Journal of Planning Education and Research

http://jpe.sagepub.com What is a Master's Thesis in Planning?

Ernest Sternberg Journal of Planning Education and Research 1994; 13; 284 DOI: 10.1177/0739456X9401300405 The online version of this article can be found at: http://jpe.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/13/4/284

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Instruction

What is

Masters Thesis in

Planning?

Ernest Sternberg

THESIS

QUESTIONS
soon

Five years ago,

after

arriving as a new faculty member at the University at

Buffalo, I was asked to teach the second in the series of colloquia by which we guide

graduate students through their masters theses. The students participated in one colloquium in each of their four semesters of graduate study. The second colloquium, the one I taught, explained what a thesis was about and encouraged students to choose their topics by the end of the semester. Even though this was only a one-credit course and a small part of my teaching responsibility, I found it to be an especially anxiety-provoking assignment, possibly because at the time I was wading through the final chapters of my own dissertation.
My anxieties were borne out in the first weeks of the course as students asked very reasonable questions, which I nonetheless found difficult to answer. What is
the difference between a masters thesis and other kinds of intellectual products, such as a planning report? What are good models or examples of theses? What are the appropriate kinds of &dquo;theses&dquo; or propositions that a thesis can defend? What kinds of research should be done? Does the thesis have to make an original point? My purpose in this article is to share the answers I have hesitantly fashioned during the past five years. My effort draws on my own experience as a writer and supervisor of theses, and little on published literature. An attempt to find published work on this subject turns up useful information on the requirements and accomplishments of masters programs and some insight into dissertations, but almost nothing about the nature of masters theses. Therefore, the ideas expressed here are home-grown and tentative. I can improve on them only if colleagues (including former planning students) respond with their own views of what constitutes a thesis. As if the task of defining the thesis were not difficult enough, it is compounded by the very ways in which graduate faculties generally supervise thesis work. Students are advised by any two or three members of a diverse faculty, each of whom may well have different conceptions of a thesis. Moreover, in a program closely linked with architecture, several faculty members are likely to be influenced by the intellectual debates surrounding ideas of postmodernity and deconstruction, so they may harbor, or express, misgivings about traditional notions of a thesis, even as they supervise theses. Somehow a description of what a thesis is would have to be broad enough to encompass, or answer to, the rather divergent ideas that faculty members hold about it.

ABSTRACT
The author attempts to answer the question in the title by drawing on his experience in teaching a thesis colloquium, part of a series of courses at the University at Buffalo that prepares graduate planning students for work on their theses. In search of a definition the author compares the rhetorical features of the traditional thesis to those of other kinds of culminating masters degree exercises, namely the essay, project, and evocative presentation. He then suggests that scholarly articles written for professional audiences can serve as good models for the traditional thesis. This paper presents a list of questions for guiding the critical reading of these model articles.

Ernest Sternberg is Associate Professor of Plannzng at State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14214-3087 USA

Journal of Planning Education and Research 13:284-289.

~ 1994 Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning

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285
o

THESES AND OTHER THINGS

Especially in a field like ours, where the disciplinary tradition includes great visionary planners, students should also be allowed to present their ideas through more speculative or imaginative modes of reasoning. For example, another student working on her final masters exercise believes that

I have found that to be able to make sensible comments about what a thesis is, I have to distinguish what I take to be a formal thesis from other kinds of culminating masters exercises. I can now express my thinking about this through a two-by-two table (Table 1).~ Even though I am setting out to discuss only the thesis in some depth, I can best do so by contrasting it with these alternative kinds of intellectual

the

nature

spread of homelessness, the increasingly contractual of family life, and the proliferation of broken families

products.
As I understand it, the formal thesis offers and defends a proposition. It also claims a general significance and enduring value to an informed audience: planning practitio-

clear

ners, scholars studying planning, segments of the public who take an active interest in planning issues, or some combination of these audiences. As I have come to see it, these two characteristics-mode of reasoning and type of audience-distinguish the formal thesis from other kinds of

