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Pumps are the second most common piece of industrial equipment next to electric motors. There are literally millions of pumps in use around the world. The pump selection process is, in large part, matching a particular pump's capability with system requirements and properties of the liquid to be pumped.
Pumps are the second most common piece of industrial equipment next to electric motors. There are literally millions of pumps in use around the world. The pump selection process is, in large part, matching a particular pump's capability with system requirements and properties of the liquid to be pumped.
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Pumps are the second most common piece of industrial equipment next to electric motors. There are literally millions of pumps in use around the world. The pump selection process is, in large part, matching a particular pump's capability with system requirements and properties of the liquid to be pumped.
Drepturi de autor:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Formate disponibile
Descărcați ca PDF, TXT sau citiți online pe Scribd
second most common piece of in- dustrial equipment next to electric motors. There are literally millions of pumps in use around the world han- dling thousands of different liquids. With the many types of pumps avail- able, selecting the proper pump for any given application can be complex. The pump selection process is, in large part, matching a particular pumps ca- pability with system requirements and properties of the liquid to be pumped. In this article, we will start with a discussion of liquid and system prop- erties and then move on to discussing specific pump capabilities. The basics The first consideration in any applica- tion is understanding the expectations for the pump. Inlet conditions, re- quired flowrate, differential pressure, temperature, and liquid characteris- tics such as viscosity, abrasiveness, shear sensitivity and corrosiveness must all be determined before a pump can be selected. A pump needs proper suction condi- tions to work well. In fact, the major- ity of pump difficulties can be traced to bad suction conditions. Since a pump can push liquid farther than pull it, it is best to always keep the pump as close to the liquid supply as possible. This is an area where system design- ers often have choices and can have an impact on equipment life. Keep the inlet conditions within the capabilities of the pump. Differential pressure is also critical, particularly from an energy savings and pump-life perspective. Smaller pipe size and longer pipe runs may re- duce the initial system cost but they also cause higher differential pres- sure for the pump. This translates into higher energy consumption and shorter pump life, meaning higher op- erating costs and lower efficiencies. The desired liquid properties are generally known and it is important to understand how a given pump may affect these. Most users would like the liquid to be in the same condition coming out of the pump as when it en- tered. Material compatibility, viscos- ity, shear sensitivity and the presence of particulate matter or solids are all extremely important in selecting the right pump. Centrifugal versus PD Once system conditions have been optimized and liquid properties are known, the selection process can begin. The pumping world can be di- vided into two basic categories: kinetic energy (the largest category being centrifugal) and positive displacement (PD) pumps. Data from the U. S. Dept. of Commerce show that approximately 70% of all pump sales are kinetic en- ergy and the remaining 30% are posi- tive displacement. To select a pump, the first step is deciding whether cen- trifugal or PD is the better choice. Because the predominant industrial pump is the centrifugal, many people consider it first. A centrifugal pump usually costs less than a PD pump and, in many cases, is the right pump to use. Each pump moves liquid in an entirely different manner and each has very different operating character- istics. In essence, a centrifugal pump imparts velocity to the liquid, which results in pressure at the outlet. A PD pump, by contrast, moves liquids by capturing confined amounts of liquid and transferring them from the suc- tion to discharge port. For a centrifu- gal pump, pressure is created and flow results. For a PD pump, flow is created and pressure results. Performance. To make a good choice between these pump types it is impor- tant to understand that the two types of pumps behave very differently. By looking at the performance chart (Fig- ure 1a), you can see just how different they are. The centrifugal