The interior structure of the Earth, similar to the outer, is layered.

These layers can be defined by either their chemical or theirrheological properties. The Earth has an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core. Scientific understanding of Earth's internal structure is based on observations of topographyand bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through the Earth, measurements of the gravity field of the Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep interior

[edit]Assumptions The force exerted by Earth's gravity can be used to calculate its mass, and by estimating the volume of the planet, its average density can be calculated. Astronomers can also calculate Earth's mass from its orbit and effects on nearby planetary bodies. Observations of rocks, bodies of water and atmosphere allow estimation of the mass, volume and density of rocks to a certain depth, so the remaining mass must be in the deeper layers. [edit]Structure

Earth's radial density distribution according to the preliminary reference earth model (PREM).

Earth's gravity according to the preliminary reference earth model (PREM). Comparison to approximations using constant and linear density for Earth's interior.

The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such as rheology, or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and the inner core. The interior of the earth is divided into 5 important layers. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic component layers of Earth
[1]

are at the following depths below the surface: Depth

Kilometres

Miles

Layer

060

037

Lithosphere (locally varies between 5 and 200 km)

035

022

Crust (locally varies between 5 and 70 km)

3560

2237

Uppermost part of mantle

352,890

221,790

Mantle

100200

62125

Asthenosphere

35660

22410

Upper mesosphere (upper mantle)

6602,890

4101,790 Lower mesosphere (lower mantle)

2,8905,150 1,7903,160 Outer core

5,1506,360 3,1603,954 Inner core

Mapping the interior of the Earth with earthquake waves.

The layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while the speed of travel (seismic velocity) is different in other layers. The changes in seismic velocity between different layers causes refraction owing to Snell's law. Reflections are caused by a large increase in seismic velocity and are similar to light reflecting from a mirror. [edit]Core The average density of Earth is 5,515 kg/m . Since the average density of surface material is only around 3,000 kg/m , we must conclude that denser materials exist within Earth's core. Further evidence for the high density core comes from the study of seismology. Seismic measurements show that the core is divided into two parts, a solid inner core with a radius of ~1,220 km and a liquid outer core extending beyond it to a radius of ~3,400 km. The solid inner core was discovered in 1936 by Inge Lehmann and is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron and some nickel. In early stages of Earth's formation about 4.5 billion (4.510 ) years ago, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process called planetary differentiation (see also the iron catastrophe), while less-dense materials would have migrated to the crust. The core is thus
9 3 3

believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium, either are too rare to be significant or tend to bind to lighter elements and thus remain in the crust (see felsic materials). Some have argued that the inner core may be in the form of a single ironcrystal.
[2][3]

The liquid outer core surrounds the inner core and is believed to be composed of iron mixed with nickel and trace amounts of lighter elements. Recent speculation suggests that the innermost part of the core is enriched in gold, platinum and other siderophile elements.
[4]

The matter that comprises Earth is connected in fundamental ways to matter of certain chondrite meteorites, and to matter of outer portion of the Sun.
[5][6]

There is good reason to believe

that Earth is, in the main, like a chondrite meteorite. Beginning as early as 1940, scientists, including Francis Birch, built geophysics upon the premise that Earth is like ordinary chondrites, the most common type of meteorite observed impacting Earth, while totally ignoring another, albeit less abundant type, called enstatite chondrites. The principal difference between the two meteorite types is that enstatite chondrites formed under circumstances of extremely limited available oxygen, leading to certain normally oxyphile elements existing either partially or wholly in the alloy portion that corresponds to the core of Earth. Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field. The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (seeCurie temperature) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The average magnetic field strength in the Earth's outer core is estimated to be 25 Gauss, 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.
[7][8]

Recent evidence has suggested that the inner core of Earth may rotate slightly faster than the rest of the planet.
[9]

In August 2005 a team of geophysicists announced in the journal Science that, according to their
[10][11]

estimates, Earth's inner core rotates approximately 0.3 to 0.5 degrees per year relative to the rotation of the surface.