culminating exercises.
The formal thesis is only one way by which students can synthesize ideas and demonstrate competence as they complete their masters program. Let me illustrate the alternatives through four hypothetical students who investigate the profoundly troubling phenomenon of homelessness. As he completes his thesis, one student comes to the realization that those people we conventionally call homeless comprise persons having various kinds of traits: they do or do not have families, problems of substance abuse, histories of mental illness, and other characteristics. After reviewing writings on this subject and presenting a series of narratives of interviews conducted with homeless persons, he proposes a classification of the homeless into several groupings. He holds that this classification will allow urban policy-makers and members of the informed public-his audience-to provide better assistance to the homeless. The outcome of his work is then a true thesis, which fits schematically into the lower left box in Table 1. To the most famous of thesisexam questions-&dquo;VUhat is the thesis of your thesis3?&dquo;-this student can respond with his particular conceptualization of homelessness.

Table 1.

Culminating exercises for the Masters degree in planning.

all throw doubt on the very survival of the home. She sets out to convey this idea through an essay about a time when residences, no matter how sumptuous, have become merely residences, and no longer provide the security of home. Her reflection on a future without homes takes the form of a written essay, but could in principle also be an audio essay, a cinematic essay, or an essay taking a graphic form. The essay has an informed public as its audience, but does not offer a formal proposition, so it fits into the upper-left box in Table 1. It is a provocative culminating exercise for a masters program, but is not a thesis. A third student chooses to exercise newly learned professional skills by directly tackling an urgent need. Working with a coalition of social-service and urban revitalization agencies in Buffalo, she collects information on the extent of the local homelessness problem, estimates the number of homeless persons who could be appropriately served through a single room occupancy (SRO) hotel, inventories buildings that could serve as SRO hotels, and works out the per-unit cost of converting a selected building into such a hotel. Taking into consideration evidence about the extent and kinds of homelessness and about available public funds and vacant buildings, the student prepares a formal report on what ought to be done. If it is to persuasively reach a policy conclusion and make a recommendation, the project must logically present evidence and organize an argument. In its reliance on formal reasoning, the project resembles the thesis, even though the structure of the argument is likely to be less conspicuous than it would be in a thesis. But the projects analysis of specific buildings and their conversion costs is relevant only to one client on the verge of a decision. The exercise falls, therefore, into the lower-right box in Table 1. It is a project, not a thesis. The fourth and final student also chooses to tackle a critical local need. But he decides that what is more urgent is not an analysis of policy options, but some means of drawing attention to and evoking interest in the homeless in Buffalo. He may present the needs of the Buffalo homeless to the local community through an audio project for the public radio station or a series written for suburban newspapers. Or again, he may prepare a visionary design in which a desolate street environment is converted to one that respects the need for a home. The exercises set out to evoke a comprehension of homelessness or a sense of alternative urban form. Fitting schematically into the upper-right box in Table 1, these exercises address a local audience through speculative modes of reasoning meant to evoke a sentiment

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286

spark the imagination, rather than to formally defend a proposition.

and
The thesis, essay, project, and evocation are alternatives for synthesizing and focusing ones masters education in a final intellectual exercise. It hardly needs to be said that the most traditional of these, the thesis, is often understood much more loosely than I have presented here. The implicit definitions of a thesis held by faculty members may encompass as many as all of the four categories, or as few as one (the lower-left box in Table 1), or somewhat less than one (a selected subtype of the formal thesis). The multiple definitions make an already formidable task, all the more so for students. A clearer sense of what a thesis is and how it compares to other kinds of masters exercises can only help. Since such clarity is my primary aim, let me head off a possible misunderstanding. I do not want to confine students intellectual products to these two-by-two cubbyholes. The four boxes each represent pure types. They are not meant to be prescriptive (i.e., they are not meant to restrict theses, projects, etc. to these bounds). Combinations of the four types are allowable and desirable. For example, consider a student setting out to write a thesis about policies toward the homeless in the cities of upstate New York. I do not suggest that we spend too much time worrying about whether his work is a thesis (directed at a professional public) or a project (directed at a few upstate officials). What is critical, rather, is that the student and the advisor should be clearly aware of the kind of intellectual commitment into which they are getting themselves. They should fashion the final masters degree exercise from an appreciation of the rhetorical options at their disposal. Note also that the two-by-two typology does not confine the medium through which the student prepares the exercise. The essay may be written, graphic, photographic, or cinematic. An exercise to evoke a community response may consist of a piece of writing to appear in local magazine ; a documentary to be presented on open-access cable television; or, in the case of an urban design project, a built model. In principle, even a formal thesis can be presented through a series of lectures instead of a written product, though the thesis lends itself least to alternative media of presentation, since the defense of a formal argument inevitably requires textual argumentation. The thesis, essay, project, and evocation differ from each other not in their medium but in their modes of reasoning and audiences. The distinctions among the four types of exercises are, then, rhetorical in the good sense of the word. As John Forester (Forester 1989, ch. 3; Fischer and Forester 1993) has told us, a planners work is as much about organizing attention through the classical arts of speech and persuasion as it is about propositional reasoning. So, a culminating masters exercise in planning could just as well seek to evoke interest in homelessness as analyze alternative budgets for an SRO hotel or develop a classification of the homeless.

