Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Chapter 5

Subgrade

Project appraisal
Ch
Environment

DESIGN ELEMENTS

Traffic Subgrade Subgrade Problem Soils Pavement Materials

Ch

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Pavement DesignNew Roads Pavement Rehabilitation Bituminous Surfacing Gravel Roads

Comparison of alternatives and selection of design Refinement of design, if required

Ministry of Works

Chapter 5
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Comments:

5.0 General
This chapter describes the methods for subgrade evaluation for structural pavement design of new roads, conventional sampling and laboratory testing. Subgrade strength is classified on the basis of CBR values. Strength indicators other than CBR may be used provided they are adequately correlated to CBR values and are approved by the Ministry of Works at project level.

/Chapter 9 Pavement Rehabilitation/

Alternative field investigation methods to determine subgrade strength may be employed for the purpose of pavement rehabilitation or overlay design.

5.1 Design Depth

Properties of soils below the design depth may indirectly affect pavement performance, but are generally unrelated to traffic loading.

The design depth is defined as the depth from the finished road level to the depth that the load bearing strength of the soil no longer has an effect on the pavements performance in relation to traffic loading. Figure 5.1 shows the design depth in relation to the main structural components of pavement and earthworks and Table 5.1 gives the design depth values in relation to design road type.
Table 5.1 Design depth

D esign depth [m] R oad ty pe Paved trunk roads Other roads

Original ground level Finished road level Pavement layers Other roads Paved trunk roads

General requi rements 0.8 0.6

Heavy load classes TLC 05-H to TLC 50-H 1.2 1.0

Design depth

Figure 5.1 Design depth

5.2 Centreline Soil Surveys

A desk study shall always be carried out to gather available information about previous investigations, topography, climate, geology, soils, known material sources, road type, design standard and expected traffic load conditions (i.e. whether large number of very heavy axle loads are likely). Issues related to slope stability and foundation of structures shall be addressed separately.

5.2.0

Subgrade soils and their properties, including strength, shall be classified based on soil surveys by the use of trial pits excavated along the road line.

General

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Subgrade

5.2.1

Depth of investigations

Comments: Initial contingency sampling at depths outside the assumed design depth can minimise re-sampling later in the design process in the case of major changes to the final vertical alignment.

General Soil surveys shall be planned and conducted in a manner that classifies all materials according to their suitability in load bearing layers within the zone of the design depth. A preliminary vertical alignment shall be assumed at the time of the soil survey in order to ensure that soil samples for subgrade classifications are actually taken at levels that fall within the design depth of the road. Investigations shall be extended to below design depth as required to detect problems that need special consideration. These include: n presence of problem soils n unfavourable subgrade conditions n features associated with slope and embankment stability Investigations in cuttings Excavation of sample pits may be impractical in cuts deeper than 3 metres, where special equipment may have to be employed. If possible, postponement of sampling until the time of construction should be considered under such conditions. Embankment areas Evaluation of subgrade strength in embankment areas shall be based on the best possible information about likely sources of earthworks fill materials for use within the design depth.

The time consumption and cost of the investigations in deep cuttings should be carefully assessed against the urgency of obtaining soil characteristics for the particular section.

5.2.2

Test pits shall be excavated for the purpose of sampling the subgrade along the road line, and materials testing carried out at a minimum average frequency as shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Minimum materials testing frequency

Materials testing frequency

R oad ty pe

Indicator testing

C B R strength Minimum number of testing C B R tests for any homogenous section Min. for statistical analy sis Absolute minimum

Paved trunk roads Other paved roads

Mi n 4 per km Mi n 2 per km

Mi n 2 per km Mi n 1 per km Mi n 1 per 2 km 5

(ref. Chapter 5.2.3)

Gravel roads Mi n 2 per km

Indicator testing referred to in Table 5.2 includes Atterberg limits and grading of particles larger than 75mm. Additional investigations, such as hydrometer analysis, field measurements or specialised tests shall be scheduled separately as required. The test methods referred to in Table 5.2 refer to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.7, 1.9 and 1.11.

Ministry of Works

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Comments: Occurence of more than one significant soil horizon requires increased material testing accordingly.

The testing frequencies in Table 5.2 are minimum averages and shall be increased as required according to site conditions. The test pit locations may be distributed un-evenly along the road line to capture changes in soil conditions and as required for optimum use of resources allocated for investigations.

5.2.3 Determination of CBRdesign

General The CBRdesign is the CBR value of a homogenous section, for which the subgrade strength is classified into S15, S7 or S3 for the purpose of pavement design. The procedure to determine CBRdesign is shown in the flow chart in Figure 5.2.

Worked Example
/Appendix A8. 2/

Site reconnaissance

Compilation of input data

Demarcation of homogenous sections

Min 3 CBR tests per uniform section

Design improved subgrade as required

CBR design : Classify S3, S7, S15

Yes
Use lowest CBR value Cut ?

