1TWW The Mystery Voice of Americus Raises the 2Clarion Call for Texas 1 1 2 "But the question presents

itself: shall we contribute to establish a new republic in 3 Mexico? or shall we demand the incorporation of that country with the territories 4 of the United States?" 5 6 "Americus," Nashville Clarion, April 28, 1812 7 8 "You have only to gird on your swords, & say the word, and another portion of 9 the Western Hemisphere, containing a population of seven millions is 10 emancipated." 11 12 letter from Natchitoches, Nashville Whig, June 8, 1813 13 14 The Gutierrez-Magee Mexican Revolution of 1812 had its cheerleaders in Tennessee, 15 16especially Nashville. Repeatedly, some of the rebels sought assistance in Tennessee. As 17 18usual, the state craved to hear some revolutionary gun blasts from Texas...so long as no 19 20Tennessee politicians were officially implicated. 21 22 By 1811, Mexican patriots were plotting in secret...hatching a revolution to kick Spain 23 24out of Texas. So they dispatched their would-be Texas-conqueror, Bernardo Gutierrez de Lara, 25 26on a covert mission to the United States, to win support...on the same turf where Aaron Burr had 27 28once danced and dined, and wooed and wined ("The Burrites dreamed still of the Halls of 29 30Montezuma"). 31 32 Tennessee was his first destination. 33 34 He set out on horseback, armed with a letter of introduction from John Sibley, a devious 35 36U.S. Indian agent at Natchitoches. He carried another letter from Captain James Overton of the 37 38garrison there--addressed to his uncle, General Thomas Overton, who lived outside Nashville. 39 40 In 1811 Natchitoches lay on the border of the Texas-Louisiana buffer zone known as the 41 42"Neutral Ground." The Neutral Ground was established by General James Wilkinson in 1807, in 43 44the midst of his Aaron Burr conspiracy slitherings. It became a festering, breeding place of 45 46revolutionaries and bandits...and a haven for self-reliant, violent people, well into the Twentieth 47 48Century (known as the "Big Thicket," where country singer George Jones was born).* 49 3

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50 *Natchitoches, Louisiana was the setting of the film Steel Magnolias (1989) with 51 Olympia Dukakis, Shirley MacLaine, Dolly Parton, Darryl Hannah, Sally Field. 52 53 Gutierrez and his party were attacked by Royalists within the Neutral Ground. So 54 55Gutierrez pressed on alone, with only a boy interpreter as his companion--moving north with one 56 57change of horses for each, plus a pack mule. 58 59 On November 2, they crossed Colbert's Ferry on the Tennessee River. Gutierrez was 60 61keeping a diary...which went unpublished in English till 1928. They stayed in an Indian's hut, 62 63and other times slept on the ground under the trees. Once, they stayed in a peasant's house where 64 65the woman ministered Gutierrez's headache with aromatic herbs. 66 67 They passed through the "very pretty village" of Frankle (Franklin, in Williamson 68 69County)--then reached Neshfil (Nashville): 70 71 ...a town of considerable importance. All its houses are of several stories. The 72 church is in the midst of the plaza; it is square in shape, with a second story of the 73 same form. The jail is next to the church; it is fork-shaped with a platform above. 74 At a man's height is a pillory in which offenders are placed in sight of all the 75 people. 76 77In those days, malefactors were often lashed to a post and whipped on the Public Square--a good 78 79deal for everyone, providing a vivid, deterrent spectacle, while saving the taxpayer jail expense, 80 81yet permitting the offender to return to work as soon as possible. More serious crimes might 82 83merit branding, and/or cropping of the ears. Horse thieves were hanged in public, since the 84 85stealing of precious transportation on the dangerous frontier was deemed more heinous than 86 87murder. 88 89 Gutierrez lodged at a tavern, probably the Nashville Inn or the City Hotel. He had a 90 91falling-out with his interpreter, so proceeded on alone to the home of General Thomas Overton 92 93at Hunter's Hill (Soldier's Rest) in the bend of the Cumberland River. (General Overton, 94 95remember, had once hosted a ball in honor Aaron Burr!) Gutierrez left with letters of 96 97introduction to his brother John Overton in Knoxville, and to General James Winchester. 98