say that these four kinds of exercises can each be legitimate is not to say they are equally advisable. After

But

to

considering the options, and comprehending the differences

between kinds of exercises, students and advisors should still give their first thoughts to pursuing that traditional, yet still elusive, kind of masters exercise, the thesis.

ASPIRATIONS

FOR THE

THESIS

The formal thesis in a professional program is neither academic nor more respectable nor superior to other kinds of intellectual products. Each kind can require intellectual persistence in analyzing, interpreting, creating, and writing (or drawing, photographing, or making an oral presentation). Each can provide substantial practice in the intellectual faculties that planners must exercise in their professional work. Yet for all my support, in principle, for alternative kinds of culminating exercises for our professional degree programs, I urge planning students to consider the formal thesis as their first option. My first reason reflects our facultys particular requirements in Buffalo. We require students to take two six-credit studio workshops during their two-year stint, and each involves them intensively in a focused project. A formal thesis, by contrast, offers them the opportunity, as they conclude their studies, to try their hand at making an observation of broader interest to their chosen profession and discipline. My second reason goes against planning students expectations. As a way of successfully completing ones studies, a thesis is for most students a surer bet than an essay or evocative design. A sequence of research steps is more easily spelled out, the thesis committee can more easily come to an agreement about when the exercise is complete, and the faculty member is likely to be better qualified to supervise the work. And third, as an exercise in formal reasoning, especially one that brings together an empirical experience with contending theories and ideas, the thesis is eminently educational. It is conducive to disciplined thinking and-when one recognizes how challenging it isto intellectual humility. But students want to know much more about what this formidable thing, the thesis, is all about. Most of all, they frequently ask what they can use as examples, or models, of good theses. I advise them to avoid previous students theses as models, since the mere fact of passing a degree requirement does not make the work a good model. I suggest instead that they take for their inspiration selected published articles that support interesting propositions and are published in journals directed at planners or related practitioners. I do not suggest that they look to journals directed exclusively at the academic audience. Our own Journal of the American Planning Association (JAPA) offers many fine pickings. Other journals that have one or two
more

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287

good choices in most issues are Public Administration Review and Economic Development Quarterly. One can find in these journals articles that defend a clear and understandable point through statistical, narrative, comparative, or historical research. They place the discussion in the context of recent literature. Though the authors typically have an appreciation for the values of scholarly inquiry, they address the concerns of practitioners. And the articles are often well enough written and edited to be broadly accessible and to retain the readers attention. Therefore, according to the criteria I have set out, many of the articles in JAPA qualify as theses. In the structure of the argument, in writing meant to be understood by an informed but not highly specialized audience, and yes, even in length, the best of these articles can provide the models for which masters theses can aspire. Even by their first year of graduate study, most students are still unaccustomed to reading articles critically, so I found that I have to go beyond this simple advice. They need to critically engage these articles in order to learn more intimately how their structures and styles can serve as models for theses. Therefore, I assign a few illustrative articles and require students to bring in and discuss additional articles of their choice. We then dissect each article in class, using a set of questions to guide their inquiry into the
article (see Appendix A). We begin an examination of an article by discussing the first set of questions in Appendix A: what the difference is between the general topic of a thesis and a formal proposition, and whether we can identify a clear proposition early in the article. We go on to discuss what kind of proposition the article makes and how it supports it through evidence (the second and third set of questions, but these are the most difficult so I discuss them in more detail below). We then look at how the argument is sequentially organized, how clearly and accessibly it is written, whether transitions between sections are clear, and whether tables and figures are merely illustrative or integrated into the text (the fourth and fifth set of questions). Lastly we discuss the critical point in any true thesis: whether the argument and the evidence it builds upon persuasively support the articles major proposition (the sixth set of questions). These questions taken together should give guidance not only when reading an article but also to students writing their theses.