Yes No No
Min 5 CBR tests per uniform section

Special assessment of the section

Determine 90%-ile value at the 0.1 X (n-1) point on the curve

Plot values in ascending order

Yes

Figure 5.2 Procedure to determine CBRdesign

There is potential for confusion on site if the demarcation of homogenous sections is excessively detailed and leads to frequent changes of construction methods. Identification of homogenous sections should therfore take into account constructibility and potential cost implications.

Homogenous sections Identification of sections deemed to have homogenous subgrade conditions is carried out by desk studies of appropriate documents such as geological maps, followed by site reconnaissance that includes excavation of inspection pits and initial indicator testing for confirmation of the site observations. Due regard for localised areas that require individual treatment is an essential part of the site reconnaissance. Demarcation of homogenous sections shall be reviewed and changed as required when the CBR test results of the centreline soil survey are available. Statistical analysis The flow chart in Figure 5.2 shows the procedure to determine CBRdesign. The CBRdesign for a section is the 90%-ile value of the CBR test results for a section with homogenous strength. The method illustrated in Figure 5.3 shall be used for determination of CBRdesign of each homogenous section.

Worked Example
/Appendix A8. 3/

CBRdesign in cuttings The lowest CBR value encountered shall be used as the CBRdesign for sections through cuttings.

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Chapter 5
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CBR values plotted in ascending order Example CBR data 6 8 9 9 9 90% -ile 11 7.6 12 CBRdesign 12 14 8%

Subgrade

16 14 12 10

Comments: The 90%-ile value for a section is the CBR value which 10% of the test results fall below. The use of normal distribution and standard deviation is an unsuitable method for determining CBRdesign. A statistical method, cumulative sums (CUSUM), can be used to establish homogenous sections. /Appendix A8.3/

CBR(%)

8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 Test
d=0.8

n = 9 tests d = 0.1 x (n-1) = 0.8

Figure 5.3 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value

5.3 Laboratory Testing

4 days soaked (%)

CBR measurements in the laboratory shall be carried out at minimum three density values to give a CBR Density relationship for the material. The CBR value is determined at the nominal field density specified for the respective earthworks operations, as set out in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Density for determination of CBR

100 10

CBR

L ay er

D epth below formation lev el [mm] 0 - 150 150 - 300 More than 300 More than 300

D ensity for determination of C B R [% of MD D ] 95 95 BS-Heavy 93 93 BS-Heavy 90 90 BS-Heavy 100 BS-Li ght

1
90 94 88 92 96 98 100 102

% of MDD

Upper subgrade Lower subgrade Fi ll In-si tu

(i mproved layer or i n-si tu) (i mproved layer or i n-si tu)

BS-Heavy compaction is used for all imported materials. The savings in earthworks as a result of upgrading of sections to a higher subgrade class can be substantial under the following conditions: - in cuttings - on sections where improved subgrade layers are constructed solely for the purpose of providing foundation strength for the pavement - on projects where earthworks materials are particularly scarce The specified nominal field density and the respective acceptance criteria shall be adjusted accordingly in the contract documents for construction.

BS-Li ght compacti on effort i s used on poor i n-si tu soi ls and deep i n-si tu soi ls rather than BS-Heavy due to i ts better correspondence wi th the actual effect from compacti on equi pment under condi ti ons wi th poor support for compacti on.

CBR can alternatively be determined at a higher density to upgrade sections to a higher subgrade class if this can be realistically achieved in the field. Specimen moistures to apply in determination of CBRdesign are given in Table 5.4.

5.4 Subgrade Classes

The subgrade shall be classified according to its CBR strength as shown in Table 5.4.

Ministry of Works

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Comments:

Table 5.4 Subgrade strength classes

Subgrade class

CBRdesign [%]
Wet or moderate climatic zones
4 days soaked value Min 15 7 - 14 3-6

Dry climatic zones

(both requirements shall be met) Tested at OMC Min 15 7 - 14 3-6 4 days soaked value Min 7 3 - 14 2-6

Density for determination of CBRdesign

[% of MDD] 95 BS-Heavy 93 BS-Heavy 100 BS-Light

S15 S7 S3

Problem soils: Special treatment is required. /Chapter 6/ Soaked and OMC refer to standard 4 days soaking and the optimum moisture content determined in accordance with tests CML1.9 and CML 1.11. Climatic zones are shown in /Figure 2.1/. BS-Light compaction effort is used on poor in-situ soils and deep in-situ soils rather than BS-Heavy due to its better correspondence with the actual effect from compaction equipment under conditions with poor support for compaction. The referred laboratory test methods are CML 1.9 and 1.11.
Comments: The design catalogue requires that all subgrade is brought to a design strength with a minimum CBR of 15% by constructing one or more improved subgrade layers before the pavement is placed.

