Medieval Period

Name/Date Biography Bibliography Theology Anthrop ology Revelation Epistemology 6th Century Wanted to tran slate & reconcile Plato & Aristotle. Pneumatology Ecclesiology Christology Soteriology Eschatology Good & Evil Character

Boethius c.480-524

% Consolation of The Philosophy: book 1philosopher & Contrast between statesman. regularity with which %nicius A God governs nature & Manlius irregula rity He p ermits in Torquatus human affairs; book 2Severinus. Fortune: stuff happens% of the Last not based on reward or Romans and first punish ment. F ame is fleeting. Don t seek it. of the Adversity shows the true Scholastics. %oman R
friend; book 3- Men know true go od is happiness but take false routes (wealth, glory, nobility). Perfec t good is God

% of Theology: distinctions Task

of faith & reason. Reason to be marshaled to support faith. % is supersubstantially one God with three persons as internal relations. % Indebted to Neoplatonism (Man, by his reason, is a divine animal; the soul is fetched from heaven, & her ascent thither is a return; in his account of creation Boethius is much closer t o the Timaeus than to Scripture) & Stoicism: logical forerunner to Aquinas.

% Evidences of Xianity
in the consolation: 1] The Martyrs are clearly referred to. 2] In contrast to the Platonic view that the Divine & human cannot meet except through a tertium quid, prayer is a direct commercium between God & Man. 3] Philosophia speaks of Providence using words strongly , sweetly from Wisdom 8:1.

C % Privative theory %onsolation of evil. %od is good G despite appearances of evil: To divine power & to that alone are evil things good, when it uses them suitably so as to draw good results therefrom. written in prison at Pavia (S of Milan) before execution (they twisted ropes round his head till his eyes dropped out & finished him off with a bludgeon) for treason by Arian Italian king Theodoric whom Boethius served as advisor. [C. S. Lewis: consolation not written in prison but i n exile, thus Boethius facing ruin not imminent death.] %n Music was O used for 100's of years as Oxford textbook.

% Introduction to
categorical Syllogisms %e Trinitate D % Music On % Textbooks on quadrivium: geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, music.

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography Prefect of Rome (c.572-574); established several monasteries; papal nuncio to Constantinople (579-584), letters, homilies, and esp. the Moralia (morals from the Book of Job). Bibliography Theology Anthrop ology Revelation Epistemology Pneumatology Ecclesiology Christology Soteriology
Ransom theory of atonem ent: devil had acquired rights over fallen humanity, which God was obliged to resp ect. O nly means by w hich humanity could be rele ased from sa tanic domin ation w as thro ugh de vil exce eding lim its of his authority, thus being ob liged to forfeit rights. This was achieved by a sinless person entering the world, yet in the form of a normal sinful person. Devil w ould no t notice until it was too late: in claiming authority over this sinless person, the devil would have overs teppe d the lim its of his authority, & thus b e obliged to abandon his rights. Image of baited hook : Christ s humanity is the bait, his divinity the hook. Devil, like great seamonster, snap s at the bait and then discovers, too late, the hook. The bait tempts in order that the hook may wound . Our Lord therefore, when coming for the redemption of humanity, made a kind of hook of himself for the death of the devil. Led to medieval idea of harrowing of hell in which after dying Christ descend ed to hell and broke down its gates to free imprisoned souls. Hymn by Fulbert of Chartres, Ye Choirs of New Jerusalem expresses this theme. Also in Piers the Ploughman, one of most imp. poems of 14th centu ry

Gregory the Great

c.540-604

% Moralia The
(Morals on the Book of Job): commentary on Job that ra nges widely over doctrinal and disciplinary matters. % Pastoralis Liber Curae (Pastoral Care): describes the ideal bishop and is intended as an instruction on the practice and nature of preaching. %ialogues: D
principally a collection of legends abo ut saints f r om G r e go r y' s o w n time. A unique source of information about S t. Bene dict, it w as pa rtly responsible for the popularity of Benedictine monasticism in the Middle Ages, and its emphasis on miracles set the pattern for the medieval conception of sainthood.

% pope, restored As
monastic di scipline, enforced celibacy of clergy, and was zealous in propagating Christianity; sent Augustine as missionary to England (597) % orked with W Theodolinda, wife of Agilulf, and with Brunhilda of Merovingians to extend influence of western church % Transformed patriarchate of Rome into the pap al system that endured through the Middle Ages

% Pope
(590-604). % Fourth doctor of the church.

Eschatology Good & Evil Explicit formulation of notion of purgato ry seems to date from writings of Gregory the Great. Exposition of Mt.12:31 picks up idea of sins which can be forgiven in the age to come . Interprets this in terms of future age in which sins that have not been forgiven on earth may be forgiven subsequ ently. Made reference to purifying fire (purgatorius ignis) which became incorporated into most medieval accounts of purgatory from which term derives.

Character Sought peace with Lombards; supposed to have arranged the Gregorian chant; Canonized by popular acclaim..

9th century

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography Bibliography Theology Anthrop ology Revelation Epistemology Pneumatology Ecclesiology Christology Soteriology Presence of Christ in Eucharist is the flesh born of Mary, which had suffered on the cross and risen again, and which is miraculously multiplied by the omnipotence of God at each consecration. Eschatology Good & Evil Character

Paschasius Radbertus c.785-860

% corpore et De scholar at Corbie. sanguine Domini %bbot & A % Father of

transubstantiatio n.