7TWW The Mystery Voice of Americus Raises 8The Clarion Call for Texas

99 Gutierrez stayed at Winchester's home of Cragfont on the road to Knoxville. He 100 101 102entertained his host's children by telling them the Spanish word for everything. In Knoxville, 103 104Gutierrez, the Mexican revolutionary, was introduced to Governor 105 106Willie (pronounced Wy-lie) Blount. Blount's half-brother, William, had been Tennessee's first 107 108governor...and earlier, had been embroiled in his own, anti-Spanish scandal.* 109 110 Gutierrezs Tennessee contacts were certainly Western in their thinking. John Overton 111 112and James Winchester--with fellow land speculator Andrew Jackson--established the town of 113 114Memphis in 1819. 115 116 The people of Tennessee and Kentucky didn't want Gutierrez to leave, hoping he would 117 118"make up a considerable army of volunteers, with which, under my command, we would invade 119 120the provinces of Mexico and sweep before us all the oppressors of our liberty." Or so he told the 121 122Mexican Congress in 1815. Meanwhile, he deemed it wiser to proceed to Washington, where 123 124he met with Secretary of State James Monroe (who, back in 1803, had recommended grabbing 125 126Spanish Texas). He even met President Madison. 127 128 Joining Gutierrez in Washington was Jose Alvarez de Toledo--another, future Nashville 129 130tourist-revolutionary. Toledo was a former Spanish naval officer...but now an intriguer and chief 131 132lobbyist for the rebels. 133 134 The following spring (1812), Nashville watched with glee as the rebels grouped to invade 135 136Texas. 137 138On April 28, "Americus" made his enigmatic debut in the Nashville Clarion. "Americus" was 139 140the nom de plume of an unknown, zealous exponent of expansionism (where Manifest Destiny 141 142"ran riot"). "Americus" predicted that Canada would soon "hover under the wings of the 143 144American eagle"--that Florida would tumble into the American union as well. Furthermore: 145

10TWW The Mystery Voice of Americus Raises 11The Clarion Call for Texas

146*The U.S. Senate had impeached him for violating neutrality, and conspiring with the British to 147expel Spain. According to half-brother Willie, he had "forgotten" about the treaty with Spain, so 148was not convicted. Jackson sided with him.

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149 ...citizens of the West! a destiny still more splendid is reserved for you. Behold 150 the empire of Mexico, a celestial region, whose valiant sons are now struggling 151 for their liberties as we struggled for ours thirty 'years agoTerritory double the 152 extent of the republic; where the merchant shall see commercial resources 153 unrivaled in other countries; the farmer, a luxuriant soil and delicious climate, 154 where the financier shall be dazzled with gold and silver mines...the idea of 155 establishing a new republic where Montezuma once reigned and where the 156 soldiers of Cortes carried their immortal arms, shall deliver itself up to an 157 enthusiasm of glory...Besides, where is it written in the book of fate that the 158 American republic shall not stretch from the capes of the Chesapeake to Nookta 159 sound [west coast of Vancouver Island]; from the Isthmus of Panama to Hudson 160 bay; Rome in her days of grandeur covered with her dominion the best portions of 161 Europe, Asia, and Africa: and shall the American eagle be forced to contract her 162 wings and limit her empire to less than half of the new world? 163 164Damned good question, for the year of 1812! After all, the British seemed to be united with 165Spain, in what is now Texas. So... 166 167 Why expel the British from Quebec and Halifax if they are suffered quietly to re-establish 168 themselves in Santa Fe and La Vera Cruz? Why dispute with them for the frozen 169 and naked regions of' Canada, and yet surrender to their possession the gold and 170 silver mines, the luxuriant plains and the heavenly climate of New Mexico? The 171 government will be guilty of so much inattention. The fate of Mexico will occupy 172 the first place in the eye of the administration. 173 174 Two days later (April 30), the Clarion printed some frothing jingoism from Niles' Weekly 175 176Register of Baltimore: 177 178 179...our western citizens can and will give such aid to the patriots of Mexico as may be able to 180expel their tyrants. 181 182 It would be harvest of glory, and of profit too, to the hardy republicans beyond the 183 Alleghenies, and its success would open a trade for themselves and their fellow 184 citizens of the Atlantic states far more lucrative than any heretofore employed by 185 the United States --A vast field for enterprise is opening on this new theatre... 186 187to which the Clarion chimed in: 188 189 ...an idea is beginning to prevail that something is in the wind. Public curiosity is getting 190 on tiptoe. 191 192 To establish a new republic in that delightful region; to give liberty to a nation enslaved 193 by the satellites of England; to turn the commerce of a great empire, and the gold 194 and silver of three hundred mines into the bosom of the United States, are vast 195 and magnificent objects. No friend to his country can contemplate such brilliant 196 advantages without being smitten with their luster. Wealth, fame, the possession 197 of the most delicious climate are waiting to crown an expedition into that fine