The current scientific explanation for the Earth's temperature gradient is a combination of heat left over from the planet's initial formation, decay of radioactive elements, and freezing of the inner core. [edit]Mantle Main article: Mantle (geology)

Schematic view of the interior of Earth. 1. continental crust - 2. oceanic crust - 3. upper mantle - 4. lower mantle - 5. outer core - 6. inner core - A: Mohorovii discontinuity - B: Gutenberg Discontinuity - C: Lehmann discontinuity

Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of the Earth. The pressure, at the bottom of the mantle, is ~140 GPa (1.4 Matm). The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust. Although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile that it can flow on very long timescales. Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of tectonic plates. The melting point and viscosity of a substance depends on the pressure it is under. As there is intense and increasing pressure as one travels deeper into the mantle, the lower part of the mantle flows less easily than does the upper mantle (chemical changes within the mantle may also be important). The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 10 viscosity of water is approximately 10 [edit]Crust Main article: Crust (geology) The crust ranges from 570 km in depth and is the outermost layer. The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlie the ocean basins (510 km) and are composed of dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate rocks, like basalt.The thicker crust is continental crust, which is less dense and composed of (felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite. The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories - sial and sima (Suess,18311914). As the main mineral constituents of the continental mass are silica and alumina, it is thus called sial (si-silica, 6575% and al-alumina). The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium. it is therefore called sima (si-silica and ma3 21 24 [12]

and 10

Pas, depending on depth.

7

In comparison, the

Pas and that of pitch is 10 Pas.

magnesium). It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the Conrad discontinuity (a second order discontinuity). The uppermost mantle together with the crust constitutes the lithosphere. The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different events. First, there is a discontinuity in theseismic velocity, which is known as the Mohorovii discontinuity or Moho. The cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing plagioclase feldspar (above) to rocks that contain no feldspars (below). Second, in oceanic crust, there is achemical discontinuity between ultramafic cumulates and tectonized harzburgites, which has been observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been obducted onto the continental crust and preserved as

Earth's structure
The earth consists of several layers. The three main layers are the core, the mantle and the crust. The core is the inner part of the earth, the crust is the outer part and between them is the mantle. The earth is surrounded by the atmosphere. Till this moment it hasn't been possible to take a look inside the earth because the current technology doesn't allow it. Therefore all kinds of research had to be done to find out, out of which material the earth consists, what different layers there are and which influence those have (had) on the earth's surface. This research is called seismology. The core The inner part of the earth is the core. This part of the earth is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) below the earth's surface. The core is a dense ball of the elements iron and nickel. It is divided into two layers, the inner core and the outer core. The inner core - the center of earth - is solid and about 780 miles (1,250 km) thick. The outer core is so hot that the metal is always molten, but the inner core pressures are so great that it cannot melt, even though temperatures there reach 6700F (3700C). The outer core is about 1370 miles (2,200 km) thick. Because the earth rotates, the outer core spins around the inner core and that causes the earth's magnetism. More info...

Full size

Earth cutaway Here, sections of the Earth have been removed to show its internal structure. Image by: Colin Rose, Dorling Kindersley

The Mantle The layer above the core is the mantle. It begins about 6 miles(10 km) below the oceanic crust and about 19 miles(30 km) below the continental crust (see The Crust). The mantle is to divide into the inner mantle and the outer mantle. It is about 1,800

miles(2,900 km) thick and makes up nearly 80 percent of the Earth's total volume. More
info...

The Crust The crust lays above the mantle and is the earth's hard outer shell, the surface on which we are living. In relation with the other layers the crust is much thinner. It floats upon the softer, denser mantle. The crust is made up of solid material but these material is not everywhere the same. There is an Oceanic crust and a Continental crust. The first one is about 4-7 miles (6-11 km) thick and consists of heavy rocks, like basalt. The Continental crust is thicker than the Oceanic crust, about 19 miles(30 km) thick. It is mainly made up of light material, like granite. More info...
- Plate Tectonics - Earthquakes - Volcanoes

