound and Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

Chapter 3

vibration. The most important property of the rubber suspension concerning the mechanical vibration is the elastic modulus, i.e. Young's modulus and shear modulus, and the damping. These properties are normally not given by the supplier in the industry but critical for hearing aid producers. Therefore it is interesting by the hearing aid producer to nd out these properties by themselves.

3.3 Test method

In a technical sheet provided by the rubber supplier, the most frequently presented parameters are hardness, density, tensile strength and elongation. Young's modulus or shear modulus and damping property are usually not given even though it might be more interesting by the industry. A reason for this might be that the tests needed to generate this data are dicult and tedious. On the contrary, tests used for generating hardness, density and etc. are more easy, quick and more controllable. Therefore, the industry is looking for a method of determining these dynamic mechanical parameters, i.e. Young's modulus or shear modulus and damping. As far as that can be found in the literatures,13 rubber's Young's modulus and damping are sensitive to the frequency and temperature. This is dierent from other engineering material such as steel. To examine the behavior of the rubber, vibration tests are often quoted in a wide range of frequencies under dierent temperatures. At extremely low frequency range or quasi-static situation, the stress strain test and relaxation test is preferred. At low frequency range, free vibration methods, e.g. by using pendulum, are normally used. At middle frequency range, forced vibration methods, e.g. like longitudinal, bending and torsional vibrating tests, are often used. In the kilohertz frequency range, a method called wave propagation method is used. In this method, a longitudinal wave is propagating along the specimen generated at one end by a sti massive diaphragm and a piezoelectric crystal pick up the changes in amplitude and phase at the other end. At even higher frequency range, i.e. in the megahertz frequency range, ultrasonic methods are used. In this report, the relaxation test is tried in order to t the parameters to a complex modulus model and compared to the model that comes from a forced vibration method. Hereby, the static properties and the dynamic properties are obtained. The Young's modulus and the damping of the rubber tube will be found by using the built-up model and through the measurements.

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Section 3.5

3.4 Expected approach

The project will be divided into three aspects. 1. A material model is built. 2. Vibrational models using theoretical equations and nite element methods are built. 3. Experimentally determine the properties of the suspension, i.e. nding out Young's modulus and the loss factor of the suspension. The purpose of the project is to investigate the elastic and damping properties of the rubber suspension. Static models and dynamic models are introduced during the process during which the nite element model will be established by using software COMSOL Multiphysics, and the analytical models will be performed using MATLAB program. Experiments will be done to t the models and to verify the theoretical data.

3.5 Project initiation

The suspension is made of rubber which some parameters are listed out in the following, Material: FPM (Viton ) : Fluorocarbon Rubber (Fluoroelastomer) Hardness : 45 5 Density : 1800kg/m3 Tensile strength : 5.5 MPa Elongation : > 350% The project will begin with a discussion of mechanical properties of rubber material with considerations on the specic material in the project. Several available material models are presented and tted to the experiment data. This gives a overview of a quasi-static properties of the rubber. A complex modulus model will be derived from the quasi-static models. The result will be compared to the modulus derived from the force vibration test. The geometry of the suspension is basically a cylindrical tube with a thickness of 0.3mm and a length of 10 21.5mm depending on individual patient. A technical drawing of the tube is shown in appendix A.

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Chapter 3

The suspension is xed on the shell of the hearing aid at one end while the receiver is hanging at the other end. The receiver is connected with the amplier by loose wires. The loose wires are assumed to have no inuence to the vibration of the tube. In structural vibration problem, the tube may be consider as a one-dimensional rod with a mass at the free end. Therefore, the simple vibration theory for beams and rods, the Bernoulli-Euler theory, is rst considered as the analytical model. However, the theory do not take account of the inuence of the shear and torsional deformation inuence, which might be important as well. A second analytical model, which is called Timoshenko theory, will be considered thereafter. Temoshenko theory takes these two eects into account and therefore is more close to the reality. The shell theory will be briey discussed as well. The boundary condition should be a xed-free boundary condition. However, considering the convenience in the measurement, a driving force at the xed end is more feasible than using the receiver as the driving force. In this situation, a slidingfree boundary condition seems more suitable. A xed sliding boundary condition will be tried as well for the purpose of trying dierent possibilities of measurement.

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Chapter 4

Rubber Material: Modulus and Damping

In the following rubber's material properties will be discussed. There are more than one thousand kinds of rubber in the world. But still they have some common features. More details can be found in literatures.12,13,14

4.1 Structure of rubber

There are two kinds of rubber in general, nature rubber and synthetic rubber. Nature rubber comes from rubber tree planted in limited tropic areas. Synthetic rubber is a by-product of petroleum rening industry.16 Today the natural rubber is used in only very limited aspects. On the contrary, the synthetic rubber has wide application because of its more stable chemical and mechanical properties. It is the synthetic rubber that is dealt with in this project and therefore the following description refers to it. Rubber is basically a polymer which consists of molecular chains. These molecular chains are composed of much smaller chemical units which are called monomers, most of which are compositions of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They are connected by the chemical bonds. Sometimes other chemical element such as chloride, sulphur or oxygen will be added to form the polymer chains. These chains are connected together at some points along the whole chain by cross-links, by which a polymer is basically a network of molecules. A schematic polymer chain structure is shown in g 4.1.17

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Chapter 4

Figure 4.1: A schematic representation of polymer chains. Normally synthetic rubber in engineering application will be lled in carbon black particles or other llers. They are connected to the main chains by cross-links. The llers make the material harder and the cross-links makes the material more durable and resistant to chemical attacks. With dierent kinds of monomers and dierent llers in various proportion various properties are obtained. A schematic structure of a carbon black lled rubber is shown in g 4.2. Most of the rubbers are products of moulding process. Unless it is designed specically, the polymer chains are tangled in an amorphus status. Therefore, rubber is often considered as a isotropic material which is one of the assumptions in this project as well.

Figure 4.2: A schematic representation of carbon black lled rubber. The material of the rubber suspension is called FPM (Viton ). This kind of rubber is found in the literature as FKM. Either FPM or FKM is one material which belongs to a rubber family called: uoroelastomer or uorocarbon rubber. FPM is

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Section 4.2

the international abbreviation according to DIN/ISO, whereas FKM is the short form for the uoroelastomer category according to the American standard ASTM. Viton is the registered trade mark of DuPont Performance Elastomers.15 The superiority of using uorocarbon rubber is its high resistance of heat, acid and aromatic solvents. In mechanical applications, the unique structure enables the rubber products maintaining a high elasticity as well as absorbing vibrational energy that might cause damaging eects. This mechanism will become clear in the following text.

4.2 Mechanical property

Rubber in general has special properties that are dierent from other materials because of its polymer chain structure. In the following, some of the mechanical properties are discussed.

Elasticity. The elasticity is the most noticeable feature of rubber. Rubber has an enormous ability to undergo large elastic deformation and can recover almost completely when it is released, although the recovery may not occur at the same time as the removal of the stress. The high elasticity is due to the molecular structure of rubber. As we know from the last section, rubber consists basically of series of polymer chains with carbon particles lled in between. These polymer chains are tangled and connected to ller particles by cross links. When the material is under deformation, the polymer chains reorient themselves in the direction of deformation. The cross links are weaker connection compared to chemical bonds and thereby will reorganize under deformation. Furthermore, rubber molecules are highly exible and highly extensible. As a whole, the structure makes it possible to endure large strain without permanent deformation. Elongation of more than one hundred percent is typical. Physically elasticity is represented by modulus. It takes the value of dividing stress by the strain, i.e. how much force is needed for unit dimensional deformation. According to the direction of the force and the deformation type, bulk modulus, Young's modulus and shear modulus are three major ones. Bulk modulus tells how much force is needed to deform a unit volume, i.e. eq.(4.2.1) with k the bulk modulus, V the volume and p the force. An illustration can be seen in g 4.3. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 4

k = V

p V

(4.2.1)

Figure 4.3: An illustration of volume deformation.18 Young's modulus and shear modulus are dened as the forces needed to deform a unit length in the direction of applied force. While Young's modulus is dened for tensile movement, shear forces is dened for shear movement. The relation of bulk modulus and Young's modulus and shear modulus will be discussed in the later part. The denition equation for Young's modulus is,

E=

p/A = L/L

(4.2.2)

Figure 4.4: An illustration of tensile deformation. with representing stress and the strain. p is the stretching force and L is the length of the object which are illustrated in g 4.4. Similarly, shear modulus is dened by the equation,

G=

p/A = x/l

(4.2.3) Chen Xinyi

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Section 4.2

Figure 4.5: An illustration of shear deformation.18 where is the shear strain and p, x, l is illustrated in g 4.5. Young's modulus is related to shear modulus by Poisson's ratio . For isotropic materials, which is the case in this project,

G=

E 2(1 + )

(4.2.4)

Poisson's ratio is dened as the ratio of relative contraction strain divided by the extension stain when an object is under tensile or compression stress. Fig 4.6 is an example of a material under compression.

x y

(4.2.5)

Figure 4.6: An object under compression with Poisson's ratio around 0.5.18 In the case of incompressible material, as is the case for most of the rubber products (this point will be discussed in the following), the Poisson's ratio of a material is close to 0.5, which means that Young's modulus is three times the value as shear modulus for the same material, i.e. E = 3G. The Young's modulus is one of the main concerns of this project and therefore will be further discussed in section 4.3 and the following chapters. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

15

Chapter 4

Incompressibility Rubber has a large dierence between the shear modulus (or Young's modulus) and the bulk modulus. A small shear modulus means that the rubber deforms easily under shearing strain. A large bulk modulus means that it is hard to change rubber's volume under either compression or expansion. This means that the volume of the rubber under deformation is hardly changed. Therefore the extension deformation along the axis of the applied force is almost equal to the contraction deformation at the transverse direction of the applied force, which means a Poisson's ratio of 0.5 (y 2x in eq 4.2.5). The shear modulus of the rubber can be a thousand times smaller than the bulk modulus. The characteristics of these two modulus indicates the incompressibility of the rubber.

Viscoelastic A material that obeys Hooke's law is called an elastic material. A linear elastic solid is such a material where Hooke's law applies: stress is proportional to strain. On the contrary, a material that obeys Newton's law of liquids is call a viscous material. In a viscous liquid, stress is proportional to the strain change rate with respect to time. Hooke's law can be modeled by a spring. With a spring constant k , the law is written as,

F = kw

(4.2.6)

Figure 4.7: A spring. where F is force, w is deformation. A viscous liquid can be modeled by a viscous damper. With a viscous damping coecient r, Newton's law in a liquid is written as,

F =r

dw dt

(4.2.7) Chen Xinyi

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Section 4.2

Figure 4.8: A damper. From an energy point of view, a spring system changes the kinetic energy into the potential energy of spring. When the force is released, the potential energy that stored in the spring will change into kinetic energy again and restore the equilibrium state. The displacement and the force is totally in phase. A viscous damper changes the kinetic energy into the thermal energy and dissipates it as heat. The energy is not restorable when the force is released. This is called damping. The displacement and the force are totally out of phase. While a spring system represents a pure elastic material, a viscous damper represents a pure viscous material. For such materials, Hooke's law and Newton's law may be written as the following two forms respectively.

= E dw dt

(4.2.8)

= 2

(4.2.9)

r where = m is the damping coecient. m is mass. Often, the non-dimensional viscous damping ratio is used. is related to by = 0 where 0 is the resonance frequency of system. However, many materials including rubber shows a property which is in between these two extreme states. This property is therefore called viscoelasticity.

Hysteresis Hysteresis is a phenomenon that is typically found in viscoelastic materials. When looking at a loading and unloading curves on a stress-strain diagram of a rubber material, i.e. g 4.9, it obviously shows that neither the stressstrain relationship is linear in both cases nor do the two curves share the same path. The nonlinearity indicates that the Young's modulus, which is the rate of change of stress with strain, has the same tendency of nonlinearity. The dierence between the loading and unloading curves indicate that the energy is not recovered. Some energy has been dissipated as thermal energy during the process. In vibrations, this property is often termed damping.

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Chapter 4

Figure 4.9: Hysteresis loop shown for viscoelastic materials under static load.

Fig 4.9 only shows the hysteresis loop for viscoelastic materials under static or quasi-static load. The frequency is kept at very low level. As the frequency increases, the hysteresis loop will more and more resemble an ellipse as shown in g 4.10.

Figure 4.10: Hysteresis loop shown for viscoelastic materials under dynamic load.

An elliptical hysteresis loop discloses that the material responds to a dynamic loading behaves more linear, that a sinusoidal input will result in a sinusoidal output. Rubber as a viscoelastic material has such a tendency as well, especially at low strain levels. It is been found that dynamic modulus is always larger than static modulus. This is clearly illustrated in g 4.11.

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Section 4.2

Figure 4.11: Static and dynamic stress and strain. As indicated in the gure,

Gstatic =
Creep and relaxation

s ks

<

Gdynamic =

0 . k0

(4.2.10)

Creep and relaxation are two expressions of the same phenomenon in viscoelastic materials. This phenomenon says that if a viscoelastic material is undergoing a transient change, i.e. a force or a displacement, the corresponding responses, displacement or force respectively, will not occur synchronously. Creep is an increase in strain followed by a step change of stress. Relaxation is a decrease in stress followed by a step change of strain. As shown in g 4.12 and g 4.13, the creep compliance Jc (t) = (t)/0 or the relaxation modulus ER (t) = (t)/0 is a characteristic function independent of stress or strain step respectively. It is a constant for a linear viscoelastic material. It can be seen that the creep compliance and the relaxation modulus are reciprocal, i.e. ER (0) = 1/Jc (0). These two concepts express the same characteristic. It is just a matter of preference to use either creep compliance or relaxation modulus.