has varying flow depending on pressure (or head), whereas the PD pump has more or less constant flow regardless of pressure. Viscosity. Viscosity plays an impor- tant role in a pumps mechanical effi- ciency. Because the centrifugal pump operates at motor speed, efficiency goes down as viscosity increases due to increased frictional losses within the pump. However, efficiency often in- creases in a PD pump with increasing viscosity. Note how rapidly efficiency drops off for the centrifugal pump as viscosity increases (Figure 1b). Another major difference between the pump types is the effect that vis- cosity has on the capacity of the pump. You will notice in the flowrate chart Feature Report 42 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com august 2007 Feature Report John Petersen and Rodger Jacoby Viking Pump, Inc. The need to reduce production costs and optimize energy consumption makes proper pump selection more important than ever. Understanding basic pumping principles and the fluid characteristics for a given application is the starting point for selection Selecting a Positive Displacement Pump 42-46 CHE 8-07.indd 42 7/26/07 5:01:12 PM (Figure 1c), how the centrifugal pump loses flow as the viscosity goes up but the PD pump actually increases flow. This is because higher viscosity liq- uids fill in the clearances of the PD pump causing a higher volumetric efficiency. Figure 1c shows only the effect of viscosity on the pump flow. Remember, when there is a viscosity change there is also greater line loss in the system. This means flow in the centrifugal pump will go down even further due to increased pump differ- ential pressure. Efficiency. Kinetic and PD pumps also behave very differently when con- sidering differential pressure versus mechanical efficiency. Figure 1d shows how pressure, which increases directly with head, impacts pump efficiency. For a PD pump, efficiency actually increases with increasing pressure, whereas the centrifugal has a best-ef- ficiency point (BEP). On either side of this point, the overall pump efficiency decreases dramatically. Inlet conditions. Inlet requirements for the two pump types are also quite different. Centrifugal pumps need liquid in the pump to create a pres- sure differential. A dry pump will not prime on its own. Once primed, centrifugal pumps have definite inlet pressure requirements that manufac- turers can advise. Because PD pumps move liquid by expanding and contracting fixed volumes of liquid, negative pressure will be created at the inlet port and PD pumps will prime on their own. In some cases, this is the sole determin- ing factor in whether to select a PD or centrifugal pump. Summary. In summary, consider a PD pump when viscosity goes over 150 cP, flowrate must be predictable over a wide flow range or the pump must self prime. Also, consider en- ergy consumption for the choice be- tween centrifugal versus a PD pump, as there may be considerable differ- ences. This is particularly important for flows below 100 gal/min where ef- ficiency drops off more for centrifugal pumps. Positive disPlacement Once the decision has been made to consider a PD pump, there are still many choices available. Before get- ting into the details of each pump- ing principle, lets review some of the common operating characteristics of PD pumps. As stated before, rotary PD pumps displace the same volume of liquid with each rotation of the shaft. This means that flow is proportional to speed. In other words, flow can be controlled by simply varying the speed of the pump. For more viscous liquids, the pumps can be used for me- tering by simply counting shaft revolutions. PD-pump mechanics require close-fitting internal parts with some running clearance. Be- cause of this clearance, some liquid will flow from discharge back to suction. This is called slip. The amount of slip is de- termined by liquid viscosity, pressure differential and indi- vidual pump clearances. Lower viscosity generally results in more slip and with thicker liquids, slip is minimal. Because PD pumps try to displace equal amounts of liquid, it is im- portant to have some form of over- pressure protection in the system. A blocked discharge of a PD pump results in a pressure increase that will stop only when: the limits of the motor are exceeded; something breaks in the system to relieve the pressure; or the pump fails. None of these are safe situations. Centrifugal pumps, on the other hand, are capable of only a finite pressure buildup. Blocking the discharge of a centrifugal pump will result in some pressure increase, but generally not enough to cause prob- lems. Many people do not realize this difference between PD and centrifu- gal pumps and hence, do not realize that PD pumps need a way to relieve pressure. There are several ways to accom- plish pressure relief. A pressure relief valve is the most common, but rupture disks in the discharge line may also be used. Since driving torque is directly related to differential pressure in a PD pump, a torque-limiting coupling may be used as well. The important thing to remember is that there can ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com august 2007 43 H e a d