5.5 Improved Subgrade Layers

5.5.0
All subgrade shall be brought to a strength of CBR minimum 15% by constructing one or more improved subgrade layers where necessary. The use of improved subgrade layers has a number of advantages, such as: n provision of a deeper pavement structure, having advantages under given conditions such as occurrence of heavy axle loads in the traffic stream n protection of earthworks below n provision of a running surface for the traffic during construction n improved compaction of pavement layers above n provision of homogenous subgrade strength n the improved subgrade acts as a filter layer between pavement layers and poorer soils below n provision of a gravel wearing surface in the case of stage construction for future upgrading to a bitumen surfaced road n economical use of local materials

General

5.5.1

Figure 5.4 shows the design of improved subgrade layers depending on the subgrade CBRdesign determined in soil surveys and assessments of field data.

Design of improved subgrade

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Subgrade

Subgrade classes S7 S15

Lower layer *) Upper layer *)
General Heavy traffic requirement classes (-H) General requirements Moderate or dry Wet climate

S3
Heavy traffic classes (-H) Moderate or dry 300mm 150mm 150mm Wet climate 300mm

Heavy traffic classes: /Chapter 4 Traffic/ Climatic zones: /Chapter 2 Environment/

Comments:

300mm 150mm none

Improved subgrade layer to be constructed

G15

G15

G15

G15

G15

G15
300mm 300mm 150mm

150mm none none none

G7

G7

G7

G7

*)

Material requirements for improved subgrade layers, including limits for maximum compacted layer thickness are given in Table 5.5.

Figure 5.4 Design of improved subgrade layers

5.5.2

Material characteristics

Soils Soils used in improved subgrade layers shall be non-expansive, nondispersive and free from any deleterious matter. Laboratory test results shall meet the requirements in Table 5.5. Dump rock Dump rock is un-graded waste rock where the content of fines is sufficiently low so that the larger particles rest against each other when placed in earthworks layers. Dump rock (DR) can be used as improved subgrade when constructed in sufficiently thick layers, if necessary constructed together with fills in one operation, so that the maximum particle size does not exceed 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness. Construction of improved subgrade made of dump rock shall be finished off by filling in the voids in the surface with subgrade soils meeting the requirements in Table 5.5. The filter criteria are given in Chapter 5.8.
Table 5.5 Material requirements for improved subgrade layers

Material standards for dump rock are presented in Table 5.5.

Formation level subgrade layers (150 +150 mm) Compacted layer thickness (max 1m)

dMAX

Roadbed or previous fill layer

Max 2/3 of compacted layer thickness

Dump rock - cross section

Modification with lime or cement is the preferred method where soils meeting the required standards are unavailable at economical haulage distances. /Chapter 7 Pavement Materials/

CBR [%], wet or moderate climatic zones 1) CBR [%], dry climatic zones 1) (both requirements shall be met) CBR-swell [%] 2) PI [%] Max particle size, dMAX Compacted layer thickness [mm]

Min 15 after 4 days soaking Min 15 at OMC Min 7 after 4 days soaking Max 1.5 Max 25 2/3 of layer thickness Max 250

Min 7 after 4 days soaking Min 7 at OMC Min 3 after 4 days soaking Max 2.0 Max 30 2/3 of layer thickness Max 250 1.9 and 1.7 1.2 and 1.3 1,7

1) Climatic zones are shown in /Figure 2.1/. CBR values shall be assesed at density as given in Table 5.3. Soaked and OMC refer to standard 4 days soaking and the optimum moisture content determined in accordance with tests CML test methods 1.9 and 1.11 2) CBR-Swell is measured at 100% BS-Heavy compaction effort.

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Comments:

5.6 Fill
Soils used in fill shall be non-expansive, non-dispersive and free from any deleterious matter. Laboratory test results shall meet the requirements in Table 5.6.
Table 5.6 Required standards for fill

Better soil qualities than G3 should be used wherever possible. Dump rock is normally a preferred type of fill material wherever available.

Material properties Mi n C BR [%]

4 days soaked value

G3 G3

(Soils )

DR DR

(D umprock)

C ML test method 1.11 1.17 -

Mi n 3

at 90% BS-Heavy

2/3 of layer thi ckness Max 1 m

C BR-swell *) Max parti cle si ze, dM A X C ompacted layer thi ckness

Max 2.0% 2/3 of layer thi ckness Max 250 mm

*) C BR-Swell i s measured at 100% BS-Heavy compacti on effort.