Figure 4.12: Creep phenomenon.19 Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 4

Figure 4.13: Relaxation phenomenon.19

Creep and relaxation are considered here because they are related to modulus. From a creep or relaxation curve, one can derive creep modulus or relaxation modulus which represents the static modulus of the material. In this report, a relaxation analysis is chosen. More detail with relaxation models will be introduced in section 4.3. Hardness Due to the compounds in the polymer chains and the construction of the cross links, the rubber displays sti property in a various range. Hardness is another type of parameter that represents the stiness of the material. The value of the hardness is obtained by indentation test. The most popular hardness scale is called Shore scale. However, no matter which scale is used, a higher value of hardness means a stier material. The content of the ller, e.g. carbon black, changes the hardness of the material as well. The more ller is added to the material, the higher the stiness becomes and therefore a higher hardness is expected. The elastic modulus increases as the hardness increases as can be imagined. In this project, the hardness of the rubber material is Shore 45 . It is assumed invariant for dierent samples used in this project. Temperature dependence The mechanical property of rubber is highly temperature dependent. This is because rubber changes its physical states as temperature changes. Basically, there are three states that rubber undergoes along the temperature scale. In each region, the elasticity of the rubber behaves dierently. This is shown in g 4.14.

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Section 4.2

Figure 4.14: Temperature dependence of modulus of rubber material and the three physical states. The low temperature area corresponds to glassy region where the rubber behaves, as the name indicates, sti and brittle. The modulus is constantly on a high level. From a molecular structure point of view, this is because the structure remains relatively stable in this region. The polymer chains is rigid and the cross links do not break if the loading condition is not too severe. As the temperature increases, the movement inside the rubber become activated. The polymer chains are soften and the cross links start to rearrange themselves. Therefore, the elasticity of the rubber goes down rapidly along the temperature axis until it reaches another relatively constant level. This region is called transition region. As the temperature increases, the polymer chains becomes oppy. No more cross link's reorganization is going on, the elasticity becomes relatively stable again but in a low level. At even higher temperature, the material will melt and the elasticity drops down dramatically again. For dierent composition of a rubber material, the crossover range on the temperature axis can be enormous. The onset and oset of the transition region diers from material to material as well. Although temperature is a very important parameter, it is not a specic topic in this project due to the limited time. However, all the investigations are carried out in normal lab temperature which is considered consistent. Therefore the dependence of the modulus on the temperature is not clear in this report. Frequency dependence As the frequency is considered, it always means that the material is under periodic loading condition. This refers to the dynamic property of the rubber material which is named relatively to static or quasi-static properties that have been described in the preceding text. The most concerned frequency dependent quantities are elastic modulus and the damping. Their tendency with respect to frequency is shown in g 4.15. The elastic modulus, E as Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

21

Chapter 4

indicated in the gure, has the similar shape as that in the temperature dependence case even though it is a mirror image of g 4.14. This also discloses that along the frequency axis, rubber materials have rubbery region, transition region and glassy region as well. While glassy region corresponds to high frequencies, the rubbery region corresponds to low frequencies.

Figure 4.15: Frequency dependence of modulus of rubber material. The frequency eect and temperature eect are interchangeable. That is to say, that by shifting the curves on the frequency plot, one can obtain the modulus curve at various temperatures, or vice versa. With the curve on the temperature axis shifting to the right, one gets the modulus property at higher frequencies. On the contrary, the higher temperature curve on the frequency axis corresponds to the reference curve shifted to the left. Therefore, it is possible to acquire the elastic properties at large frequency and temperature range by measuring only one curve either on the temperature or frequency scale and thereafter shifting the curve. The dynamic modulus and damping as a function of frequency is one of the main topic in this project and will be unfolded in the following. The dynamic properties are also inuenced by other factors such as strain levels and pre-loading. However, considering the situation in the case under the investigation, the rubber suspension in the hearing aids with one end xed on the shell and the other end supporting the receiver, the strain level and the pre-loading will be low and the nonlinearity eect that might caused by these factors are not considered in this project.

4.3 Modulus and damping model

In engineering applications, elastic modulus and damping in viscoelastic materials are often expressed by the complex modulus,

E = Ere + iEim

(4.3.1) Chen Xinyi

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Section 4.3

The real part Ere is the physical modulus representing the elastic property and the imaginary part Eim is damping representing the viscous property. Often a loss factor is dened as

Eim Ere

(4.3.2)

The loss factor is related to the non-dimensional damping ratio as described in section 4.2 by

0 (4.3.3) 2 where 0 is the resonance frequency of the system and is the driven frequency. Note that at resonance, = /2. In this section, some models of viscoelastic modulus are introduced. The models are modulus and damping related. They are formed through observation of the relaxation (or creep) phenomenon of the rubber. The frequency related model for dynamic modulus is also introduced by assuming a sinusoidal strain history. =

4.3.1 Maxwell and Kelvin-Voigt models

The viscoelastic behavior can be modeled by a combination system of spring and viscous damper. Two simplest models are called Maxwell model and Kelvin-Voigt model. Maxwell model puts spring and damper in series and Kelvin-Voigt model puts them in parallel. This is shown in gure 4.16 and g 4.17.

Figure 4.16: Maxwell model.

Figure 4.17: Kelvin-Voigt model. The equations of motion are thereby dierent,

1 d d = + dt E dt
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(4.3.4)

23

Chapter 4

is the equation for Maxwell model with being the strain (displacement) and the stress (force). For Kelvin-Voigt model the equation of motion becomes,

d (4.3.5) dt These two models are equivalent. However, in the Kelvin-Voigt model, the damping term goes to innity at time zero t = 0 which causes a discontinuity in the stress response. These is not practical. In these two aspects, the Maxwell model is more suitable in describing a relaxation process. Fig 4.18 shows such a relaxation behavior using Maxwell model. = E +

Figure 4.18: Relaxation behavior of the Maxwell model. Solving for eq 4.3.4 yields the stress response as a function of time.

(t) = E0 e

Et

(4.3.6)

The relaxation modulus for the Maxwell models becomes,

ER (t) = Eet/tr

(4.3.7)

where tr is the relaxation time dened as tr = /E . The dynamic modulus E () can be determined by assuming a sinusoidal strain = 0 eit ( means the quantity is a complex quantity.) :

E () = E

itr . 1 + itr

(4.3.8)

4.3.2 Zener model

Although the Maxwell model is a better model to represent the relaxation process than the Kelvin-Voigt Model, the model has its own shortcoming that the stress relaxed the zero as the strain keep constant along the time. This is not practical. The Zener model is introduced to overcome this shortcoming. The Zener model

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Section 4.3

connects a spring element with a Maxwell element in parallel, as shown in g 4.20. The relaxation behavior of Zener model is shown in g 4.20.

Figure 4.19: Zener model.

Figure 4.20: Relaxation behavior of the Zener model. The relaxation modulus for Zener model is,

ER (t) = E (1 +
The complex modulus for Zener model is,

E t/tr e ). E

(4.3.9)

E () = E (1 +

itr E ) E 1 + itr

(4.3.10)

The modulus-frequency curve for the Zener model is expected to resemble g 4.15. This will be checked in the experimental part in chapter 5.

4.3.3 Frictional model

It is been proposed that the damping characteristic of rubber is mainly due to two mechanisms.12 During the deformation, the resistance in reorganizing the molecular chains turns the kinetic energy into heats. This reorganization is frequency dependent. The second mechanism is because of the ller. During the deformation, Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

25

Chapter 4

the resistance also occurs in the interface of molecular chains and llers and in between the ller particles. This part of damping is frequency independent. But it depends on the strain level. The frequency dependent part is modeled by the Zener model. However it does not take the frequency independent part into account. This part can be modeled by a frictional element as will be introduced in the following. In general, the damping shows a frequency dependent characteristic and so does the complex modulus. A basic frictional model is just replacing the viscous damper in the Maxwell model by a frictional slider in which the frictional stress is f = Y as shown in g 4.21. In this model, the stress in the elastic spring is equal to the stress in the frictional slider, say, f = Ee . The strain is the sum of elastic strain (spring part) and plastic strain (frictional part): = e + p . A response of the model can be seen in g 4.22. It can be seen that the total stress is limited to Y < f < Y . When the stress in the spring is less than Y , the strain is purely elastic. When the stress increases until it overcomes the frictional stress, then the stress remain constant at Y level and the strain includes both elastic and frictional part.

Figure 4.21: Frictional element.

Figure 4.22: Mechanical behavior of frictional element. Similar to Zener model, a more practical model for friction damped solid is modeled by a basic frictional element connected in parallel with a elastic spring. See g 4.23. The total stress now becomes = +f with = E is the elastic stress due to the spring in parallel. This gives a response curve as in g 4.24. In the gure, the tilting part beyond Y /E strain point is due to the spring in parallel which includes

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Section 4.3

both elastic stain and frictional strain. Below the point the strain is purely elastic. This response is frequency independent as long as the strain level is the same. That is to say, that the response depends on the strain level on the contrary. But the response is the same regardless of the strain history. A sine, sawtooth or step periodic input gives the same output which implies the nonlinearity12 .

Figure 4.23: Frictional model.

Figure 4.24: Mechanical behavior of frictional model.

4.3.4 The generalized model

A generalized model is a combination of frictional model and viscoelastic model which can better represent the movement that is going on in a rubber material since the rubber has two mechanisms in damping as has been discussed in the preceding text. The Maxwell element is representing the frequency depending damping and the frictional element representing the frequency independent damping. The total stress is now = e + v + f , in which e is the stress from the elastic spring E , v is from the Maxwell elements i and Evi and f is from the frictional element Yi and Ef i as in g 4.25. Depending on the accuracy one wants to obtain, more Maxwell element and frictional element can be added to the model. The more elements in the model, the more parameters needed to t to the measured data. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

27

Chapter 4

Figure 4.25: Combined viscous and frictional model.

4.3.5 Fit the model to the experimental data

The procedure that is introduced here is according to what has been understood from Austrell's thesis work12 . In order to get the parameters for the model, a relaxation test should be carried out. The generalized model is used as the example of tting process because it covers all the elements. The tting procedure of the other models are just omitting part of the procedure that is introduced here and will be stated when it comes to the step.

1. Test. First of all, the relaxation test should be done in several levels. (If the Zener model is used, one level is enough.) The results are plotted in a time-stress scale (g 4.27) with a known stain history (g 4.26). Ideally the stain should be applied as a step function at time t = 0. However, this is impossible in a real situation. But still it should be brought to the preset level as fast as

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Section 4.3

possible.

Figure 4.26: Examples of applying strain at dierent levels.

Figure 4.27: Examples of relaxation test results. 2. Reorder the test data and plot the stress-strain curve by taking the long term stress levels for each stain level (or conduct a stress stain test with suciently low rate in dierent strain levels, as in g 4.28). This is to obtain the loading curve for very low strain rate because this is the part where it is assumed that the frictional damping dominates. Therefore from this curve one should be able to obtain the parameters for the frictional elements. In addition, the parameter for the solely spring element E is obtain from the curve as well. (If the frictional elements is not taken into account, then the parameter for E is obtained directly from the relaxation curve in the rst step.) That is, e + f are determined. Now we have the model for frictional part and the pure elastic part, i.e. elasto-plastic model.

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Chapter 4

Figure 4.28: Example of the relaxed loading curve and its tting process.

The parameters on the curve can be determined directly from,

Ei =

i i1 i+1 i i i1 i+1 i

(4.3.11)

and

Yi = Ei i

(4.3.12)

3. Deduct the elasto-plastic part from the relaxation curve by equations (4.3.13) and (4.3.14) and calculate the corresponding modulus which is the viscous relaxed modulus (g 4.29). From the curve the model for viscous damping part is determined.

v = (e + f ) = (E +

Yi )

(4.3.13)

Ev =

(4.3.14) Chen Xinyi

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Section 4.3

Figure 4.29: Example of the visco-relaxed modulus. For a exponential decay assumption, the relaxed modulus is expressed by

ER = E0 et/tr .

(4.3.15)

In order to nd tr , the relaxation time, we can set t = tr and read E0 from the curve. By calculating the equation, we get a value for ER . This ER is the point where the relaxation time tr locates. However, most of the relaxation curves do not have a single exponential decay rate. In this case, we can break it into several segments with each segment can be regarded as a piecewise exponential decay curve. For each piecewise line, as shown in g 4.30, extend it to t = 0 where we get E0 and treat the end of the piecewise line as the value for E . Then we have the relation between ER and t as

ER = E + (E0 E )et/tr .

(4.3.16)

Figure 4.30: The tting process of a visco-relaxed modulus curve. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

31

Chapter 4

By setting t = tr in the equation and read the E0 and E values on the curve, tr can be found at corresponding ER point. 4. By now the complete model is ready for the material. In order to get the complex modulus for dynamic property of the rubber, one should exclude the frictional eect because in the dynamic movement (with small stain) the viscous damping dominates. This model is expressed as
n

ER (t) = E +
j=1

Ej et/trj .

(4.3.17)

The complex modulus is therefore

E () = E +
j=1

Ej

itrj . 1 + itrj

(4.3.18)

In the following, the step will be gone through again with experimental data.

4.4 summary
In this chapter, the structure of the rubber is introduced in molecular phase. The mechanical properties of the rubber are discussed and followed by a series of models that express its behavior. The presenting of the models are in the order from simple models to complex ones. Each model represents several practical aspects of the rubber material's mechanical properties. The Kelvin-Voigt model is more suitable in describing creeping process while the Maxwell model is more suitable for relaxation process. A Zener model is an improvement of the Maxwell model. The frictional model is necessary in order to exclude the frictional damping in a rubber material. The generalized model has the most completed and practical description of the mechanical behavior of the rubber material. However, each of them has its limitations in a real application as well. The models give opportunities to derive the complex modulus of the material. This will be applied in the following chapter to a practical derivation from the experiments.

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Chapter 5

Relaxation experiment

5.1 Compression test

5.1.1 Experiment setup

The experiment is carried out in the mechanical lab of Oticon A/S. The procedure of the experiment is according to ISO 3384.24 . A 5000N hydraulic push/pull machine is used. Cylindrical specimens of the size 13rm(diameter) 6.2mm(height) are prepared and put under a compression test shown as in g 5.6. Fig 5.2 shows a photo in the real situation. The specimen is lubricated by silicon spray to minimize the unnecessary constrain along the interface between the specimen and the push/pull machine. The force is applied over the whole cylindrical surface, i.e. it is equally distributed. The specimen is pressed to a certain stain at a certain speed (10mm/min). Once it reaches the strain limit, it stops and the counterforce which is required to keep the constant strain is recorded as a function of time. The curve represents a relaxation process of the material. The generalized model will be tted according to the experiment data. The resulting modulus and damping curve will be plotted. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

33

Chapter 5

Specimen

Height

Diameter

Figure 5.1: Experiment setup of a compression test

Specimen

Figure 5.2: Experiment setup of a compression test in real situation.