f e e t 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 50 100 150 Capacity, gaI/min A. Performance E f f i c i e n c y ,
% 100 80 60 40 20 0 F I o w r a t e ,
% 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 E f f i c i e n c y ,
% 80 70 60 50 40 0 250 500 750 1,000 Viscosity, cSt 0 100 200 300 400 500 Viscosity, cSt 55 80 105 Feet of head CentrifugaI CentrifugaI Positive Positive B. Viscosity D. Head C. FIowrate CentrifugaI Positive Positive CentrifugaI FIGURES 1a 1d. These graphs compare some of the important differences between centrifugal and positive displacement pumps Rotor IdIer Crescent FIGURE 2. Internal gear pumps are ideal for high-viscosity liquids, but they are damaged when pumping large solids FIGURE 3. Internal gear pumps have rigid shaft support from both journal and antifriction bearings 42-46 CHE 8-07.indd 43 7/26/07 5:01:34 PM be significant pressure buildup with a PD pump that must be limited in the event of a blocked or partially blocked discharge. PD pumps can be classified into many types. The Hydraulic Institute (Parsippany, N.J.; www.pumps.org), an organization comprised of pump manufacturers with published infor- mation on pump types and standards, has classified rotary PD pumps into the following categories: vane, piston, flexible member, lobe, gear, circumfer- ential piston and screw. Each one of these categories also has subcategories meaning that there are many types of PD pumps. Since they all do the same thing move liquid how does one choose a PD pump? Most PD pumps can be adapted to handle a wide range of applications, but some types are bet- ter suited than others for a given set of circumstances. Fortunately, a few of the pump types have gained more popular- ity than others for basic liquid transfer, so the choices arent quite as many. In the following sections, well cover in- ternal and external gear pumps, vane- and lobe-type pumps.
Internal gear pumps The internal gear pump has an outer gear called the rotor that is used to drive the inner gear called the idler (Figure 2). The idler gear, which is smaller than the rotor gear, rotates on a stationary pin and operates in- side the rotor gear. The gears create voids as they come out of mesh and liquid flows into the pump. As the gears come back into mesh, volumes are reduced and liquid is forced out the discharge port. Liquid enters the expanding cavities through the rotor teeth and recessed areas on the head. The last key part of this pump design is the crescent, which is integral to the pump head. It functions as a seal be- tween suction and discharge by trap- ping the volumes of liquid carried be- tween both idler and rotor teeth. The rotor gear is attached to a shaft that is supported by either journal or antifriction bearings (Figure 3). The idler gear contains a journal bearing that rotates on a stationary pin in the pumped liquid. Depending on shaft- sealing arrangements, the rotor-shaft support bearings may run in pumped liquid. This is an important consid- eration when handling abrasive liq- uids as they can wear out a support bearing. Practical pressure limits on this pump are determined by the rotor- shaft support bearings. Most internal gear pumps have differential pressure ratings of 200 psi, although they can be used at higher pressures with the right application conditions. The speed of internal gear pumps is relatively slow compared to centrifu- gal types. Speeds up to 1,150 rpm are considered common, although some small designs operate up to 3,450 rpm. Because of their ability to operate at low speeds, internal gear pumps are well suited for high-viscosity appli- cations, although they also are used very successfully on thin liquid ap- plications. With each revolution of an internal gear pump, the gears have a fairly long time to come out of mesh, which allows the spaces between gear teeth to completely fill and not cavitate. Internal gear pumps have successfully pumped liquids with vis- cosities above 1,000,000 cSt and very low viscosity liquids, such as liquid propane and ammonia. Flowrates for this pump range from 0.5 gal/min up to 1,500 gal/min. Ma- terial choices include cast iron and a number of different corrosion-resis- tant