I believe that these

as

requirements are not as burdensome,

difficult as they seem at first glance. A constraining, broader range of propositions and forms of research can be appropriate for a thesis than students generally appreciate. They and their advisers may well feel constrained, however, by what I have come to see as misconceptions about the masters thesis. They believe that a thesis must make a causal or correlative hypothesis, that it must defend a hypothesis through data collection, that the thesis must be original, and that the thesis must contribute to theoretical development in the discipline. I will deal with these misconceptions through the example of a hypothetical student interested in agriculture
or as

in

metropolitan areas. Intent on doing a thesis on this subject, she may believe that she ought to defend hypotheses of the kind she learned
about in classes on inferential statistics, such as &dquo;Farm survival in the metro area varies positively with farmers having off-the-farm employment.&dquo; Do propositions have to take this form? As anyone with experience in social research can attest, such propositions are very difficult to support. Not only are the data acquired only with painstaking difficulty, but an affirmative result depends on innumerable contingencies. Fortunately, our thesis student does not need to restrict herself to claims taking this forms. She has a much richer array at her disposal. She may devote herself simply to demonstrating an interesting fact. For example, one recent JAPA article used census data to observe that unexpectedly large amounts of agricultural production are occurring within metropolitan areas (Heimlich 1989). The key to making such a factual proposition is that it ought to be interesting-surprising, unexpected, or otherwise more significant than is generally appreciated. A student would be less well advised to assert in a thesis that large amounts of agriculture occur in rural
areas.

The student may also set out propositions that reconceptualize metropolitan agriculture. She may provide a classification of metro agriculture ranging from hobby farms to greenhouses serving suburban gardeners; or describe the kinds of marketing channels through which farmers bypass corporate purchasing networks; or describe how urban farmers markets are established and organized. As suggested by the second set of questions in Appendix A, the propositions that a thesis can make are of great breadth and variety; they need not be restricted to hypothesizing causes or

MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT THE THESIS

Some of these

correlations. Does the thesis have

science

to test a

hypothesis? Many students

guiding questions may seem particularly daunting. Making a formal proposition or claim, providing a sufficiently persuasive defense-the very mention of these requirements can strike fear in the heart of the graduate student. They rightly ask, &dquo;~Xlhat kinds of propositions are
appropriate? What kind of evidence can I use?&dquo;

believe, perhaps through undergraduate exposure to social-

disciplines that saw the natural sciences as their to undertake empirical research on something that contributes to scientific understanding. Indeed, I encourage students to conduct empirical
model, that their job is
research for their theses. I make clear, however, that in
a

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288

field like ours, empirical evidence can fill a broader range of roles than it can in epidemiology or laboratory science. Therefore, I use the word empirical in a special sense, in keeping with the words origins, to mean learning through experience with reality, and not necessarily numerical data or experimentation. Empirical research can be provocative, satisfying, and enlightening. It forces us to rub ideas and preconceptions against reality. But this rubbing can take many forms (as I imply in the third set of questions in