5.1.2 Experiment result

In the following the procedure is carried out step by step according to the model tting procedure stated in the preceding section 4.3.5. 1. First carry out the relaxation test for 5 strain levels. The counter force as a function of time in dierent strain levels are plotted in g 5.3.

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Section 5.1

14

x 10

12

4%strain 3.2%strain 2.5%strain 1.5%strain 0.7%strain

10

stress,Pa

20

40

60 time,s

80

100

120

Figure 5.3: Relaxation test result of the compression test. If we plot g 5.3 into relaxed modulus form by dividing stress by strain level, one gets g 5.4.
4.5 x 10
6

4%strain 3.2%strain 2.5%strain 1.5%strain 0.7%strain

3.5 relaxed modulus,Pa

2.5

1.5

20

40

60 time,s

80

100

120

Figure 5.4: Relaxation modulus of the rubber in the compression test. The dierent relaxed modulus levels means that they have a strain dependence feature. This dependency comes from the frictional damping as described in section 4.3.3. Therefore, it is necessary to discard the frictional damping in order to get a generalized viscous damping model. 2. In order to nd out the parameters for frictional elements, a stress-strain Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

35

Chapter 5

loading curve plot is generated from g 5.3 using the long term stress level at each strain level.
10 9 8 7 stress,Pa 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 stain,s 3 4 5 x 10
4

Figure 5.5: The loading curve of the rubber in the compression test. From this gure we are able to derive the parameters for elasto-plastic model. Here the frictional elements are chosen to be 2 and therefore the parameters in this part is 5 (each frictional element has 2 parameters, Yi for frictional slider and Ei for elastic spring, plus 1 parameter for the pure elastic element). The numbers of the frictional elements are chosen as low as possible while it still gives a good correlation between the model and the experiment. A comparison of choosing dierent numbers of frictional elements (and Maxwell elements) is done in section 5.2. The circle marks on the curve are the point that have been chosen to t the 5 parameters: E , Ev1 , Ev2 , Y1 and Y2 .

E = E1 Y1 E2 Y2

94175.36 24244.17 = 2.797MPa 0.04 0.015 24244.17 8841.54 94175.36 24244.17 = = 0.872MPa 0.015 0.007 0.04 0.015 = 0.872 0.007 = 0.0061MPa 8841.54 0 24244.17 8841.54 = 0.662MPa = 0.007 0 0.015 0.007 = 0.662 0.015 = 0.0099MPa
(5.1.1)

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Section 5.1

3. Excluding the frictional eect using equations (4.3.13) and (4.3.14), the viscoelastic part remains. The resulting plot is,
5

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2

x 10

4%strain 3.2%strain 2.5%strain 1.5%strain 0.7%strain

viscorelaxed modulus,Pa

20

40

60 time,s

80

100

120

Figure 5.6: The visco-relaxed modulus of the rubber in the compression test.

In this part, one curve is picked out (the one of 2.5% of strain) and break into three piecewise lines with each line corresponding to one Maxwell element. For each piecewise line, a tting function is done in MATLAB with the logarithmic value of the curve. The parameters are found by using the eq(4.3.16). The tted model parameters are,

Evi = [0.1403 0.1068 0.0784] 106 (Pa)

tri = [29.1 5.7 1.5] 106 (Pa)

4. The resulting model for the visco-elastic modulus is as in g 5.7 and formulated according to equation (4.3.17),

ER (t) = [2.797 + 0.1403et/29.1 + 0.1068et/5.7 + 0.0784et/1.5 ] 106 (Pa). (5.1.3)

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Chapter 5

Figure 5.7: Visco-elastc model for the rubber in compression test.

The complex modulus is therefore formulated according to equation (4.3.18),

E () = [2.797+0.1403

i 29.1 i 5.7 i 1.5 +0.1068 +0.0784 ]106 (Pa). 1 + i 29.1 1 + i 5.7 1 + i 1.5 (5.1.4)

Fig 5.16 shows the comparison of the model behavior and the experiment results. Good agreement is found.
x 10
4

14

12

10

stress,Pa

20

40

60 time,s

80

100

120

Figure 5.8: Comparison of the combined model and the test. Solid line: test; dashed line: model behavior.

The model for complex modulus is ready for plot as well. See g 5.17.

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Section 5.2

4 modulus,Pa

x 10

3.5

2.5 4 10 0.2 loss factor 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 4 10

10

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

10

10

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

10

Figure 5.9: The complex modulus model derived from the compression test.

This experiment and the tting process show that the relaxation model under investigation has good agreement with the experimental result. The complex modulus can be derived from the parameters obtained from the relaxation experiment. Furthermore, one can expect from the complex modulus model that the elastic modulus tends to be constant at higher frequencies above 1Hz and the damping approaches zero at higher frequency. Intuitively we notice that a loss factor of zero above 1Hz for rubber is not likely.

5.2 Tension test

5.2.1 Experiment setup
The overall setup is the same as in the compression test with some changes mentioned here. First, for the convenience of the test, the sample dimension has been changed to 11mm 9mm 45mm. A schematic illustration of the test is shown in g 5.10 and a photo of the real measurement is in g 5.11. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

39

Chapter 5

L+L

Figure 5.10: Illustration of a tension test.

Specimen

Figure 5.11: The tension test setup in the real situation.

5.2.2 Experimental result and tting with 13 parameters model

The model chosen to be t in the tension test here is a 13 parameters model which includes 3 Maxwell elements and 3 Frictional elements. This number is chosen by the principle of the-lower-the-better without sacrice a lot of the accuracy of the tting of the resulting model to the experimental result. The tting process is carried out according to the procedure described in section 4.3.5. 1. The test is carried out. The counter forces as a function of time in dierent

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Section 5.2

strain levels are plotted.

14

x 10

12

4.8%strain 3.9%strain 2.9%strain 1.9%strain 1%strain

10

stress,Pa

20

40

60 time,s

80

100

120

Figure 5.12: The relaxation test result of the tension test. If we plot g 5.12 into relaxed modulus form by dividing stress by strain level, one gets g 5.13.
4.5 x 10
6

1%strain 2%strain 3%strain 4%strain 5%strain

3.5 relaxed modulus,Pa

2.5

1.5

20

40

60 time,s

80

100

120

Figure 5.13: The relaxation modulus of the rubber in the tension test. It shows that the modulus is strain dependent. The lower the strain level, the higher the relaxed modulus is. This is opposite in the compression test, e.g. g 5.4. The reason is that in a compression process, as the strain level Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

41

Chapter 5

goes up, there are more and more llers that are interacting with each other or the polymer chains. Friction increases as the strain increases. However, in a tension process, the llers tend to detach with each other and less friction is experienced. This tendency can also be seen in the following loading curve plot (g 5.14). When it is compared to the corresponding one in the compression test, g 5.5, the curvature of the curves are dierent, which one is convex while the other is concave. The concave implies that the friction is increasing and the convex implies the friction decreasing as the strain increases. One can see in the meantime that the friction has much more inuence in a compression test than in a tension test from the bigger deviation between the curves in the compression test, g 5.5. 2. In order to nd out the parameters for frictional elements, long term stress strain relationship is plotted as the loading curve in g 5.14.
12 x 10
4

10

8 stress,Pa

2 stain,%

Figure 5.14: The loading curve of the rubber in the tension test. The tting procedure is the same as in the compression test. The circle marks in the gure are the points that are chosen to t the elasto-plastic model. Three frictional elements in the model is chosen.

E = 1.850 106 (Pa) Ef i = {0.161 0.320 0.235} 106 (Pa) Yi = {0.0063 0.0061 0.0022} 106 (Pa)
(5.2.1) 3. Excluding the frictional eect, the viscous relaxed modulus is obtained. The resulting plot is g 5.15.

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Section 5.2

20

x 10

15 viscorelaxed modulus,Pa

4.8%strain 3.9%strain 2.9%strain 1.9%strain 1%strain

10

20

40

60 time,s

80

100

120

Figure 5.15: The visco-relaxed modulus of the rubber in the tension situation. The tting procedures are is the same as that for compression test. The curve of strain 2.9% is single out to t the viscous model parameters. 3 Maxwell elements are chosen. The tted model parameters are,

Evi = {0.6229 0.4981 0.5197} 106 (Pa)

tri = {25.6 5.1 0.6}s

4. The resulting models for the visco-elastic modulus is as in g 5.7and formulated according to eq.(4.3.17),

ER (t) = [1.850 + 0.6229et/25.6 + 0.4981et/5.1 + 0.5197et/0.6 ] 106 (Pa). (5.2.2)

The complex modulus is therefore formulated by eq.(4.3.18)

E () = [1.850+0.6229

i 5.1 i 0.6 i 25.6 +0.4981 +0.5197 ]106 (Pa). 1 + i 25.6 1 + i 5.1 1 + i 0.6 (5.2.3)

Fig 5.16 shows the comparison of the model behavior and the experiment results. Good agreement is found. The main deviations occur at the beginning of each curve where the most curvature change is found. In order to get more accurate model especially in this part of the curves, more piecewise lines should be formed here and therefore more Maxwell elements should be added to the model. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

43

Chapter 5

14

x 10

12

10

stress,Pa

20

40

60 time,s

80

100

120

Figure 5.16: Comparison of the combined model behavior and the test result. Solid line: test result; dashed line: model behavior. The model for complex modulus is ready for plot as well. See g 5.17.
6 modulus,Pa x 10
6

0 4 10 0.4 loss factor 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 4 10

10

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

10

10

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

10

Figure 5.17: Complex modulus model derived by the tension test. This experiment and the following tting process show that the relaxation model under investigation has good agreement with the experiment result. The complex modulus is derived from the parameters obtained from the tension experiment. Compared to the model derived in the compression test, the complex modulus has the same tendency in the same frequency range while amplitude of the loss factor and the peak shift. This is probably because of that the damping that involved in

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Section 5.2

the two tests are dierent. In a compression test, more damping comes from the friction and less from the viscous damper but in the tension test, the frictional damping plays a less important roll and the viscous damping has more weight. In both case, one can expect from the complex modulus model above 1Hz is a constant and the damping go to zero. This observation will be discussed later and compare with another methods that comes in chapter 6. Again a loss factor of zero at 10Hz, for example, is not likely to happen to rubber material as already mention in compression test part.

5.2.3 Fitting with 5 and 3 parameters model

One can see from the above tting process that the parameters that needs to be t is 13. That is quite a lot. In fact, it is possible to reduce the number of parameters that need to be t if a less accuracy is satised. In the following, a ve parameter tting is carried out, which is the simplest model for a combined friction and viscoelastic model. The tting procedure is exactly the same as above. The only dierence is only one frictional element and one Maxwell element is chosen. In the Maxwell model tting, the curve with 2.9% strain is chosen. The resulting models are used to check the agreement of the other measurement curves which is plotted in g 5.19. The resulted parameters for the model, e.g. g 5.18, are,

E = 2.14 106 (Pa) Ef 1 = 0.080 106 (Pa) Ev1 = 0.270 106 (Pa) Y1 = 0.0024 106 (Pa) tr1 = 35.4s

Figure 5.18: The combined model with one frictional element and one Maxwell element. If frictional element is not considered at all, there will be only 3 parameters that need to be t. Still the curve with 2.9% strain is chosen. The results are used in other curves to check the agreement of the model with the other measurements. The model is a Zener model as in g 4.20 and the parameters derived are, Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

45

Chapter 5

E = 2.14 106 (Pa) E(v1) = 0.270 106 (Pa) tr = 35.4s

Fig 5.19 shows the comparison of the behaviors of 3 parameters' model, 5 parameters' model and 13 parameters' model as well as with the experiment results.

14 12 10 8 stress,Pa 6 4 2 0 2

x 10

20

40

60 time,s

80

100

120

Figure 5.19: Comparison of the 13-parameter model (green dashed), 5-parameter model (red dashed), 3-parameter (black dash-doted) model and the test result (blue solid).

As a comparison of the three models, the 13 parameters' model gives the best tting as expected. The 5 parameters' model and the 3 parameters' model has no dierence in the curves above the 2.9% strain curve but small deviations are found in the lower strain curves. The 3 parameters' model is less accurate. It is in the lower strain range that the frictional model counts more in the tension test. On one hand it can be seen that the accuracy is reduced compared as the parameters number reduced. On the other hand it still shows that it is possible to t the curve with less parameters. Depending on the accuracy one wants to acquire, one can choose a simple model or a complicate model. The model for complex modulus is ready for plot as well. See g 5.20.

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Section 5.3

6 modulus,Pa

x 10

3parameter 5parameter 13parameter

0 4 10 0.4 loss factor 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 4 10

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

10

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

10

Figure 5.20: The comparison of the complex model behavior derived from the 13-parameter model, the 5-parameter model and the 3-parameter model. All complex modulus model are all show a frequency dependence in very low frequency range while they dier with each other quite a lot. This is because the tting curves that used to t the model parameters dier. For a less parameter model, the peak of the modulus will be lower down because of the long term values in the time scale. For a more parameter model, curves with changing curvature will be broken into more pieces which brings up the peak value and time origin E0 . The damping changes accordingly as well. The resulting modulus will be checked in the following chapter.

5.3 Summery
Two kinds of relaxation experiments have been carried out in this chapter, compression and tension experiments. The results show a dierence in the properties of the rubber when it is subjected to dierent types of pressure. In a compression situation, the friction increases as the strain level increases. In a tension situation, the friction decreases as the strain level increases. The friction is more critical in compression than in tension. In deriving the parameters for the viscous models as well as frictional models, the accuracy depends on the number of basic elements that are chosen to include in the model. The more elements involved, the more accurate it can be obtained to t the model to the experiment results. However, it increases the complexity of tting the model parameters since for each basic elements that is added to the model, there will be two more parameters that need to be t. According to the requirement of the accuracy, there will always be compromising between the complexity of the model and the easiness of the parameter Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

47

Chapter 5

derivation. In this part, the models t well to the measurement data. The static property is well dened. The complex modulus are derived by a corresponding complex modulus model using the parameters that has been derived from the experiments. The complex modulus in both experiments show a constant tendency at frequencies above 1Hz. This observation will be compared to the results derived in the following chapters.