5.7 Roadbed Preparation

Future formation level

Depth 150mm

After clearing of all topsoil the roadbed shall be scarified to a depth of 150mm, mixed and compacted. The compaction requirements depend on the level of the roadbed in relation to the formation level. The compaction requirements are given in Table 5.7. The density requirements in Table 5.7 are minimum values and shall be increased if higher densities have been assumed in the design of improved subgrade.
Table 5.7 Required roadbed compaction

Scarify & compact

D epth below formation lev el [mm] 0 - 150 150 - 300 300 - 600 > 600
1) 2)

R equired field density [ % of MD D ] 1) 97 BS-Heavy 97 95 BS-Heavy 95 93 BS-Heavy 93 100 BS-Li ght

2)

Reference to C ML test 1.9. BS-Li ght compacti on effort i s used on poor i n-si tu soi ls and deep i n-si tu soi ls rather than BS-Heavy due to i ts better correspondence wi th the actual effect from compacti on equi pment under condi ti ons wi th poor support for compacti on

Cohesive soils are unlikely to infiltrate a coarser material where water is not present, thus making use of filter layers or geo-textiles unnecessary. Such special circumstances should be assessed carefully, taking into account potential risks of prolonged access of water into the structure, e.g. by flooding, and also the consequences of damage due to infiltration of fine soils into the coarser material.

5.8 Filter Layers

5.8.0
Large difference between the grading of materials in adjacent layers carries risk of undesirable infiltration of fines into the matrix of the coarser material, e.g. between earthworks and pavement layers. In such cases the grading of the materials shall be assessed against the filter criteria given below and construction of a filter layer shall be carried out if required. Alternatively, geo-textiles can be used where cost calculations show this option to be more economical.
Ministry of Works

General

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5.8.1

The criteria for grading of materials in adjacent layers are fulfilled when the following two requirements are met:
d15 for the filter material d85 for the subsoil and d50 for the filter material d50 for the subsoil <5

Filter criteria for soils/gravel

Comments:

< 25

5.8.2

The criteria below should be met if a filter material with better drainage properties than the subsoil is desired, such as in locations where water flows out of the subsoil. The designer should carefully consider whether a filter layer with draining properties benefits the integrity of the structure.
d15 for the filter material d15 for the subsoil >5

Draining properties of filter layers

Situations may arise whereby the filter layer causes ingress of moisture instead of draining the water out of the subsoil. This may damage the road structure,and should therefor be avoided. /Chapter 6 Problem Soils/.

and minimum 50% should be retained on the 2 mm sieve.

5.8.3

The requirements for geo-textile materials depend on site conditions and are given in /Chapter7.7.1/. Geo-textiles shall not be used as filter unless cost analysis has shown that alternative use of soils/gravel is uneconomical. Increased bearing strength of earthworks or pavement shall not be attributed to the presence of geo-textiles in the structure.

Geo-textiles as filter

5.8.4

Cost calculations shall take into account the benefits of filter layers of soils/gravel in respect of the structures bearing strength, by considering the filter layer as part of the improved subgrade or subbase depending on the material quality of the layer and its position in the structure.

Cost

Ministry of Works

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Comments:

References
5-1 5-2 AUSTROADS (1992): Pavement Design: A guide to the structural design of road pavements. Sydney, Australia. BOTSWANA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1994). Draft Volume 3, Materials and Pavement Design. Ministry of Works, Transport and Communications, Roads Department. Republic of Botswana. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH 12 (1997): Bituminous pavement rehabilitation design. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TMH 5 (1981): Sampling methods for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 8 (1987): Selection and design of hot-mix asphalt surfacings for highways. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 14 (1985): Guidelines for roads construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 4 (1997): Structural design of flexible pavements for interurban and rural roads. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD (1962). The AASHO Road Test. Report 5, Pavement Research. Highway Research Board Special Report No. 61E. National Research Council, Washington DC, USA. MINERAL RESOURCES DIVISION, TANZANIA. Summary of the geology of Tanzania. MITCHELL, R L, C P VAN DER MERWE and H K GEEL (1975). Standard Flexible Pavement Design For Rural Roads with Light to Medium Traffic. Republic of Zimbabwe. ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1987). Part III, Materials and Pavement Design for New Roads. Ministry of Transport and Comm., Roads Department. Republic of Kenya. SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of practice for pavement rehabilitation. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC. SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of Practice for the Design of Road Pavement. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1988). A guide to road project appraisal. Overseas Road Note No. 5. TRL, Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and subtropical countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL,

5-3

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5-5

5-6

5-7

5-8

5-9 5 - 10

5 - 11

5 - 12

5 - 13

5 - 14

5 - 15

Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK.

5 - 16 5 - 17

WEINERT, H H (1980). The natural road construction materials of Southern Africa. Academica, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. YODER E J, WITCZAK M W (1975). Principles of pavement design. Second edition. A Wiley-Interscience Publication, USA and Canada.

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