alloys, including Hastelloy. Internal gear pumps are made to close tolerances and are damaged when pumping large solids. These pumps can handle small, suspended particulates in abrasive applications, but gradually wear and lose perfor- mance. Pump life can be extended dramatically, even on abrasive appli- cations, by choosing wear-resistant materials. Tungsten carbide, hard- ened steel or a variety of coatings work well. Some performance loss can be restored by adjusting the pump end clearance (the closeness of the rotor gear to the head of the pump). Note in the design shown in Figure 3, that this adjustment can be made without removing the pump from the line. This must be done with the pump driver turned off and locked out, of course. Internal gear pumps have a very broad application range and even work well on shear-sensitive liquids. Examples of applications where they have been successfully used include wastewater, polymers, shear-sensi- tive paints, asphalt emulsions and some food products, such as mayon- naise. With these pumps, a very small amount of liquid is in shear at any one time in the pump. Clearance and speed can also be modified to minimize the effects of shear when required. External gear pumps External gear pumps are similar in pumping action to internal gear pumps in that two gears come into and out of mesh to produce flow (Figure 4). However, the external gear pump uses two identical gears rotating against each other. Each gear is supported by a shaft with bearings on both sides of each gear. Typically, all four bearings operate in the pumped liquid. Because the gears are supported on both sides, external gear pumps are used for high-pressure applications, such as hydraulics. Pumps designed for hydraulic service can go to pres- sures of several thousand pounds per square inch. Industrial transfer Feature Report 44 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com august 2007 FIGURE 4. External gear pumps are well suited for high-pressure applica- tions due to excellent bearing support FIGURE 5. Customized external gear pumps, such as this double pump, allow for multiple pumping sections 42-46 CHE 8-07.indd 44 7/26/07 5:02:07 PM pumps can handle higher pressures, but liquid characteristics can limit the range. Thinner liquids can go to pres- sures of several hundred psi, while thick liquids allow pressures close to that of hydraulic pumps. Usually, small external gear pumps operate at 1,750 or 3,450 rpm and larger versions operate at speeds up to 640 rpm. Flowrates for this pump range from extremely small (drops per minute) to quite large at 1,500 gal/min. External gear pumps can be constructed from a wide range of materials, including high-end alloys. The design of these pumps allows them to be made to closer tolerances than internal gear pumps. The pump is not very forgiving of particulates in the pumped liquid. Since there are clearances at both ends of the gears, there is no end-clearance adjustment for wear. When an external gear pump wears, it must be rebuilt or replaced. Both viscous and watery-type liq- uids can be handled by this pump, as long as the speed is properly set, particularly for thick liquids. Since viscous liquids need time to fill the spaces between gear teeth, the pump speed must be slowed down consider- ably when pumping them. The viscos- ity limit is essentially the same as the internal gear pump at 1,000,000 cSt. This pump does not perform well under critical suction conditions, es- pecially with volatile liquids. These liquids tend to vaporize locally as gear- teeth spaces expand rapidly. When the viscosity of pumped liquids rises, torque requirements also rise, and pump shaft strength may not be adequate. Pump manufacturers supply torque limit in- formation when it is a factor. Vane pumps Sliding-vane pumps operate on the same expanding- and contracting- volume theory as other PD pumps, but use different mechanics to ac- complish it (Figure 6). A rotor with radial slots is positioned off-center in a housing bore. Vanes that fit closely in rotor slots slide in and out as the rotor turns. Vane action is aided by centrifugal force, hydraulic pressure, or pushrods, with the latter being the most common. Pumping action is caused by the expanding and contract- ing volumes contained by the rotor, vanes, and housing. An interesting sidelight of this pump is that it is actually two pumps in one. The first pumping action is caused by the expanding volume be- tween the vanes, rotor and casing. The second and not so obvious pump is the area underneath the vanes. Here, the vane going in and out of the rotor slot creates pumping action and actually accounts for about 15% of the total pump