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Chapter 6

Structure: Theoretical Model of Suspension

Besides the relaxation method, there are several other methods to investigate the viscoelastic behavior of rubber material. Just to name a few, free oscillation methods, resonance methods and ultrasonic methods are examples.13 Considering the feasibility of these methods in our practical availability of test equipments, one method is chosen for further investigation of the material properties. This is forced vibration method. This method is carried out by giving a certain material sample with certain geometry and driven it by periodic forces to activate its vibration mechanism. Since the vibration response is determined by the property of the material and the geometry, by measuring the vibration response and with the known geometry, the property of the material is determined. In the project, the exural vibration is chosen because of its easiness in displacement measurement. As just mentioned, the vibration response is geometry related. As the available analytical expression and the possibility of solving the related equations, the geometry should preferably be simple, like a beam or a plate, etc. Since the end product of the suspension has a cylindrical tube like geometry, the vibration theory of beam is applied. Three analytical models are presented according to dierent simplication assumptions. The nite element method will be used as well with the COMSOL Multiphysics being the application software. In this chapter the theory of the analytical models and nite element models will be introduced and a comparison will be made among these models. In the next chapter, these models will be applied to t the experimental results. In the following, the Bernoulli-Euler theory and the Timoshenko theory of beams will be presented. A nite element model will be formed by using COMSOL Multiphysics. Shell theory follows but only in a brief discussion because it results in very complicated expressions which will be very dicult to handle analytically. However, a nite element model using shell theory will be formed to be compared with a real geometry model. The chapter ends with a discussion of dierent models and their feasibility in this project.

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Chapter 6

6.1 Analytical model

6.1.1 Bernoulli-Euler theory
The Bernoulli-Euler theory is the simplest theory of bending wave motions. The theory says that for one-dimensional bending waves in beams, g. 6.1, the wave movement fullls the fourth order of partial dierential equation,

d4 w(x) 4 kb w(x) = 0 dx4

(6.1.1)

x x=0 x=L Feit

Figure 6.1: A vibrating beam with free-sliding boundary condition. In this equation, w(x) = w(x, t) = w(x)eit is the displacement at an arbitrary position x on the tube. eit implies a harmonic motion at angular frequency . kb = ( 2 m /B)1/4 is the wave number at frequency . B = EI is the bending stiness where E is the Young's modulus of the tube material and I is the area moment of inertia. m is the mass per unit length. This equation implies some assumptions. The rst assumption implies that transverse shear deection and rotatory inertia in the wave motion have been neglected. The second assumption says that the beam under consideration can be treated as a one-dimensional beam, which means that the wavelength under consideration is much larger than the thickness of the beam. A rule of thumb says that the wavelength should be at least 6 times larger than the thickness.

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Section 6.1

The general solution of the wave equation takes the form of,

w(x) = a1 cos kb x + a2 sin kb x + a3 cosh kb x + a4 sinh kb x

(6.1.2)

where the unknown parameters a1 , a2 ,a3 and a4 depend on boundary conditions. Considering the situation that is presented in g 6.1, the wave equation is solved here for a free-sliding boundary condition, which are, 1. No bending moment at the free end x = 0: w (0) = 0; 2. No force applied at x = 0, the free end: w (0) = 0; 3. No angle movement at the sliding end x = L: w(L) = 0; 4. The force at x = L is equal to the driven force F : Bw (L) = F . Inserting equation 6.1.2 to these four boundary conditions, we are able to write four equations and solve for parameters a1 ,a2 ,a3 and a4 . The four equations for the boundary conditions are,
2 Bkb (a1 + a3 ) = 0 3 Bkb (a2 + a4 ) = 0

(6.1.3) (6.1.4) (6.1.5) (6.1.6)

kb (a1 sin kb L + a2 cos kb L + a3 sinh kb L + a4 cosh kb L) = 0

3 Bkb (a1 sin kb L

a2 cos kb L + a3 sinh kb L + a4 cosh kb L) = F

The solutions are,

a1 = a3 =

F cosh kb L + cos kb L 3 2(cosh k L sin k L + cos k L sinh k L) Bkb b b b b F sinh kb L + sin kb L a2 = a4 = 3 Bkb 2(cosh kb L sin kb L + cos kb L sinh kb L)

(6.1.7) (6.1.8) (6.1.9)

Inserting these solutions in equation 6.1.2, we get the displacement response of the tube at position x. The transfer function G of the vibration response at the corresponding point x to the force driving point x = L becomes,

GxL =
At x = 0, G can be simplied to, Chen Xinyi

w(x) w(L)

(6.1.10)

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51

Chapter 6

cos kb L cosh kb L + 1 cos kb L + cosh kb L The natural frequencies of the beam are given by G0L = n = B n 2 ( ) m L

(6.1.11)

(6.1.12)

where n is the eigenvalues of the wave equation.

6.1.2 Timoshenko beam theory

In Bernoulli Euler theory, the shear deformation and rotational inertial are not considered. In the case where these two motion cannot be neglected, Timoshenko theory should be considered. Since rotational movement is present, the equations of motion are expressed by both the displacement and the angle of rotation. These two motions share the same form of equation, which for the displacement, for example, says,

4w 4w 2w 2 I 4 w I + + A 2 + =0 (6.1.13) x4 k G x2 t2 t k G t4 Note that in this equation, all the quantities have been non-dimensionalized. The dimensionless quantities are given by, L = L /L w = w /L x = x /L A = A /L
2

(6.1.14) (6.1.15) (6.1.16) (6.1.17) (6.1.18) (6.1.19)

t = t 1
2 = /(EI/(L 6 1 ))

Note that here and only here in this part that a variable with means a real quantity and one without means a normalized quantity except k means the shear factor without any normalized meaning. 1 is the rst natural frequency. The meanings of the other variables with and without are, L: length. w: displacement. x: an arbitrary point on the beam. A: cross section area. t: time.

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Section 6.1

: density. E : Young's modulus. I : area moment of inertia. : angular frequency. k : wavenumber. G: shear modulus. The solution of the equation depends on a cuto frequency which is also called critical frequency c . The critical frequency is determined by the equation

c =

k GA I

(6.1.20)

Below the critical frequency, < c , the wave decays as a function of distance. The displacement solution is expressed by,

w(x) = c1 sin ax + c2 cos ax + c3 sinh bx + c4 cosh bx

where

(6.1.21)

a=

I+

1 kG 1 kG

2 + 2 2 + 2

1 kG 1 kG

2 4 + A 2 4 2 4 + A 2 4

(6.1.22)

b=

I+

(6.1.23)

Above the critical frequency, > c , the wave is a propagating wave. The displacement solution has only sinusoidal terms,

w(x) = c1 sin ax + c2 cos ax + c3 sin + c4 cos bx bx

where

(6.1.24)

a=

I+

1 kG 1 kG

2 + 2 2 2

1 kG 1 kG

2 4 + A 2 4 2 4 + A 2 4

(6.1.25)

= b

I+

(6.1.26)

Notice that b = i. b

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Chapter 6

If we apply the same boundary conditions as in eq.(6.1.6), ie. a free-sliding boundary condition, the unknown parameters c1 c4 and c1 c4 can be solved.

c1 =

F b(b sin aL a sinh bL) 2 b(a2 + b2 ) sin bL cos aL + a3 (a2 + b2 ) sin aL cosh bL Ba b2 cos aL a2 cosh bL F c2 = B a2 b(a2 + b2 ) sin bL cos aL + a3 (a2 + b2 ) sin aL cosh bL a(b sin aL a sinh bL) F c3 = 3 (a2 + b2 ) sin bL cos aL + ab2 (a2 + b2 ) sin aL cosh bL Bb F b2 cos aL a2 cosh bL c4 = 3 (a2 + b2 ) sin bL cos aL + ab2 (a2 + b2 ) sin aL cosh bL Bb

(6.1.27) (6.1.28) (6.1.29) (6.1.30)

2 sin aL sin F b b bL 2 2 2 ) sin cos aL a4 (a2 2 ) sin aL cos B a b(a b bL b bL 2 sin aL a2 sin b bL F c2 = B a2 2 2 ) sin cos aL a4 (a2 2 ) sin aL cosh b(a b bL b bL c1 = c3 = F sin aL + a sin b bL B 3 (a2 2 ) sin cos aL a2 (a2 2 ) sin aL cos b b bL b b bL 2 cos aL + a2 cosh F b bL c4 = 3 (a2 2 ) sin cos aL a2 (a2 2 ) sin aL cos Bb b bL b b bL

(6.1.31) (6.1.32) (6.1.33) (6.1.34)

By putting these parameters in equations (6.1.21) and (6.1.24), the spatial solution is found. The transfer function of the response at point x over the force driving point can be found accordingly.

6.1.3 Finite element model

A nite element model is considered as well as the analytical models. The nite element model is formulated in COMSOL Multiphysics. In order to build up the model for the rubber suspension, a simple model is built rst and the simulation is compared to its analytical value. A long thin steel rod with a diameter of 1mm and a length of 100m is used. The steel rod has a Young's modulus of 2 1011 Pa and a loss factor of 0.001. The steel rod is exposed with a boundary condition as in g 6.1 which represent in COMSOL as a prescribed acceleration a at the sliding end,

ax = 0

ay = 1m/s2

az = 0.

(6.1.35)

All the other parts of the steel rod is unconstraint. The steel rod is then meshed with the default setting in COMSOL Multiphysics. A meshed plot is as in g 6.2 with 13,698 degrees of freedom.

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Section 6.1

Figure 6.2: The meshed steel rod. Run the frequency response simulation, the result of the transfer function between the two ends is obtained and compared to the analytical value calculated by the Bernoulli-Euler theory, e.g.eq.(6.1.11). Note that in the model the ratio of the accelerations is red which is equal to the ratio of displacement in eq.(6.1.11). The result is plotted in g 6.3.
60 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 40 20 0 20 1 10 0 200 phase,deg 400 600 800 1000 1 10 BernoulliEuler Finite Element 10
2 2 3 4

10

10 frequency,Hz

10

10 frequency,Hz

10

Figure 6.3: The comparison of the transfer function between the two ends of the steel rod using nite element model and from the Bernoulli-Euler theory. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

55

Chapter 6

The gure shows that the two modes match with each other quite well from which we assume that the nite element model is correctly established. In the following, this model will be used with all the other conditions remain unchanged except the geometry of the object.

6.2 Comparison of analytical model with nite element model using simple rods
To compare the theoretical model with the nite element model, a solid circular rod and a circular tube are used respectively. In analytical models, BernoulliEuler theory and Timoshenko theory are used. In nite element model, COMSOL Multiphysics is used. 1. A solid circular rod with diameter of 2mm and length of 17.5mm is rst used. The rod has a density of 1800kg/m3 , a Young's modulus of 9 106 P a and a loss factor of 0.01. The sliding-free boundary condition is assumed. A force is driven vertically to the axis of the rod at the sliding end. The transfer function of the response at the free end to force driving end is calculated and plotted in g. 6.4.

30 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 20 10 0 10 1 10 0 phase, deg 500 1000 1500 2000 1 10

2 3 4

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

BernoulliEuler Timoshenko FEM 10

2

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 6.4: Comparison of Bernoulli-Euler, Timoshenko theory and Finite element model in a solid rod case.

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Section 6.2

No.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

BernoulliEuler(BE) 65Hz 406Hz 1136Hz 2225Hz 3679Hz 5495Hz 7674Hz

Timoshenko (T) 65Hz 400Hz 1085Hz 2031Hz 3180Hz 4481Hz 5894Hz

Finite Element (FE) 66Hz 390Hz 1000Hz 1850Hz 2850Hz 3900Hz 5000Hz

BE-T

BE-FE

T-FE

0 1.5% 4.7% 9.5% 15.7% 22.6% 30.2%

1.5% 4.1% 13.6% 20.3% 29.1% 40.9% 53.5%

1.5% 2.6% 8.5% 9.8% 11.6% 14.9% 17.9%

Table 6.1: Table of natural frequency in Bernoulli-Euler, Timoshenko and Finite Element models.

One can see from the gure that the agreement of the three models at low frequencies is quite good. But at high frequencies, the resonance frequencies shifts. Compared to the Bernoulli-Euler model, the resonance frequency resulting from a Timoshenko beam shifts to a lower frequency. The nite element model has resonance frequencies at even lower frequencies. The difference is listed in table 6.1. The dierence between the Bernoulli-Euler theory and the Timoshenko theory is that Timoshenko theory takes the shear and torsional deformation into account. The dierence between the Timoshenko model and the nite element model is because that the nite element model consider three dimension deformation while Timoshenko model is a one-dimensional model.

2. A tube with a cylindrical shaped cross section of inner diameter equal to 1mm and outer diameter equal to 1.3mm. (This geometry is more close to the rubber suspension.) The other conditions are the same as the previous rod case. The comparing result is plotted in g. 6.5.

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Chapter 6

60 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 40 20 0 20 1 10 0 phase, deg

2 3 4

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

1000 BernoulliEuler Timoshenko FEM 10

2

2000

3000 1 10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 6.5: Comparison of Bernoulli-Euler, Timoshenko theory and Finite element model in a hollow rod with cylindrical cross section.

No.

1 2 3 4 5 6

BernoulliEuler(BE) 106Hz 664Hz 1859Hz 3643Hz 6023Hz 8997Hz

Timoshenko (T) 106Hz 633Hz 1616Hz 2832Hz 4190Hz 5641Hz

Finite Element (FE) 105Hz 545Hz 1300Hz 2200Hz 3100Hz 4000Hz

BE-T

BE-FE

T-FE

0 4.9% 15.0% 28.6% 43.8% 59.5%

1% 21.8% 43.0% 65.6% 94.3% 124.9%

1% 16.1% 24.3% 28.7% 35.2% 41.0%

Table 6.2: Table of natural frequency in Bernoulli-Euler, Timoshenko and Finite Element models.

The deviation is more than in a rigid rod case. The reason is that the mass across the cross sectional area is more distracted than in a solid rod case which is more concentrated. Therefore, a one-dimensional model is a less accurate model in this case.