The Atmosphere The earth is surrounded by all kind of gases. This layer is called the earth's atmosphere. Without these atmosphere life on earth isn't possible. The atmosphere gives us air, water, warmth and is protecting us against harmful rays of the sun and against meteorites. This layer around the earth is a colorless, odorless, tasteless 'sea' of gases, water and fine dust. The atmosphere is made up of different layers with different qualities. It consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0,93% argon, 0,03% carbon dioxide and 0,04% of other gases. The Troposphere is the layer where the weather happens, above this layer is the Stratosphere. Within the Stratosphere is the Ozone layer, that absorbs the Sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. Above the Stratosphere is the Mesosphere, the Thermosphere - in which the Ionosphere - and the Exosphere. The atmosphere is about 500 miles (800 km) thick. More info... Influence of the Sun and the Moon The sun and the moon both have their influence on the earth. Sometimes they cooperate and sometimes they counteract each other. Such influences are: the gravity, the warmth of the sun, the sunlight and the chronology. Through the gravitational force of the earth the moon orbits the earth. The moon also gravitates the earth, but less powerful. By the way gravity pulls the Earth and Moon toward each other, tides are caused (high tide and low tide). The sun also has some influence here. The sun brings light and is also responsible for the warming up of the earth. More info...
Relative sites

Home | Formation of the Earth | Earth's Structure | Life on Earth

Earth's Structure: Structure | The Core | The Mantle | The Crust | The Atmosphere | The Influence of the Sun and Moon Plate Tectonics | Earthquakes | Volcanoes

Copyright 2000, ThinkQuest team ll125 All rights reserved.

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Many rocks now making up Earth's crust formed less than 100 million (110 ) years ago; however, the oldest known mineral grains are 4.4 billion (4.410 ) years old, indicating that Earth has had a solid crust for at least that long. [edit]Historical
[13] 9

development of alternative conceptions

Main article: Hollow Earth

Edmond Halley's hypothesis.

In 1692 Edmund Halley (in a paper printed in Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London) put forth the idea of Earth consisting of a hollow shell about 500 miles thick, with two inner concentric shells around an innermost core, corresponding to the diameters of the planets Venus, Mars, and Mercury respectively.
[14]

Halley's construct was a method of accounting for the (flawed) values of the relative

density of Earth and the Moon that had been given by Sir Isaac Newton, in Principia (1687). "Sir Isaac Newton has demonstrated the Moon to be more solid than our Earth, as 9 to 5," Halley remarked; "why may we not then suppose four ninths of our globe to be cavity?" [edit]See
[14]

also

Earth sciences portal

Rain-out model Mohorovii discontinuity, boundary crust and mantle. Core-mantle boundary Hollow Earth

Lehmann discontinuity Hydridic Earth theory Receiver function

[edit]Notes

1.

^ T. H. Jordan, "Structural Geology of the Earth's Interior", Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 1979, Sept., 76(9): 41924200.

2. 3.

^ Cohen, Ronald; Stixrude, Lars. "Crystal at the Center of the Earth". Retrieved 2007-02-05. ^ Lars Stixrude and R. E. Cohen, "High-Pressure Elasticity of Iron and Anisotropy of Earth's Inner Core", Science 31 March 1995: Vol. 267. no. 5206, pp. 1972 - 1975 DOI: 10.1126/science.267.5206.1972

4. 5.

^ Wootton, Anne (September 2006) "Earth's Inner Fort Knox" Discover 27(9): p.18; ^ Herndon, J. M., The chemical composition of the interior shells of the Earth. Proc. R. Soc. Lond, 1980, A372, 149-154.

6. 7. 8. 9.

^ Herndon, J. M., Scientific basis of knowledge on Earth's composition. Curr.Sci., 2005, 88(7), 1034-1037. ^ http://www.science20.com/news_articles/first_measurement_magnetic_field_inside_earths_core ^ http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v468/n7326/full/nature09643.html ^ Chang, Kenneth (2005-08-25). "Earth's Core Spins Faster Than the Rest of the Planet". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-24.