Appendix A). To assert persuasively that agriculture is growing at the edge of the metropolis, the student would do well to present census data or data collected by professional associations. Her persuasiveness depends on how well she presents and discusses this data: on the rhetorical strategies by which she incorporates the data into the text. To decide if farmers are managing to bypass corporate marketing networks, she would better look for alternative empirical backing, such as long conversations with farmers and produce buyers. Her works persuasiveness now depends on how well she presents
series of narratives. And to make statements about how farmers markets are organized and run, she would be more effective if she conducted case studies of the evolution of one or more markets. Now the strength of her work depends on her ability to bring together evidence from the various key informants, documents, observations, and interviews through which she has learned about the cases. The thesis, therefore, does pose students with the challenge of supporting a proposition with evidence, especially empirical evidence. But students should not feel constrained to support a hypothesis through data collection
a

propose that rural preservation practices in England are worth emulating or that a preservation practice presented in the literature 30 years ago has been unjustly neglected. Persons in England or persons of a previous generation accept the proposition; it is not original. The key is that the proposition be interesting and worthwhile to the audience being addressed. Should the thesis make a contribution to the development of the discipline? To answer the question, let us define the discipline simply as the activities and intellectual products of those who conduct scholarly research on planning. They consist mainly of those in academic institutions and research centers, but also include independent scholars and practitioners who keep a leg in scholarly activity. Certainly, a thesis writer can legitimately address the discipline. But to do so in a reasonably persuasive way, the writer has to build on the debates of the past and be well versed in the theoretical traditions of the field. If the student has the appropriate preparation, has patient guidance, and considers pursuing doctoral studies, then this might well be the avenue to follow. What is, in my mind, a serious mistake in thesis advisement is to assume that a masters thesis must address the discipline. That is a recipe for the pretentious and verbose tomes that so many graduate students crank out. In my opinion, the great advantage that our professional masters programs have over those in the arts and social sciences is that we need not make the thesis into a stunted dissertation.

quantitative analysis. The choice among kinds of empirical research should depend on the logic of the
or

COMPLETING SHORT

THE

THESIS, EVEN WHEN IT FALLS

argument hand. Students should design, conduct, and report on empirical investigation with a view to the rhetorical requirements of a persuasive argument. Should the thesis set out an original idea? Requiring a masters student to defend an original proposition would, even if he or she were inclined toward originality, impose a heavy burden on someone exposed to our field for little more than a year. And anyone involved in scholarship readily knows that the most reliable bet about any work termed original is that it isnt. Fortunately, originality-at least in the sense in which it is often taken-need not be a requirement for a masters thesis. (However, one traditional requirement for originality certainly remains in force: the work must cite sources and must not plagiarize.) In a thesis, what is essential is that the proposition be interesting and relevant to the profession or to our public. If the thesis is to be interesting it cannot simply repeat to an audience what has already been addressed to it. The thesis can, as published academic articles directed at the profession frequently do, bring to the audience information that it inadequately appreciates. The thesis student may, therefore,
at

From these five years of thinking about masters theses, I have come to a number of tentative conclusions, which I will summarize. First, students and their advisers ought to be aware of the rhetorical options through which they can shape the culminating exercises leading to a masters degree in planning. Second, even though there are several legitimate options, the traditional thesis still deserves first consideration. It provides us with a marvelous opportunity to articulate an interesting proposition to the profession, the informed public, or the discipline. Third, in journals that present scholarly work to an audience of practitioners, students and advisers can find excellent models for planning theses. To choose these as our models means setting our sights high. Authors whose works appear in these journals very likely acquired their knowledge of the subject over several years, had previous experience in writing articles, and rewrote the piece under the guidance of reviewers and editors. Matching this work is a lot to expect of students. Working mainly during their final semester, students completing a two-year professional program can rarely achieve equivalent succinctness, polish, adequacy in empirical evidence, or force of

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289

argument. Nonetheless, a significant minority of students come close enough that an extra month or two devoted to extending the empirical bases of the work, refining the logic of the argument, and condensing the writing would make the work publishable. Coming so close is already an accomplishment. But the same students have the rest of their lives to go on to, and a thesis is, after all, an intellectual exercise. Any attempts to actually publish a thesis should certainly not forestall the students graduation. My final conclusion, then, is that we should see the good journal article directed at a planning audience only as something toward which theses should aspire. The researching and writing of the thesis can be eminently worthwhile, even if most of our theses fall well short of this aspiration.
Authors Note: This article benefited from comments by Barbara Boehnke, Arthur Hui-Min Chen, John Forester, John Friedmann, and anonymous
reviewers.