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Section 6.3

6.3 Analytical model with mass at one end of the beam

6.3.1 Bernoulli-Euler Beam
If a mass is hanging on the free end, as shown in g. 6.6, the boundary conditions are,

x x=0 x=L Feit

Figure 6.6: A beam with a mass on the free end. 1. Bending moment at x = 0: w (0) = J 2 w |x=0 ; x 2. The force at x = 0 is caused by the movement of the mass: w (0) = 2 mw(0); 3. No angle movement at x = L:
w x |x=L

= 0;

4. The force at x = L is equal to the driven force F : Bw (L) = F . which means

Bkb (a1 + a3 ) = J 2 (a2 + a4 )

3 Bkb (a2

(6.3.1) (6.3.2) (6.3.3) (6.3.4)

+ a4 ) = M (a1 + a3 )

kb (a1 sin kb L + a2 cos kb L + a3 sinh kb L + a4 cosh kb L) = 0

3 Bkb (a1 sin kb L a2 cos kb L + a3 sinh kb L + a4 cosh kb L) = F

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59

Chapter 6

The direct solution is rather complicated. However, the solutions can be expressed by matrix form which is,

a1 a2 a3 a4

Bkb J 2 Bkb J 2 3 3 2 M Bkb 2 M Bkb kb sin kb L kb cos kb L kb sinh kb L kb cosh kb L) 3 3 3 3 Bkb sin kb L Bkb cos kb L Bkb sinh kb L Bkb cosh kb L)

0 0 0 F (6.3.5)

The matrix can be solved by MATLAB and the spacial solution of the vibrating beam can be found.

6.3.2 Timoshenko Beam

When Timoshenko theory is consider for a transversely vibrating beam with a mass hanging at one end of the beam as shown in g. 6.6, the same governing equation (eq 6.1.13) applied with the boundary conditions as in eq.6.3.4. The the spacial solutions are the equations in eq 6.1.21 and eq 6.1.24 with the parameter c1 ,c2 ,c3 ,c4 and c1 ,c2 ,c3 ,c4 listed below,

c1 c2 c3 c4

J 2 a Ba2 J 2 b Bb2 Ba3 m 2 Bb3 m 2 a cos (aL) a sin (aL) b cosh (bL) b sinh (bL) 3 cos (aL) Ba3 sin (aL) Bb3 cosh (bL) Bb3 sinh (bL) Ba

0 0 0 F (6.3.6)

and

c1 c2 c3 c4

J 2 a Ba2 J 2 b B2 b 3 2 3 Ba m B b m 2 cos ( a cos (aL) a sin (aL) b bL) sin ( b bL) 3 cos (aL) Ba3 sin (aL) B3 cos ( Ba b bL) B3 sinh ( b bL)

0 0 0 F (6.3.7)

Solving the matrixes by MATLAB and the solution to the parameters can be put into equations (6.1.21) and (6.1.24) whereby the spatial solution is found.

6.4 Comparison of analytical model to nite element model in mass case

6.4.1 Finite element model with real mass and with point mass
In the analytical model, the mass is assumed to be a point mass instead of a distributed mass in the space. This is not the case as in the nite element model.

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Section 6.4

Therefore in an analytical model, the eect of the bending and rotational moment caused by the spacial distribution will occurred. In the following this dierence is shown using nite element simulation. In COMSOL Multiphysics, a tube of 17.5mm with ring shaped cross section of inner diameter 1mm and outer diameter 1.3mm is exposed in a bending vibration situation. Around 30,000 elements are meshed along the tube which is assumed to be small enough to cover the frequency range of interest. A meshed tube can be seen in g 6.7. The boundary condition is free-sliding with an initial acceleration applied transversely at the sliding end. At the free end, a real sti rod is hanging with part of it inserted into the tube (5.6mm) and the rest of it outside the tube. An image is shown in g 6.8. The comparison case is a small concentrated mass is placed at the gravity center of the real mass in the former case and performs the same analysis. The frequency response of a point on the tube as shown in the gure over the force driving point is shown in g 6.9,6.10 for a 6mm rod and 8 mm rod respectively.

Figure 6.7: A mesh of the tube. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

61

Chapter 6

laser mass

point mass

laser

Figure 6.8: Cylindrical tubes with free hanging mass (up) and a concentrated point mass (down)

50 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB

50 1 10 0 phase, deg 500 1000 1500 2000 1 10 point mass rod

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 6.9: A comparison of the response of the beam of a mass to a concentrated point mass. The mass is a solid rod with diameter of 1mm and length of 6mm.

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Section 6.4

50 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB

50

100 1 10 0 phase, deg 500 1000 1500 2000 1 10 point mass rod

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 6.10: Comparison of point mass to mass, 8 mm.

As can be seen from the gures, when the mass becomes larger and the center of the gravity is further away from the tube, the deviation of the point mass calculation to the real mass calculation becomes larger as well. That is because the mass distribution is counting more and more when the mass become larger in torsional moment and bending moment. However, in the low frequency range, the good agreement of the two cases is found because the dimension of the mass is small compared to the wavelength.

6.4.2 Analytical model vs. nite element model

The comparison is carried out in two situations. The rst one, a solid rod with diameter 2mm and length of 17.5mm is used. The rod has a density of 1800kg/m3 with a Young's modulus of 9 106 Pa and a loss factor of 0.01. A rigid block with the same diameter but a length of 1mm is hanging at the free end of the rod. The block has a Young's modulus of 2 1011 Pa without damping. The responses predicted by the two analytical models and the nite element model is as in g 6.11. The second case is using a hollow tube with a cylindrical cross section. The tube has an inner diameter of 2mm and a outer diameter of 2.6mm. A steel rod with a diameter of 2mm and a length of 6mm is partly (5mm) inserted into the free end of the tube. The transfer function between a point on the mass center and the force driving end is calculated by the three models and compared in g 6.12. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 6

40 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 20 0 20 40 1 10 0 phase, deg

2 3 4

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

1000 FE BE Timoshenko 10
2

2000

3000 1 10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 6.11: A comparison of the response of a cylindrical solid beam with a hanging mass. The mass has the same diameter of the rod and a length of 1mm

50 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 0 50 100 150 1 10 0 phase, deg 500 1000 1500 2000 1 10 FEM BernoulliEuler Timoshenko 10
2 2 3 4

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 6.12: A comparison of the response of a cylindrical hollow beam with a hanging mass. The mass has the diameter of 1mm and a length of 6mm. Both gures show that the responses at low frequency range from the three models are more or less agree with each other. The response begins to deviate in high frequency range and become larger and larger as the frequency increases. However, the nite element model diers a lot with the other two models in the latter case not only in the resonance frequency shifting but also the shape of the curve is dierent. This dierence starts already from the rst trough which does not appear in the nite element model prediction.

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Section 6.5

6.5 Shell theory consideration

As one can see from the preceding comparison of the analytical models and the nite element model, they agree with each other at low frequencies. But as the frequency increases, the deviation between the two models becomes more and more obvious. This is because that at low frequencies, the wavelength is large compared to the thickness of the tube. Then the tube can be treated as one-dimensional beam. On the contrary, when the frequency goes higher, the wavelength is short. At some point the thickness of the tube cannot be neglected. In the nite element model, this eect has been taken into account while both Bernoulli-Euler model and Timoshenko model are one-dimensional models. If we take a look at the nite element model in section 6.4.1, a plot in the following, g. 6.13, shows the deformation of three cross section slices at 10kHz. Although the frequency in this case is at the high end of our interesting frequency range and it is a lightly damped system ( = 0.1), it still shows a deformation tendency when the frequency gets higher which results in a non circular cross section. In this case, one-dimensional models might not be enough to describe the real situation. Especially when the cross section is a ring shape, or in a more generally saying, that the the mass along the cross sectional area is more distracted instead of concentrated, shell theory might be a more appropriate theory to apply.

Figure 6.13: The deformation seeing from the cross section for a light damped ring shaped beam. If spacial distribution is taking into account in the analytical models, mode shape analysis of shell theory should be considered. The deformation is not only due to the vibration of the beam but also due to the shape of the shell. These deformations should be coupled together in order to get exact practical solution. This requires three-dimensional calculation which will become extremely complicated and will not be treated in this project. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 6

However, we still can have a look of the dierence when shell theory is applied by the help of COMSOL Multiphysics. In the software, there is an option of shell in solid structure problem which uses shell theory. Fig 6.14 shows a pure tube as that in g 6.5. It is very clear that in this case, the curve from the shell theory and the curve from the nite element model with a real geometry are almost on top of each other. This implies that the shell theory is the most appropriate model that applies to the vibration of a tube. Fig 6.15 shows a vibrating tube as in g 6.14 case hanging with a steel rod serving as a mass. The rod has a diameter of the same diameter as the shell tube and a length of 1mm. Still in this case the shell theory and the nite element model with the real geometry are most close to each other than to the Bernoulli-Euler and the Timoshenko theories. However, one should note that when the mass is getting bigger and bigger, the shell theory will dier more and more from the nite element model with the real geometry because obviously a mass is not suitable to be model as a shell.

60 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 40 20 0 20 1 10 0 phase, deg

2 3 4

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

1000 FE FE,shell BEuler Timoshenko 10

2

2000

3000 1 10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 6.14: A comparison of the response of a ring shaped beam using the shell theory and using the other theories.

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Section 6.6

50 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB

50 1 10 0 phase, deg FEMBE

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

1000

2000

BernoulliEuler Timoshenko FEM FEMshell 10

2

3000 1 10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 6.15: A comparison of the response of a ring shaped beam with a hanging mass using the shell theory and using the other theories. Another point that should be noticed is that the deformation in g 6.13 comes from a light damped system and at very high frequency. In a high damped case, which is expected in rubber materials, the deformation might not be perceivable. It can also be seen in this two comparisons that the shifting of the resonance frequencies from the Bernoulli-Euler theory and the Timoshenko theory to the nite element model with the real geometry is mainly because of the spacial mass distribution. This will count more and more when the ratio between the diameter of the tube and the length of the tube become larger and larger.

6.6 Summary
In this chapter, several theories are presented in exural vibration beam problems. The simplest theory is Bernoulli-Euler theory which assumes that there is a neutral plane that is free of deformation. In this theory, shear movement and the rotational inertia are excluded. The consideration of these two aspects lead to the Timoshenko theory. The nite element method considers the stress-strain relationship on each element with its shape function. Since the suspension is a tube shape with thin walls, a brief discussion of shell theory is presented without going into details because of the diculty in mathematical realization. The models are compared with each other in dierent aspects. In general, it shows that good agreement can be expected at low frequency range below 1kHz in dierent models. However, it should be used with great care at higher frequencies. Normally, a prediction is executed with know properties of the material. But inversely, it should be also possible to derive the property of a material with known responses. This will be examined in the next chapter. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

67

Chapter 7

Forced Vibration Experiments

The frequency response of the tube at a arbitrary point over the point at force driving position is measured. A basic analyze at the response around resonance frequency is executed. Then the curve tting process of matching the theoretical value to the measurement data is carried out. The dynamic properties are determined thereafter.

7.1 Experiment and simulation setup

In order to build up the mechanical model of the suspension, an experiment is setup to measure the vibration response of the rubber tube. Fig. 7.1 shows such a setup. A photo can be found in g 7.2.

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Section 7.1

a suspension rigid block accelerometer laser

shaker

Figure 7.1: Experiment setup of a forced vibration test.

Figure 7.2: Experiment setup of a force vibration test in the real situation. As shown in the gure, two identical samples of rubber tube are attached to a solid cylindrical block by two small steel rods. The steel rods have the same diameter as the inner diameter of the rubber tube. Each rubber tube is inserted into the steel rod and clamped by a steel rigid tube at the same position of steel rod. This makes sure that the vibration signal can be rigidly transmitted to the rubber tubes. The Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 7

solid cylindrical block is screwed into a shaker, which is used as a vibration driver. The driven signal comes from a generator controlled by a PC. On top of the block an accelerometer is connected by a screw. The vibration signal on the rubber tube is picked up by a laser vibrometer. The response signals from the laser vibrometer and the accelerometer are sent back to a PC for postprocessing. POLYTEK is used as a signal generating and pickup software. The consideration in such a setup of using two identical tube is to form a balance on the shaker so that the rotating moment is less likely to occur. The cylindrical block is made by plastic which is light weight and solid. The consideration of a solid block is to create a synchronized movement on the surface of the block so that the pickup signal of the accelerometer represents the vibration of the shaker as well as the signal given to the rubber tubes. The light weight consideration is to avoid unexpected resonance frequency caused by the solid block occurring in the frequency range of the interest. The connection between the rubber tube and the steel rod is assumed to be tight but not deform the shape of the tube in the way that the diameter of the steel rod and the inner tube are the same while it is not easy to detach the connection during the experiment. This in the simulation is assumed to be a xed connection. The transfer function between the laser signal and the accelerometer signal is measured. The simulation represents situations that occurred in the measurements. By tting the parameters in the simulation, the Young's modulus and the loss factor of the rubber tube are expected to be true if the simulation results resemble the experimental result.

7.2 Some prechecking

Before the modeling, some experiments are carried out in order to check the robustness of the experiment results. 1. Linearity to dierent vibrating level. The tubes are exposed to dierent input vibration levels in order to examine if the experiment setup behaves in a linear way. The input level range is decided so that it is neither too weak to excite the tubes nor too strong to cause nonlinearities. Fig.7.3 and g 7.4 show such a comparison of the transfer function of the vibration response on the measuring point (signal picked up by the laser vibrometer) over the input signal (measured by the accelerometer) from 10Hz to 1kHz and from 1kHz to 10kHz respectively.

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Section 7.2

10 0.3v 0.5v 0.8v 1v

5 acceleration/acceleration(dB)

10

15

20 1 10

10 frequency(Hz)

10

Figure 7.3: Transfer function measured at 10 Hz to 1 kHz (left) corresponding to dierent input levels.

0 0.5v 1v 1.5v

5 acceleration/acceleration (dB)

10

15

20

25

30 3 10 frequency(Hz)

10

Figure 7.4: Transfer function measured at 1 kHz to 10 kHz (right) corresponding to dierent input levels. The gure shows that the responses are consistent and therefore indicate a linear response to the input levels. The noise decreases with increasing levels. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 7

2. Consistency to dierent samples and the dierence between adjacent measuring points. Two sets of samples are chosen for the same experiment for type FK tube. The transfer function of the velocity type on the same measuring points over the input signal is displayed in Fig. 7.5.