10. ^ Kerr, Richard A. (26 August 2005) "Earth's Inner Core Is Running a Tad Faster Than the Rest of the Planet" Science 309(5739): p.1313; 11. ^ Chang, Kenneth (26 August 2005) "Scientists Say Earth's Center Rotates Faster Than Surface" The New York Times Sec. A, Col. 1, p.13; 12. ^ http://www2.uni-jena.de/chemie/geowiss/geodyn/poster2.html 13. ^ Spaceflight Now | Breaking News | Oldest rock shows Earth was a hospitable young planet 14. ^
a b

N. Kollerstrom, 1992. "The hollow world of Edmond Halley" from Journal for History call thuis numba

66451146 and ask 4 leona of Astronomy 23, 185-192

[edit]References

Kruglinski, Susan. "Journey to the Center of the Earth." Discover. Lehmann, I. (1936) Inner Earth, Bur. Cent. Seismol. Int. 14, 3-31 Schneider, David (October 1996) A Spinning Crystal Ball, Scientific American Wegener, Alfred (1915) "The Origin of Continents and Oceans"
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Structure of the Earth Geophysics, which studies the physics of the Earth, has led to many significant discoveries about the Earth and its make-up. Seismologic studies of the Earth have uncovered new information about the interior of the Earth that has helped to give credence to plate tectonic theory. Geophysical studies have revealed that the Earth has several distinct layers. Each of these layers has its own properties. The outermost layer of the Earth is the crust. This comprises the continents and ocean basins. The crust has a variable thickness, being 35-70 km thick in the continents and 5-10 km thick in the ocean basins. The crust is composed mainly of alumino-silicates.

The next layer is the mantle, which is composed mainly of ferro-magnesium silicates. It is about 2900 km thick, and is separated into the upper and lower mantle. This is where most of the internal heat of the Earth is located. Large convective cells in the mantle circulate heat and may drive plate tectonic processes.

The last layer is the core, which is separated into the liquid outer core and the solid inner core. The outer core is 2300 km thick and the inner core is 1200 km thick. The outer core is composed mainly of a nickel-iron alloy, while the inner core is almost entirely composed of iron. Earth's magnetic field is believed to be controlled by the liquid outer core.

The Earth is separated into layers based on mechanical properties in addition to composition. The topmost layer is the lithosphere, which is comprised of the crust and solid portion of the upper mantle. The lithosphere is divided into many plates that move in relation to each other due to tectonic forces. The lithosphere essentially floats atop a semi-liquid layer known as theasthenosphere. This layer allows the solid lithosphere to move around since the asthenosphere is much weaker than the lithosphere.

Structure of the Earth History of plate tectonics Plates Plate boundaries Forces in the Earth Faults Hypercard Resources Plate tectonics Activities

Last modified on 8/14/98 by Maggi Glasscoe (scignedu@jpl.nasa.gov)

Earth's structure
The earth consists of several layers. The three main layers are the core, the mantle and the crust. The core is the inner part of the earth, the crust is the outer part and between them is the mantle. The earth is surrounded by the atmosphere. Till this moment it hasn't been possible to take a look inside the earth because the current technology doesn't allow it. Therefore all kinds of research had to be done to find out, out of which material the earth consists, what different layers there are and which influence those have (had) on the earth's surface. This research is called seismology. The core The inner part of the earth is the core. This part of the earth is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) below the earth's surface. The core is a dense ball of the elements iron and nickel. It is divided into two layers, the inner core and the outer core. The inner core - the center of earth - is solid and about 780 miles (1,250 km) thick. The outer core is so hot that the metal is always molten, but the inner core pressures are so great that it cannot melt, even though temperatures there reach 6700F (3700C). The outer core is about 1370 miles (2,200 km) thick.

Full size

Earth cutaway Here, sections of the Earth have been removed to show its internal structure.

Image by: Colin Rose, Dorling Kindersley

Because the earth rotates, the outer core spins around the inner core and that causes the earth's magnetism. More info...

The Mantle The layer above the core is the mantle. It begins about 6 miles(10 km) below the oceanic crust and about 19 miles(30 km) below the continental crust (see The Crust). The mantle is to divide into the inner mantle and the outer mantle. It is about 1,800 miles(2,900 km) thick and makes up nearly 80 percent of the Earth's total volume. More
info...