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198 country--If the administration will give the signal, the valiant sons of the west, 199 will soon display the republican standard on the plains of Mexico. 200 201 Indeed, what a noble incentive for patriotic, American expansionism...the glittering 202 203prospect of three hundred gold (and silver) mines! Why, this impending War of 1812 had its 204 205bright side--besides whacking the British one more time, the U.S. might get rid of Spain as 206 207well...and start playing the role of conquistador in conquering Texas, the Southwest, and 208 209Mexico. God bless America...especially if it could snatch Texas!* 210 211 Quite in this martial spirit, the Clarion began offering The Military Instructor at seventy212 213five cents a copy (fifty cents, when purchased by the dozen). This drill manual of Baron von 214 215Steuben's Prussian advice was probably the first book published with a Nashville imprint (a 216 217military life's little instruction book--anticipating popular, handy books published 218 219at Nashville, right to the present day). 220 221 And just who was the mystery columnist, "Americus"? Probably Thomas Hart Benton, 222 223expansionist friend of Andrew Jackson (see Chapter ) . (Back in 1808, Benton had written 224 225in a Nashville paper under the by-line of "Sir John Oldcastle.") 226 227 Filibuster enthusiast Henry Stuart Foote (who is buried in Nashville) reflected in 1841 228 229that there were 230 231 thousands who stood ready to risk their lives and fortunes in the grand conflict against 232 Spanish dominion, in any form, and to any extent, warranted by a proper respect 233 to the government and laws of their own country. 234 235 Eagerly the Tennesseans watched the Gutierrez-Magee revolt. Its supply depot was 236 237Natchitoches, today the oldest town in Louisiana, but then the smuggling capital of the Neutral 238 239Ground no-man's land. It was (and is) about 100 miles east of similarly-named Nacogdoches, 240 241 242*Founded in 1811 by Hezekiah Niles, the Register ran till 1849. 243In 1814 Niles wrote that if "'Westward the course of empire takes its way,' we are not jealous. 244Where the strength of population is, there also should be the weight of political influence." He 245predicted the "new states" of Kentucky, Ohio, Tennessee, and Indiana, would have a greater 246representation in Congress after 1830, than the "old states" of New England.

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247gateway of virtually every Texas revolution. General. Wilkinson had designated the Neutral 248 249Ground to keep both his Spanish and United States employers happy, or at least played-off. 250 251It was bandit paradise--Wilkinson's protg (, Lieutenant Augustus Magee, had already 252 253summarily dealt with some of its freebooters...burning their houses, tying them to trees for a 254 255flogging, and shoving hot coals down their backs to extort confessions. 256 257 When Magee was denied a promotion, he quit and began recruiting republican patriots 258 259from the sparkling talent pool in the Neutral Ground. Wilkinson nudged him on. John Sibley 260 261wrote to the Secretary of War (July 14) that his soldiers could not be halted by "all the troops of 262 263the U.S. in this quarter & militia." Alluding to propaganda in the Nashville Clarion, he crowed: 264 265"The plan I think is deeply laid & Co-extensive with the Southern & Western States." Sibley, 266 267like Shaler, worked for the U.S. government--while simultaneously trying to mount a "private" 268 269invasion. 270 271 Then someone almost certainly from Tennessee wrote a letter to the Nashville Whig in 272 273July (published September 23) asking that his friends in Tennessee "send all the arms you can 274 275purchase," beckoning "all good people who wish well to the cause to come and join." 276 277 Augustus Magee crossed the Sabine River on August 8, with around 130 men, many of 278 279them American adventurers seeking booty, incited by the merchants of Natchitoches. On August 280 28112 they entered Nacogdoches, marching on Trinidad with about 700 men on September 13. 282 283 There was an "illegal enterprise" stirring in Tennessee, President Madison warned 284 285Secretary of State Monroe in a letter of September 1. He also asked, wasn't Tennessee's 286 287Governor Blount arming the citizens of Giles County to join the Mexican rebels? Blount--who 288 289less than a year before had entertained Gutierrez--denied any such plot in Tennessee. "The 290 291Western Country is all in motion and confusion," President Madison confessed to Monroe on 292 293September 12. 294 295