5 sample 1 sample 2 0

frequency response (dB)

10

15

20

25 1 10

10

10 frequency(Hz)

10

Figure 7.5: Transfer function measured for two FK suspension sample sets.

The gure shows a good measuring stability. But dierences still occur from sample to sample. Since it is not easy to control the laser point from one measurement to another, it is predictable that there might be some deviance, i.e. the resonance frequency shifts from sample to sample as seen on the gure.

7.3 Boundary conditions and test setup considerations

Another boundary condition has been considered as well, e.g. a xed end instead of the free end. That is to say, that the boundary condition is a xed-sliding boundary condition. The situation is shown in g 7.6. A real measurement is shown in g 7.7.

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Section 7.3

suspension rigid block a

accelerometer laser

metal rod

shaker

Figure 7.6: Experiment setup of a forced vibration test with a xed boundary condition.

Test Sample Steel Block

Figure 7.7: A setup photo from the real experiment of a forced vibration test with a xed boundary condition. The purpose is to measure the frequency response of the midpoint of the test tube over the driving point. A measurement result is shown in g 7.8. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 7

5 |w(x)/w(L)|, dB

10 2 10 50 phase, deg 0 50 100 150 2 10

10 frequency(Hz)

10

10 frequency(Hz)

10

Figure 7.8: The transfer function between the midpoint of the tested tube and the driving point in the vibration test with a xed boundary condition.

In the measured response curve, no clear resonance can be found except some peaks that comes from the experiment setup. According to a rough estimation using a Young's modulus E = 1.09 107 Pa that is derived in the next section, the rst resonance frequency should occur at around 2kHz which could not be seen on the curve. The reason might be that the tube, which has been clamped at both ends and occupied quite a part of the whole tube, the free vibrating part of the tube becomes very short (5mm). Therefore regarding it as a vibrating beam is not possible. Moreover, the steel block at the end points which aims at forming a xed boundary condition does not really stay still especially at high frequencies. The setup needs to be improved before we can get promising data. The steel block can be attached to an unmoving foundation instead of putting on the resting part of the shaker. However, the suspension tube has limited length which is hard to extend unless it is specially made. Besides, it has been considered that a force transducer should be used in order to measure the input mobility of the vibrating tube. A force transducer can be added between the shaker and the rigid block that supports the tubes. In order to reduce the mass that the force transducer is driving, the laser vibrometer is used and the accelerometer is removed. One measurement is as in g 7.9.

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Section 7.3

|v/F| (dB)

20

40

60 2 10 50 phase, deg

10 frequency(Hz)

10

100

150 2 10

10 frequency(Hz)

10

Figure 7.9: The input mobility measured from the vibration system with a free boundary condition. From the curve, it is hard to see any resonance or antiresonance. Now we use the same setup and measure the transfer function of displacement of the free end to the input end, the result is shown in g 7.10.

10 |w(0)/w(L)| (dB)

10

20 2 10 0 phase, deg

10 frequency(Hz)

10

200

400

600 2 10

10 frequency(Hz)

10

Figure 7.10: The transfer function between the point at the free end and the force driving point of the same vibration system as in g 7.9. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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This transfer function curve indicates that we should expect an antiresonance at around 300Hz in input mobility curve, i.e. g 7.9 which we haven't seen any around the frequency. The reason for this might be that the tubes are light compared to the rigid block that supports the tube and a part of the force transducer and therefore the force is mainly used to drive the mass on top of the force transducer instead of the tubes. The antiresonance of the tubes can hardly be deceived. However, the transfer function curve do give us some information which we might use to derive the elastic property of the tube. This will be discussed in the following section.

7.4 Resonance method

7.4.1 Short tube with constant cross section
A tube is cut from either FK or FH samples so that it has a constant cross section, which is a circular ring. The tube is place at the suspension place in g. 7.1. The tube is 13.5mm long. When inserted into the steel rod, the free vibrating part is 9.25mm long. A force is applied from the shaker and the frequency response of the tube at free end over the driving point is measured. The frequency response takes the form of acceleration at the free end over the acceleration at the sliding end. This quantity is the same as the frequency response between displacement and displacement at both ends. The result is shown in g. 7.12.
10 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB

10

20 1 10 200 phase, deg 0 200 400 600 1 10

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 7.11: The transfer function of the short tube between a point near the free end and the force driving point from 10 to 10kHz. w: displacement (applied also to the gures in the following for every |w(x)/w(L)|) shown. The sharp peaks at the high frequencies are due to the unbalance of the rigid block when connecting to the shaker. In this case we will take the result under 1kHz to

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Section 7.4

do the rst analysis. The curve is then like,

6 |a(0)/a(L)|,dB 4 2 0 2 1 10 50 phase, deg 0 50 100 150 1 10
2 3 2 142Hz 10 frequency, Hz

425Hz

715Hz3 10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 7.12: The transfer function of the short tube between a point near the free end and the force driving point from 10 to 1kHz. The Nyquist diagram is also shown in g 7.13.
0.5

0 142 Hz

Im{w(0)/w(L)}

0.5

1 715 Hz

1.5 425 Hz

2 1

0.5

0 0.5 Re{w(0)/w(L)}

1.5

Figure 7.13: Nyquist diagram of the transfer function in g 7.12. On either the amplitude plot or the Nyquist plot, the loss factor at the rst peak can be calculated from a 3-dB bandwidth,

f2 f1 715 142 = = 1.35 f0 425

(7.4.1)

Note that the equation for calculating the loss factor is for single degree of freedom Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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case. For a bending beam using Bernoulli-Euler theory, the resonance frequency can be found using equation

f0 =

EI C0 ( ) m L2

(7.4.2)

The Young's modulus is found to be

E=

2 4252 1800 (0.00132 0.0012 ) 0.009252 f0 m L2 = = 7.4 1010 (Pa) C0 I 0.56 (0.00134 0.0014 ) 4 (7.4.3)

Although it is been expected that the rubber has a high damping capability. A loss factor of 1.35 is still quite high. Furthermore, the calculated Young's modulus exceeds the normal range of Young's modulus for rubber as well.3 Another point that should be noted is that at the the resonance frequency, the phase goes through 90 for the undamped material is not the case here. The damped resonance frequency has been shifted. If the 90 is counted, the resonance occurs at around 600Hz. As we remember from the rubber property discussion, the complex Young's modulus of rubber depends on frequency. In viscoelastic range, Young's modulus changes dramatically along the frequency axis. Therefore, in this frequency range, the frequency response curve will become broader and atter than that of a constant Young's modulus' case. If this is the case, the loss factor will be overestimated. In the following a revised method will be used to check the Young's modulus and loss factor. In fact, the loss factor can also be calculated in a narrower bandwidth instead of 3-dB bandwidth. Replot the Nyquist disgram of g 7.13 in g 7.14.

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Section 7.4

0.5

Im{w(0)/w(L)}

0.5

1 3 1.5 4 2 1 0

0.5

0 0.5 Re{w(0)/w(L)}

1.5

Figure 7.14: A replot of the Nyquist diagram of g 7.13. We have the loss factor at the resonance frequency calculated by the formula,3

4 3 1 (7.4.4) 0 4 3 where 4 3 is the phase dierence between the response points at 4 and 3 . For the phase dierence being 2.6 , 12 and 34 , the resulting loss factors are listed below. =2 34 = 1.17 12 = 1.11 2.6 = 1.05
(7.4.5) The changing loss factors verify that the modulus of the material is changing along the frequency axis. It is therefore believed that a response point set with narrower phase dierence gives more accurate estimate of the loss factor of the material at the resonance frequency because the change of the modulus might have less inuence. Using MATLAB to nd the best t Young's modulus E using the Bernoulli-Euler expressions,

w(0) cos(kb L) + cosh kb L = w(L) cos kb L cosh kb L + 1 kb = (

(7.4.6)

2m )1/4 (7.4.7) E(1 + i)I and using the response at the resonance f = 425Hz and = 1.05, the corresponding modulus E is,
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Chapter 7

E = 1.09 107 Pa

(7.4.8)

Use the calculated values of E and (1.05) in the analytical expressions of BernoulliEuler theory and Timoshenko theory as well as in the nite element model, the comparison with the measurement data is shown in g 7.15.

10 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 0 10 20 30 1 10
2 3 4

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

0 phase, deg 200 400 600 10

1

BEuler Timo FEM measurement 10

2

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 7.15: The comparison of the prediction from the three models to the measurement using a constant Young's modulus and a constant loss factor.

It can be seen from the gure that the agreements to the measurement are quite good up to 1kHz for all three models. However, the agreements at high frequency range above 1kHz is very poor. The higher the frequency, the poorer the agreement. There are several explanations that can be expected. First, the theories are simplify theories. In chapter 6, it has been shown that Bernoulli-Euler theory, Timoshenko theory and the nite element model have deviations especially at high frequencies. Therefore the deviation in this comparison is not a surprise. However, they all dier from the measurement at high frequency range which might due to the incorrect Young's modulus and damping, which means that the parameters are frequency dependent as has been mentioned in the literature.13,20 The tube is then cut short gradually and the same measurement is repeated. The measurements are plotted in g 7.16.

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Section 7.4

10 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 5 0 5 10 1 10
2 3

10

10 frequency, Hz

0 phase, deg 100 200 300 400 1 10 10.2mm 9mm 8mm 6.6mm 5.5mm 10
2

10 frequency, Hz

Figure 7.16: The transfer function of a point between the free end of the vibrating tube and the force driving point from 10Hz to 5kHz for the tubes in dierent length. From this measurement gure, one can expect that the damping is increasing along the frequencies because the amplitude of the transfer function is decreasing at resonance frequencies and the 3dB bandwidth around the resonance frequencies becomes broader on a logarithmic frequency scale as the tube becomes shorter. The Young's modulus and the loss factor can be calculated using equations (7.4.4) and (7.4.6) with the help of MATLAB. The results are listed below for resonance frequencies,

E10.2mm = 8.73 106 Pa E9mm = 1.1 10 Pa E8mm = 1.74 107 Pa E6.6mm = 1.92 10 Pa E5.5mm = 2.2 10 Pa
7 7 7

10.2mm = 1.0 9mm = 1.07 8mm = 1.1 6.6mm = 1.25 5.5mm = 1.84

(f0 = 331Hz) (f0 = 456Hz) (f0 = 587Hz) (f0 = 969Hz) (f0 = 1625Hz)

Form the values, the increasing of damping is veried. The Young's modulus increases as the frequency increases as well. One should notice that as the tube is cutting shorter and shorter, the accuracy when Bernoulli-Euler theory is going down because the distribution of the mass across the cross sectional area becomes more and more signicant and the tube should less likely be treated as one dimensional beam. The Young's modulus and the loss factor that have been obtained in this section will be collected in table 7.1 in section 7.4.2 with the results obtained in that section. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 7

7.4.2 A full tube with or without mass

In this part, some other tubes are measured with the same setup. The purpose is to achieve resonance response at other frequencies so that we can derive properties at these frequencies. First of all, The short version tubes are replaced by Suspension tube type FK, i.e. g A.1. The same response measurement is carried out. The measurement result is shown in g 7.17 when the response point is chosen to be x = 10mm distance to the sliding end. The chosen of the point is because here the measurement gives the highest response. At the free end of the tube, there are too much noise going on in the measurement.

20 |w(0)/w(L)| (dB)

20

40 1 10 200 phase (dB)

10

10 frequency(Hz)

10

200

400 1 10

10

10 frequency(Hz)

10

Figure 7.17: The transfer function between a point near the center of the vibrating tube and the force driving point from 10Hz to 10kHz.

There are two resonances (one around 80Hz and the other around 900Hz) occurred in this measurement. The Nyquist diagram at the rst resonance is plotted in g 7.18.

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Section 7.4

0.5 Im{w(0)/w(L)} 870Hz

1 82Hz

1.5

0.5 Re{w(0)/w(L)}

1.5

Figure 7.18: The Nyquist diagram of the transfer function in g 7.17. The loss factor at the resonance frequency f0 = 82.2Hz can be calculated by equation (7.4.4):

6 = 2

1 83.4 80.9 f4 f3 =2 = 0.58. 6 f0 4 3 82.2 180

(7.4.9)

The Young's modulus at this frequency can be calculated by equations (6.1.10) by the help of MATLAB. The result is,

E = 5.68 106 Pa

(7.4.10)

The derived Young's modulus and the loss factor is much smaller, around half of the value as in the last test. This indicates a frequency dependent damping. More investigation will be made in the next section. For the second resonance frequency, 870Hz in g 7.18, the loss factor is,

= 1.32.
With the help of MATLAB, the Young's modulus is found to be

(7.4.11)

E = 1.87 107 Pa

(7.4.12)

A narrow band Nyquist diagram method is chosen prior to 3-dB bandwidth method for the consideration of that the accuracy is higher. For the calculation results, the two sets of the values seems to show a increasing Young's modulus and damping along the frequency scale. This will become more clear in the following investigation.

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Then a steel rod of 6mm long is hanging on the free end of the tube. The same point as in the case without the rod is measured. The result is shown in g 7.19.

10 |w(0)/w(L)| (dB) 0 10 20 30 1 10 200 phase (dB)

2 3 4

10

10 frequency(Hz)

10

200

400 1 10

10

10 frequency(Hz)

10

Figure 7.19: The transfer function between a point near the center of the vibrating tube with a mass hanging on the free end and the force driving point from 10Hz to 10kHz.