The Crust The crust lays above the mantle and is the earth's hard outer shell, the surface on which we are living. In relation with the other layers the crust is much thinner. It floats upon the softer, denser mantle. The crust is made up of solid material but these material is not everywhere the same. There is an Oceanic crust and a Continental crust. The first one is about 4-7 miles (6-11 km) thick and consists of heavy rocks, like basalt. The Continental crust is thicker than the Oceanic crust, about 19 miles(30 km) thick. It is mainly made up of light material, like granite. More info...
- Plate Tectonics - Earthquakes - Volcanoes

The Atmosphere The earth is surrounded by all kind of gases. This layer is called the earth's atmosphere. Without these atmosphere life on earth isn't possible. The atmosphere gives us air, water, warmth and is protecting us against harmful rays of the sun and against meteorites. This layer around the earth is a colorless, odorless, tasteless 'sea' of gases, water and fine dust. The atmosphere is made up of different layers with different qualities. It consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0,93% argon, 0,03% carbon dioxide and 0,04% of other gases. The Troposphere is the layer where the weather happens, above this layer is the Stratosphere. Within the Stratosphere is the Ozone layer, that absorbs the Sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. Above the Stratosphere is the Mesosphere, the Thermosphere - in which the Ionosphere - and the Exosphere. The atmosphere is about 500 miles (800 km) thick. More info... Influence of the Sun and the Moon The sun and the moon both have their influence on the earth. Sometimes they cooperate and sometimes they counteract each other. Such influences are: the gravity, the warmth of the sun, the sunlight and the chronology. Through the gravitational force of the earth the moon orbits the earth. The moon also gravitates the earth, but less powerful. By the way gravity pulls the Earth and Moon toward each other, tides are

caused (high tide and low tide). The sun also has some influence here. The sun brings light and is also responsible for the warming up of the earth. More info...
Relative sites

Home | Formation of the Earth | Earth's Structure | Life on Earth Earth's Structure: Structure | The Core | The Mantle | The Crust | The Atmosphere | The Influence of the Sun and Moon Plate Tectonics | Earthquakes | Volcanoes

Copyright 2000, ThinkQuest team ll125 All rights reserved.

http://ontwikkel.thinkquest.nl/~ll125/en/struct.htm

The structure of the Earth

Imagine a Scotch egg...... 1. 2. 3. 4. The outer shell of the Earth is called the CRUST (breadcrumbs) The next layer is called the MANTLE (sausagemeat) The next layer is the liquid OUTER CORE (egg white) The middle bit is called the solid INNER CORE (egg yolk)

The Rock Cycle Plate Tectonics Earth Structure Earth Origin Volcanoes Earth's Atmosphere Fossil Fuels Polymers home Moorland School Clitheroe, Lancashire BB7 2AJ England email

DEAD EASY ! The deepest anyone has drilled into the earth is around 12 kilometres, we've only scratched the surface. How do we know what's going on deep underground? There are lots of clues:

The overall density of the Earth is much higher than the density of the rocks we find in the crust. This tells us that the inside must be made of something much denser than rock. Meteorites (created at the same time as the Earth, 4.6 billion years ago) have been analysed. The commonest type is called a chondrite and they contain iron, silicon, magnesium and oxygen (Others contain iron and nickel). A meteorite has roughly the same density as the whole earth. A meteorite minus its iron

has a density roughly the same as Mantle rock (e.g. the mineral called olivine). Iron and Nickel are both dense and magnetic. Scientists can follow the path of seismic waves from earthquakes as they travel through the Earth. The inner core of the Earth appears to be solid whilst the outer core is liquid (s waves do not travel through liquids). The mantle is mainly solid as it is under extreme pressure (see below). We know that the mantle rocks are under extreme pressure, diamond is made from carbon deposits and is created in rocks that come from depths of 150-300 kilometres that have been squeezed under massive pressures. The Earth is sphere (as is the scotch egg!) with a diameter of about 12,700Kilometres. As we go deeper and deeper into the earth the temperature and pressure rises. The core temperature is believed to be an incredible 50006000c. The crust is very thin (average 20Km). This does not sound very thin but if you were to imagine the Earth as a football, the crust would be about millimetre thick. The thinnest parts are under the oceans (OCEANIC CRUST) and go to a depth of roughly 10 kilometres. The thickest parts are the continents (CONTINENTAL CRUST) which extend down to 35 kilometres on average. The continental crust in the Himalayas is some 75 kilometres deep. The mantle is the layer beneath the crust which extends about half way to the centre. It's made of solid rock and behaves like an extremely viscous liquid (This is the tricky bit... the mantle is a solid which flows????) The convection of heat from the centre of the Earth is what ultimately drives the movement of the tectonic plates and cause mountains to rise. Click here for more details The outer core is the layer beneath the mantle. It is made of liquid iron and nickel. Complex convection currents give rise to a dynamo effect which is responsible for the Earth's magnetic field. The inner core is the bit in the middle!. It is made of solid iron and nickel. Temperatures in the core are thought to be in the region of 5000-6000c and it's solid due to the massive pressure.