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296 A few days earlier (September 5), a revolutionist in Natchitoches had told the Clarion 297 298that they commanded around 500 men, "principally late citizens of the United States." Governor 299 300Claiborne of Louisiana had just issued a proclamation warning citizens not to aid the rebels (he, 301 302too, had entertained Gutierrez the year before). "This proclamation has not had the smallest 303 304effect," chortled the letter-writer to the Clarion..."The people laugh at it while parties pass 305 306through here avowing their object without any secrecy." 307 308 A Philadelphia paper described the rebels as a "motley collection of individuals...only fit 309 310for some desperate enterprise." Gutierrez had promised his soldiers $40 a month, free land, and 311 312all the contraband they could personally loot. The Nashville Whig as well as the Clarion assured 313 314their readers that the rebels were well disciplined, "only" violating property of the "avowed 315 316enemies of republican liberty." That October The National Intelligencer condemned the "illegal 317 318and unauthorized expedition against Mexico." Governor Claiborne began fretting about "how far 319 320the Executive Government of the U. States felt an interest in the Revolutionary Movement in 321 322Texas" (having faced down Wilkinson during the Burr scare in New Orleans, he had good 323 324reason). He issued a decree banning armed troops from the Neutral Ground--yet the nephew of 325 326Tennesseans Thomas and John Overton, Captain James Overton, laughed at this in a letter to 327 328Wilkinson: "...the business has never been a secret--the very atmosphere has been filled with 329 330the plans of the expedition for months." Wilkinson's son Joseph was deeply involved in the 331 332rebellion. 333 334 A New Orleans newspaper had advertised: 335 336 Cash!--for those who will fight for it!...There is a great deal of money at San Antonio, 337 and the property of the Royalists collected there is immense. 338 339The invaders were "mostly the sons of respectable settlers in Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, 340 341and Louisiana." Fighting ensued--and in November, Magee was killed. On April 1 of 1813, San 342 343Antonio was taken--on April 3 prisoners from the mission of the Alamo were executed 344

25TWW The Mystery Voice of Americus Raises 26The Clarion Call for Texas

345a barbarous anticipation of Santa Anna's cruelty of 1836. Some of the Americans were so 346 347sickened, they deserted. On April 4, Toledo arrived...before the year was out, he would be in 348 349Nashville. With him would come Shaler and Henry Adams Bullard, a cousin of former President 350 351John Adams. 352 353 These three were dismayed by the Battle of Medina in August, when the rebels were 354 355ambushed, crushed, and routed. Some of them began plotting against Gutierrez. But others 356 357remained loyal, according to Neutral Ground historian Villasana Haggard: 358 359 The spirit of the filibusters was not completely crushed by the devastating defeat 360 of Medina.-A large number of refugees met at Natchitoches on September 12 361 &13, and gave full powers to Toledo in case he should reorganize the expedition. 362 Toledo moved to Nashville, Tennessee, where he was given promises of aid. 363 364 He arrived in October with Shaler and Bullard. Shaler 365 366moved on, probably to Washington (he and Toledo kept in constant touch by mail, however). 367 368Disheartened by their defeat at Medina, Toledo tried to enter the U.S. Army--but General 369 370Andrew Jackson failed to answer his letter. Then, like Aaron Burr and Gutierrez before him, he 371 372tried to impress Jackson's staunchest political ally, Judge John Overton. Overton had welcomed 373 374Gutierrez at Knoxville; now he was back home at Traveler's Rest (south of Nashville off 375 376Franklin Rd.). This historic site's tourist brochure says "Welcoming Visitors Since 1799," but 377 378actually, Overton was not avid for guests. Usually they sought him out. (Sam Houston, 379 380however, was one of his welcome, recurring guests.) During Toledo's uneasy stay, Overton was 381 382sick and his wife upset. Toledo managed to lose his mule; his fellow rebel Captain Bullard 383 384was also in town, and was sick, too.* 385 386 Toledo wrote Shaler from Nashville (November 6, 1813) that the rebels had executed 387 388seventy-one of their prisoners. On December 6, Toledo wrote Shaler that a Colonel John Smith 389 390*Recent Twelfth Night Christmas revelers at Travelers' Rest revived early nineteenth century 391festivities (December 10-18, 1993), doubtless unaware of its faint, nostalgic connections with 392Mexican revolutionaries. 393