Using the same procedure as the former part in this section, the values for the two peaks on the curve can be obtained.

f0,1 = 30Hz : f0,2 = 500Hz :

E = 5.13 106 Pa E = 1.22 10 Pa

7

= 0.42 = 1.11

By now, we have 10 resonance frequencies with 10 sets of Young's modulus and loss factors. Collect them in a table for better view results,

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Section 7.4

f0,i 30Hz 82Hz 331Hz 425Hz 456Hz 500Hz 587Hz 870Hz 969Hz 1625Hz

E, Pa 5.13 106 5.68 106 8.73 106 1.09 107 1.1 107 1.22 107 1.74 107 1.87 107 1.92 107 2.2 107

0.42 0.58 1.0 1.05 1.07 1.11 1.14 1.32 1.25 1.84

Table 7.1: Table of natural frequency and the corresponding Young's modulus and loss factor. If we put all the values that have been derived and plot them, g 7.20 is obtained. It is noticed from the gure that the general tendency of the Young's modulus and the loss factor is going up along the frequency. One exception on the gure is the loss factor at 969Hz where the arrow points to. The sudden drop of the loss factor might due to the irregular drop in the transfer function at around 1kHz in g 7.16. This drop and the peaks that are found at the higher frequencies, where the solid arrows point to, is because of the measurement setup. One should also pay attention to the case when a mass is added to the tube. As we have seen from the last chapter, the case with a hanging mass has less accuracy than the case without hanging mass when it comes to analytical theory. So when the theory is used to derive the properties of the rubber, the possible error is larger than when it applies to a free hanging tube.

2.5

x 10

2 1.8

1.6 1.4

E,Pa

1.5

1.2 1

100 frequency(Hz) 1000

0.8 0.6

0.5 10

0.4 10

100 frequency(Hz)

1000

Figure 7.20: A collection of the Young's modulus and the loss factors calculated from the resonance frequencies. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 7

Another point that should be called attention is that the conclusion that has been made here is not consistent as that from the relaxation test part. From the relaxation tests, the Young's modulus becomes constant above 1Hz. So do the loss factor. It goes to zero at higher frequencies. But here both Young's modulus and the loss factor are frequency dependent. In the next section, the non-resonance method is investigated and the dependency of the modulus on the frequency is further determined.

7.5 Non-Resonance method

In the former section, the focus is on the resonance frequency. However, equations (7.4.6) and (7.4.7) do not necessarily applies to resonance frequencies, they apply to non resonance frequencies as well. We know that the damping has much less inuence at non resonance part of the response curve, and therefore a value of = 1.05 which has been derived in eq.(7.4.5) will be just applied. So in principal it is possible to solve for the modulus by the help of MATLAB. However, the trial fails when it goes to high frequencies because of the resonances in the experiment setup. Below 1kHz, the resulting Young's modulus from the measurement that is shown in g 7.12 is plotted in g 7.21. In this case, the Young's modulus increases as the frequency increases. Note that in this case the loss factor is a constant as in g 7.22. Using this Young's modulus values and put them into the three models, the Bernoulli-Euler theory, the Timoshenko theory and the nite element model, the outputs of the models are compared to the measurement in g 7.23. Finite element model gives the best result. However, the three models do not deviate much from each other and from the measured curve in this frequency range.
6

16 14 12 Youngs modulus, Pa 10 8 6 4 2

x 10

0 1 10

10 frequency,Hz

10

Figure 7.21: The Young's modulus calculated from the measured transfer function in g 7.12.

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Section 7.5

2.5

1.5 1 0.5 0 1 10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 7.22: The loss factor assumed in the calculation of a frequency dependent Young's modulus.

10 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB

5 1 10 50 0 phase, deg 50 100 150 200 1 10 BEuler Timo FEM measurement

10 frequency, Hz

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 7.23: Comparison of predictions with the three models using the nonconstant Young's modulus to the measurement data. The MATLAB program has been modied a bit for the purpose the solve for the complex modulus, e.g. elastic modulus and the loss factor. The program can be found in appendix B. The function used in the program to derive the modulus is Bernoulli-Euler theory. The derived modulus are plotted in elastic modulus (real part of the complex modulus), imaginary part of the complex modulus and loss factor (by dividing imaginary part by real part) in g 7.24, g 7.25 and g 7.26 respectively. Note that the loss factor was only shown for below 1kHz. The Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 7

reason is that the real part and imaginary part of the complex modulus in the higher frequency range give uctuations which lead to an explode in loss factor at high frequencies. This is because of the resonances caused by the experiment setup. At very low frequency there is also uctuations because of the measurement uncertainty. Moreover, it is believed that the uctuation of the modulus at high frequency range is due to the uctuation of the measurement data at the same frequency range, e.g. g 7.12. Therefore, we have reasons to believe that if the measurement data is good enough, the program can give a optimized complex modulus.

x 10

Youngs modulus, Pa

2 1 10

10

10 frequency,Hz

10

Figure 7.24: Real part of the complex modulus calculated from the measured transfer function in g 7.12.

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Section 7.5

7 6 5 imaginary modulus, Pa 4 3 2 1 0

x 10

1 1 10

10

10 frequency,Hz

10

Figure 7.25: Imaginary part of the complex modulus calculated from the measured transfer function in g 7.12.

2.5

1.5 loss factor

0.5

0.5 1 10

10 frequency,Hz

10

Figure 7.26: The loss factor calculated by dividing the imaginary part of the complex modulus by the real part of the modulus. This derived complex modulus is put into the Timoshenko theory and the nite element model, the results are plotted and compared to the measurement in g 7.27. The Timoshenko theory estimates the response very good. The nite element model give some deviations. At 1kHz the deviation is around 1.5dB and the resonance frequency shifts to the left. This is because that the complex value is derived from the Bernoulli-Euler theory which has dierent hypothesis as in the nite element model. A comparison has been done in the former chapter. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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10 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 5 0 5 1 10 BEuler Timo FEM measurement

10 frequency, Hz

10

50 0 phase, deg 50 100 150 200 1 10 10 frequency, Hz

2

10

Figure 7.27: The predictions of the transfer function from the three models compared to the measurement data.

7.6 Verication with other measurements

7.6.1 The second short tube

A longer tube of length 11.25mm is used and the measurement repeated. Fig 7.28 shows a comparison of three models to the measurement for a constant Young's modulus E = 1.09 106 Pa and a loss factor = 1.05 which have been derived in eq. 7.4.8 and eq.(7.4.5).

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Section 7.6

20 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 10 0 10 20 1 10
2 3

10 frequency, Hz

10

0 phase, deg 100 200 300 400 10

1

BEuler Timo FEM measurement 10 frequency, Hz

2

10

Figure 7.28: The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using a constant Young's modulus and a constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement when a tube has a length 11.25mm.

The gure shows that the Bernoulli-Euler theory and the Timoshenko theory give a better result than the nite element model in an overall sense. However the two analytical curves overestimate the resonance frequency by about 10%. The nite element model give closer resonance frequency estimation but it underestimate the response at frequencies above 100 Hz. At 1000 Hz the deviation is about 10 dB. Now if we put the frequency dependent Young's modulus obtained in the rst tube, the outcome the three theoretical models are compared to the measurement data in g 7.29. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 7

20 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 10 0 10 20 1 10
2 3

10 frequency, Hz

10

0 phase, deg 100 200 300 400 10

1

BEuler Timo FEM measurement 10 frequency, Hz

2

10

Figure 7.29: The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using the non-constant Young's modulus and a constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement with a 11.25mm tube.

In this case, the nite element model has the best estimation while the BernoulliEuler and Timoshenko theories still overestimate the resonance frequency. However, the three estimations are better than the ones with constant Young's modulus. This means that a frequency dependent Young's modulus is more likely the case for the rubber suspension. If the complex modulus that has been derived in the last test, g 7.24 and g 7.26, is used in this case for the three models and compare the results with the measurement data. The comparison is as in g 7.30. The estimation from the models agree to the measurement data well in which the nite element model gives the best agreement.

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Section 7.6

20 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 10 0 10 20 1 10
2 3

10 frequency, Hz

10

0 phase, deg 100 200 300 400 10

1

BEuler Timo FEM measurement 10 frequency, Hz

2

10

Figure 7.30: The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using the non-constant Young's modulus and a non-constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement with a 11.25mm tube. The fact that both a constant loss factor and a frequency dependent loss factor give good estimation to the response of the rubber tube is because that at the frequency range o the resonance frequency, the loss factor has much less inuence than at the resonance frequency. Since there is only one resonance found in this frequency range, so the change of the loss factor in the most frequencies does not count much in the response. However, in general a frequency dependent loss factor gives better estimation.

7.6.2 Tubes of full length

The full tubes of type FK and FH are put to the measurement system instead of the cut version short tube. The measurement setup is the same as in the former case. The Young's modulus that has been derived in the former part with a constant loss factor and with a frequency dependent loss factor will be used in the three models and compared to the measurement result. Both tubes are 17.5 mm's long. The transfer function is taken from the responded displacement at x = 0.075mm's distance to the force driving end (sliding end) over the input displacement.

Suspension type FK The suspension type FK is as in g A.1. Using a frequency dependent Young's modulus as shown in g 7.21 and a constant loss factor of = 1.05 as shown in g 7.22, a comparison between the Bernoulli-Euler model, the Timoshenko model, the nite element model and the experiment data is shown in g 7.31 Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 7

from 10Hz to 1kHz. Another comparison is shown in g 7.32 for a frequency dependent Young's modulus as in g 7.24 and a frequency dependent loss factor as in g 7.26.
15 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 10 5 0 5 10 15 1 10 50 phase, deg 0 50 100 150 1 10
2 3

BEuler Timo FEM measurement

10 frequency, Hz

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 7.31: The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using the non-constant Young's modulus and a constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement of the FK type suspension.

15 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 10 5 0 5 10 15 1 10 50 phase, deg 10 frequency, Hz

2

BEuler Timo FEM measurement

10

50

100 1 10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 7.32: The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using the non-constant Young's modulus and a non-constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement of the FK type suspension. Suspension type FH

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Section 7.6

The suspension type FK is as in g A.1. Same comparisons are shown in g 7.33 and in g 7.34.
15 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 10 5 0 5 10 15 1 10 50 phase, deg 0 50 100 150 1 10
2 3

BEuler Timo FEM measurement

10 frequency, Hz

10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 7.33: The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using the non-constant Young's modulus and a constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement of the FH type suspension..

15 |w(0)/w(L)|,dB 10 5 0 5 10 15 1 10 50 phase, deg 10 frequency, Hz

2

BEuler Timo FEM measurement

10

50

100 1 10

10 frequency, Hz

10

Figure 7.34: The prediction of the transfer function from the three models using the non-constant Young's modulus and a non-constant loss factor with comparison to the measurement of the FH type suspension.. Both cases show a reasonable agreement between the prediction and experiment. All the models give similar predictions. However, the predictions shows an un Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Chapter 7

derestimation of the resonance frequencies. This might due to the fact that the whole suspension does not have a constant cross section. A constant loss factor of 1.05 seems to over-damp the response at the resonance frequency. A frequency dependent loss factor gives a better shape matching at this point. The uctuation estimation of the response at low frequencies is because of the uctuation of the Young's modulus and/or the loss factor in this frequency range.

7.7 Summary
In this chapter, several vibration tests have been done in order to derive the dynamic properties of the rubber suspension. Below 1kHz, the Bernoulli-Euler theory is mainly used for the derivation since it is simple and the more complicated theories do not give a much better result in this frequency range as having been seen in chapter 6. Above 1kHz, the analysis has met diculties because of the resonances occurred in this area due to the experiment setup. From all the results that have been presented, a frequency dependent Young's modulus and damping properties are most likely the case for the rubber suspension. An increasing tendency of the Young's modulus and the damping along the frequency axis is found in the range of 10Hz to 1kHz. This is in agreement with that has been found in the literatures13,20 . However, what has been written in the literatures that the loss factor has a peak value at certain frequency and goes down in the value above that frequency has not been experienced. It is expected that it might be in the range above 1kHz. But a conclusion of this point cannot be formed here. The derived modulus and damping values in this part of experiment is very different from the part of relaxation experiments. In that part, a constant modulus and loss factor are found. Frequency dependence of the two quantities are in the range of very low frequencies, say, in a quasi-static area. It is considered that this is because that the relaxation test is more a quasi-static measurement that it is more suitable in deriving quasi-static properties of the material. High frequency components can hardly be derived very precisely from this experiment. It will require a pure step function input in strain level and a very high resolution in time scale especially at the beginning of the applied strain. First of all, a step function input is easily causing a ringing problem which results in a uctuation curve instead of a smooth curve. Even a fast strain application speed can easily cause ringing eect on the relaxation curve. Second, the high resolution in time scale is another problem. In order to derive the properties at 1kHz, a resolution in time higher than 0.001 second should be expected. Even this might be possible, at higher frequencies, it will become less and less practical to realize. In this sense, it is believed that the results that have been obtained at this part are more close to the real situation. However, the proof needs to be obtained by further investigations.

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Chapter 8

Conclusions
This project is about nding out the dynamic properties, i.e. Young's modulus and loss factor, of a rubber suspension that is mounted in hearing aid products. Various possibilities have been presented and the corresponding theories and experiments have been executed. The resulting properties from dierent methods are quite dierent. The relaxation test result in a frequency dependent modulus and loss factor at extremely low frequencies, say 101 Hz to 103 Hz. A constant modulus and loss factor at a frequency higher than this frequency range should be expected according to the result from the relaxation test. However, in a force vibration experiment, frequency dependency of the Young's modulus and the loss factor are obtained in the range of 10Hz to 1kHz where good experimental data can be achieved. At higher frequencies, the dependency is expected but the verication is hindered because of the experiment setup limitation. If the experiment can be carried out properly, one should also take care of the application of the analytical theories. It is in this frequency range that the theories have the signicant dierence between each other. Quite a few models have been presented in this report concerning the mechanical behavior of the rubber material and the beam structural. The dierence between the models has been discussed and the models has been applied to practical experimental cases. The resulting specic numerical models have been veried by other experiment results and good agreements have been found. It is believed that a complicated model can model the rubber suspension more accurately, but the necessity of applying a complicated model in engineering problems should always be careful since it might lead to a time consumption problem. And this is not the interest in the industry because it could be hard to understand the complicated model easily. Therefore, the choice of a model should always be simple enough without causing unacceptable error estimation. In the relaxation test, both simple model and complicated combined model are used and the results are compared. In the force vibration test, models with dierent complexities have been discussed and compared. However, the simplest model was chosen in deriving the properties of the rubber suspension while the results are applied to other models and veried Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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by additional experiments. During these eight months of the thesis project, disregard the intervals that had been taken and occupied by other unrelated matters, the actual period of the project is around six months. The rst month had been spent on getting acquaintance with the commercial software, COMSOL Multiphysics. This software was serving as the tool of forming the nite element model to the rubber suspension in vibrating problems. By using the properties that were derived in the analytical model, predictions can be made in the nite element model if the boundary conditions are correctly dened in the model. The feasibility of the model was veried by comparing to the other analytical models as well as the experiments. In the following two months, a series of vibration tests have been carried out and the nite element model is used to derive the properties of the material. However, after all the attempt in the curve tting process, more theoretical knowledge is required. The eorts that have been dedicated in this period give a good background to a more systematic investigations in the following three months. The vibrating beam theory as well as shell theory has been investigated and compared in dierent situations. The rubber material has been exposed more deeply in the aspects of the structure and the mechanical behavior. A more thorough understanding of the rubber material is obtained. An additional opportunity of obtaining the interesting properties of the material has been tried out. Combined with the aspect in the structural vibration direction, a more clear image of the rubber material is achieved. The project has broadened and deepened my personal knowledge in structural vibration engineering as well as the rubber material engineering. It is believed that it forms a constructional foundation for later investigation in this area.