APPENDIX A
FORMAL THESES:

ARTICLES AS
READER.

QUESTIONS FOR THE CRITICAL

1. The

Major Proposition

What is the arucles topic as compared to its major proposition? What is the articles major proposition, point, or thesis? Can you state it m one or a few declarative sentences? Is the major proposition given to us early, say in the first page, so we know what argument we should evaluate? Does the author explain why this proposition is significant-why we should care?
2. The Kinds of Propositions

What generic kind of proposition does the article offer? (e.g., Does it describe an mteresting and unexpected phenomenon; provide an interpretive schema for understanding; provide a classification or redefinition; set an occurrence in the theoretical light that allows us to understand it; mterpret the circumstances surrounding an event; set out the policy implications of a program or event; explain the causes of a phenomenon; evaluate a program or project?) 3. The Evidence

NOTES
familiar with present-day automated replacements for card catalogs know that it would be rather dangerous to enter the keyword thesis into a universitys bibliographic information system. Barbara Boehnke kindly helped me by devising ingenious logical steps that kept at bay the oceans of documents containing that word. Two of the finds are notable. Conrad et al. (1993) report on a broad overview of masters programs. The Council of Graduate Schools in the U.S. (1991) offers findings and recommendations on advising about dissertations in The Role and Nature of the Doctoral Dissertation. 2. A reviewer wondered whether the four kinds of exercises add up to an exhaustive list. My answer is that I am not sure and am willing to listen to proposed amendments or additions. The list does exclude the methodological exercise, which practices a methodological skill by applying it to a concrete problem. I am not sure whether it belongs here. The list also excludes the comprehensive exam, which does not qualify as one of the synthetic, culminating exercises that I wanted to discuss here. 3. To prevent confusion, I will henceforth use the term thesis to refer to the work that presents a coherent argument. I will use the word proposition to refer to the main point the thesis makes—the thesis of the thesis.
1. Those who
are

What kind of evidence is brought together m support of the proposition? If empirical research has been conducted, what was the research methodwhether one method or a combination of methods (e.g., naturalistic observation, in-depth interviewing, historical documentation, key informants, case study, comparative case study, secondary data,

inventory, or original survey research)?

4. The

Organization of the Argument

How is the argument organized? (Outline how the author structures the argument.) How do subheadmgs help (or sometimes confound) our

understanding of this organization?

Are there clear transitions between sections that remmd us why we are moving from one to another? As you read, are you aware at every point why you are reading the article? If not, where do you get lost, and why? Are there irrelevant digressions? Gratuitous and unnecessary observations?

5. Writing and Illustration

writing clear and to the point? If not, identify specific instances of jargon, excessive verbiage, pretentiousness, or ambiguity that could have been fixed. Suggest some improvements. Are tables and figures well presented in support of the argument? Are they relevant and important or merely decorative? Does the text make good use of the tables and figures?
Is the

REFERENCES

6. The Conclusion Do the conclusions logically and persuasively rest on the argument and evidence presented? Is there a concluding summary that brings together the lines of argument? Does the article achieve what it promises to m the beginnmg? Does it finally persuade you about the articles central proposition-why or why not? Does the article go on from the conclusion to suggest some important implications, extensions, or directions for further mqmry?

Conrad, C. F., J. G. Haworth, and S. B. Millar. 1993 A Silent Success: Masters Education in the United States. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns

Hopkins University Press. Council of Graduate Schools in the U.S. 1991. The Role and Nature of the Doctoral Dissertation. Washington, D.C. Fischer, F., and J. Forester, eds. 1993. The Argumentative Turn in Policy Analysis and Planning. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. Forester, J. 1989. the Face of Power. Berkeley: University of Planning in California Press. Heimlich, R. E. 1989. Metropolitan agriculture: Farming in the citys shadow. Journal of the American Planning Association 55:457-465.

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