THAT'S ALL WE REALLY NEED TO KNOW! (If you haven't seen a solid that flows then go back here and have a look) EARTH STRUCTURE TEST HERE IS SOME EXTRA STUFF (IN A LOT MORE DETAIL THAN WE NEED FOR GCSE):

This diagram shows a detailed picture of the Earth's interior. Crust is being created at the mid ocean ridges and being eaten at the subduction zones. The movement processes are driven by the convection currents created by the heat produced by natural radioactive processes deep

within the Earth.

Inner core: depth of 5,150-6,370 kilometres The inner core is made of solid iron and nickel and is unattached to the mantle, suspended in the molten outer core. It is believed to have solidified as a result of pressure-freezing which occurs to most liquids under extreme pressure. Outer core: depth of 2,890-5,150 kilometres The outer core is a hot, electrically conducting liquid (mainly Iron and Nickel). This conductive layer combines with Earth's rotation to create a dynamo effect that maintains a system of electrical currents creating the Earth's magnetic field. It is also responsible for the subtle jerking of Earth's rotation. This layer is not as dense as pure molten iron, which indicates the presence of lighter elements. Scientists suspect that about 10% of the layer is composed of sulphur and oxygen because these elements are abundant in the cosmos and dissolve readily in molten iron. D" layer: depth of 2,700-2,890 kilometres This layer is 200 to 300 kilometres thick. Although it is often identified as part of the lower mantle, seismic evidence suggests the D" layer might differ chemically from the lower mantle lying above it. Scientists think that the material either dissolved in the core, or was able to sink through the mantle but not into the core because of its density. Lower mantle: depth of 650-2,890 kilometres The lower mantle is probably composed mainly of silicon, magnesium, and oxygen. It probably also contains some iron, calcium, and aluminium. Scientists make these deductions by assuming the Earth has a similar abundance and proportion of cosmic elements as found in the Sun and primitive meteorites. Transition region: depth of 400-650 kilometres The transition region or mesosphere (for middle mantle), sometimes called the fertile layer and is the source of basaltic magmas. It also contains calcium, aluminium, and garnet, which is a complex aluminium-bearing silicate mineral. This layer is dense when cold because of the garnet. It is buoyant when hot because these minerals melt easily to form basalt which can then rise through the upper layers as magma. Upper mantle: depth of 10-400 kilometres Solid fragments of the upper mantle have been found in eroded mountain belts and volcanic eruptions. Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 and pyroxene (Mg,Fe)SiO3 have been found. These and other minerals are crystalline at high temperatures. Part of the upper mantle called the asthenosphere might be partially molten. Oceanic crust: depth of 0-10 kilometres The majority of the Earth's crust was made through volcanic activity. The oceanic ridge system, a 40,000 kilometre network of volcanoes, generates new oceanic crust at the rate of 17 km3 per year, covering the ocean floor with an igneous rock called basalt. Hawaii and Iceland are two examples of the accumulation of basalt islands. Continental crust: depth of 0-75 kilometres This is the outer part of the Earth composed essentially of crystalline rocks. These are low-density buoyant minerals dominated mostly by quartz (SiO2) and feldspars (metalpoor silicates). The crust is the surface of the Earth. Because cold rocks deform slowly, we refer to this rigid outer shell as the lithosphere (the rocky or strong layer). Back to the Earth Science zone