Gamma emitters are extensively used in medical imaging, as they arent very ionising and highly penetrating.

The internal energy is the sum of the KE of particles and the potential energy in the bonds between the particles. All the energy that is stored or active in the molecules of a body. In an ideal gas there are no forces between the particles, so they only have K.E. For SHM to happen, the resultant force or acceleration must be proportional to the displacement and directed towards the equilibrium position. Electric and gravitational fields are inverse square laws. Half life is the AVERAGE time taken for the activity of a radioisotope to decay to one-half if its initial value. A main sequence star is a star that maintains a constant temperature and luminosity by the fusion of hydrogen to form helium in its core. The temperature scale on a HR diagram is increasing from right to left in the log range from 4000k to 30000k to include the wide range of luminosities. Main sequence stars core collapses as hydrogen in the core has completely fused into helium, hydrogen fusion is initiated in the shell, shell expands and temp falls as luminosity rises due to the decrease in density. This is shown in the HR diagram as the temperature of the red giant is smaller, but they release so much more energy compared to before. Geostationary orbit is when a satellite maintains a fixed position relative to earth. Interstellar dust is dust that can be observed as dark streaks and so must be absorbing radiation, dark matter doesnt absorb radiation. Energy in a sound wave is kinetic at the equilibrium position and potential at the max value of the oscillation, KE changes to potential as the displacement increases. Energy of a wave is When air molecules collide with rubber or foam it they will collide in elastically with the rubber, so energy is transferred from the vibrating molecules. Kinetic energy of molecules is Kevin is 273 degrees added to Celsius. In a lab experiment of a light bulb compared to the S-B law n is less than 4 due to experimental uncertainties and because the filament isnt a perfect black body. .

Radio carbon dating depends on the assumption that the radio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 has remained constant and that the half life has stayed the same. Astronomical parallax it the apparent movement of a nearby star against the background of distant stars when a star is observed from different positions. Red shift is the change in wavelength or frequency of a spectral line towards the red end of the visual spectrum, as the source moves away from the observer. The spectra of distant galaxies show red shift, therefore they must be moving away and the universe expanding. The universe is gaining gravitational potential energy as it expands, so will lose kinetic energy that will cause the expansion to slow down. If it continues to expand or collapses depends on its density. When two stars in the night sky appear equally bright they can be different sizes so the larger one could be further away due to the inverse square law of size, or they could be different temperatures, so the hotter one would be further away due to Hubbles constant and further away. Different luminosity, so the more luminous one would be further away, due to the inverse square law of radiant flux. Random decay is when you cannot identify which atom or nucleus will decay next, but can estimate the probability that it will decay in a given times, and cannot state exactly how many atoms will decay in a set time. When the amplitude of oscillations increases, it is called resonance. When a star orbits around a planet, they will both complete the orbit in the same time period, therefore the star must cover a smaller distance/orbit a smaller radius compared to planet. A large shift in light frequency is seen as the larger planet will move its centre of mass away from the star centre, the star therefore moves faster and the Doppler shift is greater. A white dwarf is a dead start that no longer carries out any fusion, it is small dense and hot and is still emitting radiation in the form of light. It is made of fusion products of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Gravitational forces act on hydrogen, so an increase in temperature is the result of an increase of internal energy. A standard candle emits a fixed luminosity that is known, fusing a constant quantity of hydrogen, which is the same or similar for various novae. All white dwarfs are smaller and brighter than our sun. The gravitational force between the earth and the moon is NOT proportional to the square of the separation of the earth and moon. When a smoke detector is said to last a lifetime, its half life must be such that it doesnt decay too fast by the end of a persons life. Approx 1.5 half lives or less.

Assume for gas experiments that air behaves as an ideal gas, no change in temperature or mass of gas in container. A light year is the distance travelled in a vacuum in a year by light. Light can only travel to us for a time equal to the age of the universe The age of the universe can only be guessed as there is uncertainty in the value of the hubble constant as the it is impossible to accurately calculate the distance of distance galaxies, and as the values are so large, the result is only better than a guess. Any system that is driven into large amplitude oscillations is a result of resonance where the system is driven at/near its natural frequency. Springs or dampers absorb energy as they deform/ oscillate with the natural frequency of the bridge; there is an efficient transfer of energy. The energy absorbed must not return to the bridge instead dissipate. When calculating specific heat capacity, no energy must be transferred to the surroundings or transferred to washers to water or energy required to raise temp of container is negligible or no water evaporated. Mass of washers and water measured using balance, temperature of water before & after, thermal energy lost by metal gained by water. When calculating distances using standard candles, the radiation flux is measured, compared to the observed luminosity, inverse square law is used and the object is commonly found in the universe. When a star contracts, the visible part is moving away from the observer, the movement results in a decrease in frequency that results in a red shift in the visible spectrum. When a substance changes stare there is no change in KE as the energy is transformed into the P.E. of the molecules.