displacement. This area is typically vented through slots that are in the side of the vane or in the rotor. It is important to know this fact, especially when dealing with thick liq- uids, because it is more difficult to get viscous liquid into and out of the area underneath the vanes. The maximum viscosity recommended for this pump is about 25,000 cSt. Vanes are the main sealing element between the suction and discharge ports and are usually made of a non- metallic composite material. Because there is no metal-to-metal contact, these pumps are frequently used with low-viscosity non-lubricating liquids such as propane, ammonia or solvents. Slip characteristics can be very good on thin liquids due to direct contact of the vanes to the casing and minimal internal clearances. Most transfer vane pumps are lim- ited to 125 psi, although some are rated to 200 psi. Pressure limits on a vane pump are largely determined by vane strength. This pump primes very well, due to the nonmetallic vanes and close run- ning clearance. When a pump primes, it must displace air, which is a very thin fluid. The vane pump does this very well, and is sometimes used as a vacuum pump. The vane pump is normally sup- ported with either sleeve or antifric- tion bearings on both sides of the rotor. If sleeve bearings are used, they run in the liquid that is pumped. If anti- friction bearings are used, an inboard seal is required to allow the bearings to run in oil or grease. This design re- quires two mechanical seals one on each side of the rotor. Vane pumps usually operate at speeds between 1,000 and 1,750 rpm and can go to flowrates as high as 2,000 gal/min. Applications with high- viscosity liquids require a significant reduction in speed in order to allow liquid to get underneath the vanes. Stronger vane materials are required for high-viscosity applications in order to avoid breakage. The most common vane-pump construction is cast or duc- tile iron. Some manufacturers make stainless-steel versions where thin, corrosive liquids must be handled. Vane pumps can handle some abra- sives but they cannot handle solids. For abrasive applications, care must be taken in selecting the proper vane and seal materials. Vane pumps have fixed-end clearances on both sides of the rotor and vanes, similar to exter- nal gear pumps. Once wear occurs, this clearance cannot be adjusted, but some manufacturers supply replace- able or reversible end plates. Casing liners are a way of restoring pump performance as wear occurs. Lobe pumps Lobe pumps are similar to external gear pumps in operation, except the pumping elements or lobes do not make contact. The design in Figure ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com august 2007 45 Rotor Push rod Vane FIGURE 6. Vane pumps have bet- ter dry priming capability than other positive displacement pumps FIGURE 7. Vane pumps use non-me- tallic vanes for excellent performance with thin liquids 42-46 CHE 8-07.indd 45 7/26/07 5:02:39 PM 8 shows a trilobe design pump. There are a number of variations ranging from 2 to 5 lobes depending on ap- plication requirements. The design of the lobes does not permit one lobe to drive the other, so external timing gears are required. These are shown in Figure 9. Pump-shaft support bearings are located in the timing gear case. Since the bearings are out of the pumped liquid, pressure is limited by bearing location and shaft deflection. Pressure on this pump is limited to 200 psi. There are industrial versions of lobe pumps where there is bearing sup- port on both sides of the lobes. These designs can go to pressures of 400 psi but sacrifice sanitary characteris- tics and cleanability. More standard industrial mechanical-seal options are available on this design, whereas more specialized seals are used on the sanitary version. Lobe pumps require two shaft seals because of the external timing gears. Proper seal selection is critical here due to the closeness of the shaft sup- port bearing and timing gears. Some manufacturers offer seals that can be easily replaced from the head end of the pump. There is no metal-to-metal contact in lobe pumps, which makes them a frequent choice for food and other clean applications. To clean lobe pumps, a fluid is cir- culated through them. Cleaning is important when the product cannot remain in the pumps for sanitary rea- sons or when products of different col- ors or properties are batched. Due to their open-lobe design, these pumps can handle larger solids than other PD types. Since the lobes do not make contact, and clearances are not as close as in other PD pumps, this design handles low-viscosity liquids with diminished performance. Load- ing characteristics are not