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Chapter 9

Step Forward
There are quite a few directions that can be taken forward in the next step. First of all, the algorithm in deriving the complex modulus using analytical equations and the experimental vibrating response data can be improved in order to get a more robotic result. At the moment, the algorithm is too simple and the results depends a lot by the experiment data. It can be improved by taking enough average of experiments and on more spacial positions. A good initial guess is very important in the iterations. A wrong guess can lead to ridiculous non-physical results. Secondly, the experiment setup can be improved in order to be able to solve for higher frequency properties. Other experiment opportunities can be investigated with their practical feasibility. The feasibility of carrying out a modal analysis using frequency dependent modulus is a challenge as well. At the moment, the software can only deal with modal analysis with constant modulus. Applying frequency dependent modulus always leads to convergence problems. Thereafter, the modal analysis can be carried out for a damped mechanism since it is expected that the resonance frequency shifts in a damped situation and the mode shape is less clear in this situation. The third but not the last is the further step in investigating the acoustical properties of the rubber suspension which will give a more clear image of feedback problem in the suspension. This is in another direction of investigating the feedback problem and will not be detailed here. All in all, there are still a lot of opportunities ahead waiting for the foregoers to explore the rubber suspension.

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Appendix A

Appendix A

Technical drawing of the suspension

A.1 Suspension type FK

Figure A.1: A technical drawing of the suspension of type FK.

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Section A.2

A.2 Suspension type FH

Figure A.2: A technical drawing of the suspension of type FH.

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Appendix B

MATLAB programs for nding E and

B.1 MATLAB program for nding E modulus when the loss factor is dened
%% Read measurement data [ fShrtL1 , ReShrtL1 , ImShrtL1 ]= read_pointReIm . . . ( ' shortTube_10_1K_0612_ReIm_p1 . txt ' ) ; ShrtL1 = ( ReShrtL1+i * ImShrtL1 ) * j *2* p i . * f S h r t L 1 ; %% C a l c u l a t i o n E_opt=z e r o s ( 1 , l e n g t h ( f S h r t L 1 ) ) ; E_ini =10.5 e7 ; %i n i t i a l g u e s s . f o r q = 1: length ( fShrtL1 ) f=f S h r t L 1 ( q ) ; omega=2* p i * f ; m=1800* p i * ( 1 . 3 e 3^21e 3^2); d = ShrtL1 ( q ) ; eta =1.05; %l o s s f a c t o r L=9.25 e 3; I=p i / 4 * ( 1 . 3 e 3^41e 3^4); k = @(E) ( ( omega^2*m) / (E*(1+ i * e t a ) * I ) ) ^ ( 1 / 4 ) ; W0L= @(E) ( c o s ( k (E) *L)+ c o s h ( k (E) *L ) ) / . . . ( c o s ( k (E) *L) * c o s h ( k (E) *L) + 1 ) ; [ E_like , f v a l , e x i t f l a g , output ] = . . . f m i n s e a r c h (@(E) abs (W0L(E)d ) , E_ini ) ; E_opt ( q)=E_like ;

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Section B.2

E_ini=E_like ; end %% P l o t modulus f i g u r e (30) s e t ( g c f , ' DefaultLineLineWidth ' , 2 ) ; s e t ( g c f , ' DefaultAxesLineWidth ' , 2 ) ; s e m i l o g x ( fShrtL1 , E_opt ) x l a b e l ( ' f r e q u e n c y , Hz ' ) y l a b e l ( ' Young ' ' s modulus , Pa ' ) g r i d on

B.2 MATLAB program for nding complex E modulus

%% Read measurement data [ fShrtL1 , ReShrtL1 , ImShrtL1 ]= . . . read_pointReIm ( ' shortTube_10_1K_0612_ReIm_p1 . txt ' ) ; ShrtL1 = ( ReShrtL1+i * ImShrtL1 ) * j *2* p i . * f S h r t L 1 ; [ fShrtH1 , ReShrtH1 , ImShrtH1 ]= . . . read_pointReIm ( ' shortTube_1k_10K_0612_ReIm_p1 . txt ' ) ; ShrtH1 = ( ReShrtH1+i * ImShrtH1 ) * j *2* p i . * fShrtH1 ; [ fShrtH13 , ReShrtH13 , ImShrtH13 ]= . . . read_pointReIm ( ' shortTube_1k_10K_0612_ReIm_p13 . txt ' ) ; ShrtH13 = ( ReShrtH13+i * ImShrtH13 ) * j *2* p i . * fShrtH13 ; % ShrtH = ( ShrtH1+ShrtH13 ) / 2 ; %% C a l c u l a t i o n f o r low f r e q u e n c y 10 1kHz E_opt=z e r o s ( l e n g t h ( f S h r t L 1 ) , 2 ) ; E_optH=z e r o s ( l e n g t h ( fShrtH1 ) , 2 ) ; E1i=5e7 ; E2i=E1i * 1 . 0 5 ; f o r q = 1: length ( fShrtL1 ) f=f S h r t L 1 ( q ) ; omega=2* p i * f ; rho = 1 8 0 0 ; m=1800* p i * ( 1 . 3 e 3^21e 3^2); d = ShrtL1 ( q ) ; x=0; L=9.25 e 3; A=p i * ( 1 . 3 e 3^21e 3^2); I=p i / 4 * ( 1 . 3 e 3^41e 3^4); G = @(E) 1 / 3 * (E(1)+ i *E ( 2 ) ) ; Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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Appendix B

k = @(E) ( ( omega^2*m) / ( ( E(1)+ i *E( 2 ) ) * I ) ) ^ ( 1 / 4 ) ; B = @(E) b e n d i n g _ s t i f f (E , I ) ; W0L= @(E) t r a ns f e r X _ 2 (L , x , k (E ) ) ; [ E_like , f v a l , e x i t f l a g , output ] = . . . f m i n s e a r c h (@(E) abs (W0L(E)d ) , [ E1i , E2i ] ) E_opt ( q , : ) = E_like ; E1i=E_like ( 1 ) ; E2i=E_like ( 2 ) ; end %% C a l c u l a t i o n f o r h i g h f r e q u e n c y 1k 10kHz f o r q = 1 : l e n g t h ( fShrtH1 ) f=fShrtH1 ( q ) ; omega=2* p i * f ; m=1800* p i * ( 1 . 3 e 3^21e 3^2); d = ShrtH1 ( q ) ; x=0; L=9.25 e 3; I=p i / 4 * ( 1 . 3 e 3^41e 3^4); k = @(E) ( ( omega^2*m) / ( ( E(1)+ i *E( 2 ) ) * I ) ) ^ ( 1 / 4 ) ; W0L= @(E) t r a ns f e r X _ 2 (L , x , k (E ) ) ; [ E_like , f v a l , e x i t f l a g , output ] = . . . f m i n s e a r c h (@(E) abs (W0L(E)d ) , [ E1i , E2i ] ) E_optH( q , : ) = E_like ; E1i=E_like ( 1 ) ; E2i=E_like ( 2 ) ; end %% P l o t t h e r e s u l t f i g u r e (30) s e t ( g c f , ' DefaultLineLineWidth ' , 2 ) ; s e t ( g c f , ' DefaultAxesLineWidth ' , 2 ) ; s e m i l o g x ( f S h r t L 1 ( 1 0 : 3 1 6 8 ) , E_opt ( 1 0 : 3 1 6 8 , 1 ) , . . . fShrtH1 , E_optH ( : , 1 ) , ' b ' ) x l a b e l ( ' f r e q u e n c y , Hz ' )

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Section B.2

y l a b e l ( ' Young ' ' s modulus , Pa ' ) g r i d on f i g u r e (31) s e t ( g c f , ' DefaultLineLineWidth ' , 2 ) ; s e t ( g c f , ' DefaultAxesLineWidth ' , 2 ) ; s e m i l o g x ( f S h r t L 1 ( 1 0 : 3 1 6 8 ) , E_opt ( 1 0 : 3 1 6 8 , 2 ) , . . . fShrtH1 , E_optH ( : , 2 ) , ' b ' ) x l a b e l ( ' f r e q u e n c y , Hz ' ) y l a b e l ( ' Young ' ' s modulus , Pa ' ) g r i d on etaL = E_opt ( : , 2 ) . / E_opt ( : , 1 ) ; etaH = E_optH ( : , 2 ) . / E_optH ( : , 1 ) ; f i g u r e (32) s e t ( g c f , ' DefaultLineLineWidth ' , 2 ) ; s e t ( g c f , ' DefaultAxesLineWidth ' , 2 ) ; s e m i l o g x ( f S h r t L 1 ( 1 0 : 3 1 6 8 ) , etaL ( 1 0 : 3 1 6 8 ) , fShrtH1 , etaH , ' b ' ) x l a b e l ( ' f r e q u e n c y , Hz ' ) y l a b e l ( ' Young ' ' s modulus , Pa ' ) g r i d on

omega = 2* p i * f S h r t L 1 ( 2 2 5 : 5 0 0 ) ; Ecomplex = @( Ex ) Ex(1)+Ex ( 2 ) * ( i *omega*Ex ( 3 ) ) . / (1+ i *omega*Ex ( 3 ) ) ; E i n f = 3 e7 ; Ej = 1 e7 ; t r i = 1 e 5; r e s i d u a l = @( Ex ) sum ( abs ( Ecomplex ( Ex) . . . E_opt ( 2 2 5 : 5 0 0 , 1 ) i *E_opt ( 2 2 5 : 5 0 0 , 2 ) ) ) ;

...

[ Ecom , f v a l , e x i t f l a g , output ] = . . . f m i n s e a r c h (@( Ex ) r e s i d u a l ( Ex ) , [ Einf , Ej , t r i ] ) E = 7 e7+8e7 * ( i *2* p i * f S h r t L 1 *Ecom ( 3 ) ) . / (1+2* p i * f S h r t L 1 *Ecom ( 3 ) ) ; f i g u r e (33) s e t ( g c f , ' DefaultLineLineWidth ' , 2 ) ; ...

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Appendix B

s e t ( g c f , ' DefaultAxesLineWidth ' , 2 ) ; s e m i l o g x ( f S h r t L 1 ( 1 0 : 3 1 6 8 ) , E_opt ( 1 0 : 3 1 6 8 , 1 ) , . . . fShrtL1 , r e a l (E ) ) x l a b e l ( ' f r e q u e n c y , Hz ' ) y l a b e l ( ' Young ' ' s modulus , Pa ' ) g r i d on f i g u r e (34) s e t ( g c f , ' DefaultLineLineWidth ' , 2 ) ; s e t ( g c f , ' DefaultAxesLineWidth ' , 2 ) ; s e m i l o g x ( f S h r t L 1 ( 1 0 : 3 1 6 8 ) , etaL ( 1 0 : 3 1 6 8 ) , . . . fShrtL1 , imag (E ) . / r e a l (E ) ) x l a b e l ( ' f r e q u e n c y , Hz ' ) y l a b e l ( ' Young ' ' s modulus , Pa ' ) g r i d on

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References
[1] Karl F. Gra, Wave Motion in Elastic Solids, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1975. [2] Steven C. Chapra, Raymond P. Canale, Numerical Methods for Engineers, Fifth Edition, McGraw Hill Higer Education, 2006. [3] M. Ohlrich, Structure-borne Sound and Vibration, Vibration and waves in solid structures at audible frequencies, Part 2, Note no. 7022, Acoustic Technology, rstedDTU, Technical University of Danmark, 2006. [4] Cremer, Heckl, Ungar, Structure-Borne Sound, Second edition, ISBN 0-38718241-1, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1988. [5] http://www.hear-it.org/page.dsp?page= 2010 [6] http://www.entlink.net/museum/exhibits/Hearing-Aid-Timeline.cfm [7] http://www.earsite.com/images/41a_sm.gif [8] http://www.earworksaudiology.com/Images/Images/picture2.png [9] http://www.oticon.dk [10] Asbjrn Rolng, Attenuation of Structure-borne Sound near Receivers in Hearing Aids, BEng- Thesis at Engineering College of Aarhus and Oticon A/S, May 2006. [11] Seon M. Han, Haym Benaroya, Timothy Wei, Dynamics of Tranversely Vibrating Beams Using Four Engineering Theories, Journal of Sound and Vibration (1999) 255(5),935-988. [12] Per-Erik Austrell, Modeling of Elasticity and Damping for Filled Elastomers, Report TVSM-1009, Division of Structural Mechanics, Lund University, Sweden, 1997. [13] I.M.Ward, J.Sweeney, An Introduction to the Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers, Second edition, ISBN 0-471-49625-1, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Oct 2006. Chen Xinyi February 29, 2008

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[32] John D. Ferry Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers, John Wiley & Sons Inc, New York, 1961. [33] J.A. Brydson, Rubber Materials and Their Compounds, ISBN 1-85166-215-4, Elsevier Applied Science, New York, 1988. [34] S. Timoshenko, D.H. Young, W. Weaver JR. Vibration Problems in Engineering, Fourth edition, ISBN 0-471-87315-2, John Wiley & Sons, USA, 1974. [35] Authur Leissa, Vibration of Shells, ISBN 11-56396-293-4, Acoustical Society of America, USA, 1993. [36] Junger, Feit, Sound, Structures and Their Interation, ISBN 0-262-10010-X, The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA, 1972.

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