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394 395had shown up in Nashville, promising round 500 armed men. Next day, he added that another, 396 397unnamed party stood ready to supply large quantities of powder and guns. One of Toledo's 398 399correspondents wrote him at Nashville that Napoleon himself was considering coming to their 400 401aid. A wild rumor, even for this scenario--but the source was their ally, Lacroix, whom they 402 403feared would raise 200 men and perhaps come down the Ohio. 404 405 Toledo was starting to fear that the French might muscle in on his fragile, very precious 406 407revolution. 408 409 By now, some die-hard refugees from the Battle of Medina had nominated Toledo to lead 410 411one more invasion. One of his leaders, John Hamilton Robinson, arrived at Natchez with 150 412 413muskets--and spoke of spending around $10,000 on the hypothetical 2000 recruits that Toledo 414 415was hoping to raise in Tennessee. 416 417 The U.S. government was growing increasingly perturbed, making Toledo more and 418 419more nervous. After all, supervising a revolution by mail, from Nashville, was pretty damned 420 421difficult! So in January, Toledo and Smith left "Rock City." Toledo headed for Natchez. Here 422 423the "Friends of Mexican Emancipation" were meeting. Celebrity conspirator Aaron Burr was 424 425back in the country, and though the revolutionaries invited him to participate, the old super426 427scamp elected to sit this one out. 428 429 Soon Robinson and Toledo were mounting their own competing--and completely 430 431unsuccessful--invasions. 432 433 Meanwhile, the War of 1812 had been giving General Andrew Jackson the chance he 434 435needed...to kick out the Spanish and the British from the Southeast, and smash open the door to 436 437Texas. 438 439 From Florida he rousted the Spanish--an invasion coup that served as something of a 440 441blueprint for later Texas incursions. Also of great seminal importance to the Tennessee442

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443Texas filibuster movement was...the Battle of New Orleans. 444 445 Present was Gutierrez, as well as Peter Ellis Bean (and ex-Nashville doctor, James Long: 446 447see Chapter ). Already the "City of Sin" was a popular resort with the flat boatmen of 448 449Tennessee and Kentucky--so the chance to kill some British was an added treat. Local Ursuline 450 451nuns prayed in an all-night vigil that Jackson, and his buccaneer ally Jean Lafite, would 452 453be victorious. "The sisters asked for a miracle, and they got it," wrote a Catholic journalist in 454 4551994. "Sisters, our country, the world, owes you a great deal," said Jackson: "Praise be to God 456 457for this marvelous victory." 458 459 The battle was strategically unnecessary (the British had already surrendered), but it was 460 461worth killing 2000 British to help stimulate the push toward Texas. After the battle quite a few 462 463Old Southwest war veterans stayed on...falling prey to the filibuster fever epidemic. So much 464 465for Britain...now it was Spain's turn for trouble! Replacing Turpin's coffee house as the filibuster 466 467rendezvous was Maspero's Exchange on St. Louis Street (its entrance was at today's 440 Chartres 468 469Street.). Maspero's was a ninety-foot-long, two-storey cafe. Down the first floor ran its full470 471length bar; upstairs, Jean Lafite's pirates had discussed their buccaneer business, and there 472 473General Jackson had met with his officers to map their strategy (probably with Lafitfe, whose 474 475pirate skills Jackson patriotically enlisted). 476 477 Already, by 1816, Spanish envoy Luis de Onis--more or less chronically agitated in these 478 479yearswas griping that some 2500 adventurers were flaunting an invasion from New Orleans 480 481and the State Department denied it was composed of Tennesseans and Kentuckians. The same 482 483fear surfaced in July of 1817--the governor of Texas received word from an agent in New 484 485Orleans that 2500 Tennesseans and Kentuckians were conspiring with local Indians to invade 486 487Texasl The ring-leaders were supposedly some Irish-Americans. False alarms, it turned out. 488 489But harbingers of worse to come. 490 491.

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