as good as other designs, and suction ability is low. High-viscosity liquids require con- siderably reduced speeds to achieve satisfactory performance. Reductions of 25% of rated speed and lower are common with high-viscosity liquids, so the maximum viscosity is limited to 100,000 cSt. The maximum flowrate for the lobe pump is 3,000 gal/min, although most designs are much smaller. Because they are frequently used for clean ap- plications, construction is most often stainless steel, although some manu- facturers produce cast-iron versions. Summary Understanding how various pumps work is a good first step in selecting the right one for a given application. Although the choices are not always crystal clear, basic differences in op- eration and capability can be used to guide selection. Internal gear pumps can be used over a wide application range but they generally run slower than other pumps. Initially, this may result in a slightly higher cost, but slower run- ning pumps usually last longer. External gear pumps have very good pressure capability and precise flow characteristics, but they cannot handle solids or abrasives. They tend to be less costly to produce so they can also be an economical choice for less- demanding applications. Vane pumps are great for thin liq- uids but have to be slowed down con- siderably for thick liquids. They also do not handle solids. Lobe pumps are used most fre- quently for food-type products due to their sanitary nature and ease of cleaning. They also handle larger sol- ids and are gaining more acceptance in the industrial world where cleaning between batches is a requirement. Improper pump selection is costly in a number of ways. It can cost money in downtime, lost production, mainte- nance costs and energy consumption to name a few. Taking the time to get the right pump in the right system goes a long way in minimizing unwanted op- erational costs and reducing the total cost of ownership. n EditedbyDorothyLozowski Authors John Petersen is vice president, technical cus- tomer service for Viking Pump, Inc. (a Unit of IDEX Corp., 406 State St., Cedar Falls, IA; Phone: (319) 266- 1741; Email: info.viking@ idexcorp.com). His respon- sibilities include applica- tion, troubleshooting and technical support for gear-, lobe- and vane-type rotary pumps. Previous responsi- bilities at Viking include project engineer, chief design engineer, chief engineer of research and development and vice president, engineering. Pe- tersen received his B.S. degree from Iowa State University (1970) and has over 36 years experi- ence in the pump industry. He has authored a number of articles on the design and application of positive displacement pumps and is a regis- tered professional engineer in the state of Iowa. Rodger Jacoby is director, international sales for Vi- king Pump, Inc. His respon- sibilities include strategic sales planning, application training, troubleshooting and sales support for gear-, lobe- and vane-type rotary pumps. Previous responsi- bilities at Viking include district sales manager, marketing manager, inter- national sales manager, director of strategic accounts, and director OEM sales. Jacoby received his B.A. degree from Uni- versity of Northern Iowa (1971) and has over 33 years experience in the pump industry. He has authored a number of articles on the design and application of positive displacement pumps. FIGURE 8. The lobe pump de- sign allows pumping of larger sol- ids than most positive displace- ment pumps FIGURE 9. The lobes in these pumps do not make contact because they are driven by external timing gears Feature Report 46 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com august 2007 42-46 CHE 8-07.indd 46 7/26/07 5:03:11 PM
Pipe Sizing Steam Supply and Condensate Return Lines
Sizing Charts
Chart CG-25, page CG-51, is the basic chart for determining
the flow rate and velocity of steam in Schedule 40 pipe
for various values of pressure drop per 100 ft, based on 0 psig
saturated steam. Using the multiplier chart (Chart CG-24),
Chart CG-25 can be used at all saturation pressures between 0
and 200 psig (see Example).
These Charts are based on the Moody Friction Factor, which
considers the Reynolds number and the roughness of the
internal pipe surfaces.
Notes: Based on Moody Friction Factor where flow of
condensate does not inhibit the flow of steam. See Chart
CG-24 for obtaining flow rates and velocities of all saturation
pressures between 0 to 200 psig: see Example.
Pipe Sizing
Two principal factors determine pipe sizing in a steam system:
1. The initial pressure at the boiler and the allowable pressure
drop of the total system. The total pressure drop in
the system should not exceed 20% of