%eal physical R
presence of Christ in Eucharist. Miraculous change only for believer; the medicine of immortality. %atramnus (d. R c.868) also of Corbie, and Radbertus student, wrote that bread & wine were symbols in his De corpore et sanguine Domini.

%enedictine at B
corbie mo nastery.

Gottsch alk of Orb ais c.803-c.868

German religious and theologian. Benedictine monk at Fulda and (from c.829) Orbais. (Gottescalc, Godescalc, Gode- scalchus)

caused great controversy with teachings on predestination of elect.

Developed doctrine of double predestination: logical conclusion from predestination of some to damnation is that Christ died only for elect since it is improper to speak of Christ dying in vain for the damned whose fate would be unaffected. Thus limited atonement.

% Condemned for
heresy by Synod of Mainz (848). % of Saxon Son count.

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography
Also called John the Scot. c.810-c.877. Irish-born theologian and philosopher. Invited to teach at court of Charles II the B ald near Laon (c.845); to assist Hincmar of Reims in predestination controversy wrote De predestinatione (851), later conde mned by council o f Valencia (855); translated into Latin and provided commentaries on works of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, St. Maximus the Confessor, St. Gregory of Nyssa, St. Epiphanius (860-865); ; his doctrine long influential, esp. in its mystical implications, but ultima tely condemned (Paris, 1210; Pope Honorius II, 1225) because of pantheistic leaning.

Bibliography

Theology Anthrop ology

Revelation Epistemology

John Scotus Erigena c.810-877

Irish Scholar

%n the Division of O
Nature* (862-866):
attem pt to re conc ile Neoplatonist emanationism and Christian creationism.

% *Four divisions of Nature: 1)

% R eason and revelation equal

% Translated PseudoDionysius which had a great influence on medieval thought. % Divine On Predestination**

as truth: True religion is true What creates & is not created. philosophy & true philosophy (God) 2) What creates & is is true religion. created. (idea s) 3) What is crea ted % ic Re alist: unive rsals Platon but does not create. (things in anterior to particulars. In space & time) 4) Wh at neither medieval philosophy, the term creates or is created. (God as end realism referred to a position that regarded Platonic Forms, or & purpose of all) universals, as real. That po sition is %od is essence of all things and now usu ally called Plat onic rea lism. G thus unknowable even to Himself. In Plato's philosophy, a common noun, such as bed, refers to the ideal % *Rejected orthodox notion that nature of the o bject, w hich is world is created out of nothing. conveyed by its definitio n, and t his ideal nature has metaphysical Asserted that the world of space existence independ ent of the and time is the manifestation of particular objects of that type. Thus, ideas in the mind of God and circularity exists independent of particular circles; justice, described God as the independent of particular just consummation of all individuals or just st ates; and development- pantheistic. "bedness," independent of particular beds.

Pneumatology Ecclesiology % Father as being God, seen in being of things. Son as wisdom seen in order of things. Holy Spirit as life, seen in movement of things. %reatures have no C substa ntial rea lity materia lity is illu sory. (Pantheism)

Christology Soteriology %ridge between one & B many is Logos - Savior. % **Defended the belief of Hincmar, archbishop of Reims (806?-882), that the destiny of the individual is not completely dependent upon God but that free will has some part in determining salvation. Erigena also asserted in this writing that there is no damnation as traditiona lly understood. All human beings, he believed, will become pure spirits.

Eschatology Good & Evil % Paradise not a place; spiritualized as perfect human nature. % is loss of Sin divine pattern. Evil privation of good. % devils will Even be saved at the last.

Character

% Escaped
punishment from condemning councils because Charles the Bald, king of France, supported him. %harles the Bald: C What separates a Scot from a sot? John: Only the dinner table.

% reason & revelation * If conflict, reason preferred. Insisted that reason does not need the sanction of authority; rather , reas on itse lf is the ba sis of authority. % sis alleg orical. Gene
11th century Reputation as a staunch ly independent thinker, excelling in logic, medicine, and poetry as well as in theology. Excommunicated (c.1050) by Pope Leo II for supporting doctrine of transignifi cation (argu ed that the body and blood of Christ are symbolically but not physically present in the consecrated bread and wine) against transubstantiation. Imprisoned by Henry I at Paris (1050); condemned by synod at Paris (1051); forced to sign orthodox statement (1054) but later recanted; examined by councils at Rome (1059), Poitiers (1076), synods of Rome (1078, 1079); tried at Bordeaux (1080); silent thereafter in monastery.

Berengar of Tours 999-1088 % French

theologian. %anon of Tours C and head of School of Saint-Martin (1029). %rchdeacon of A Angers (c.1040).

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography
Born in Aosta, Italy. Entered Benedictine abbey of Bec (1060); elected abbot of Caen (1063), of Bec (1078). W rote treatises Monologion on attributes of God and Proslogion on ontological argument for existence of God. Appointed archbishop of Canterbury by William II Rufus (1093); embroiled with William Rufus over his refusal to accept episcopal pall from king and with Henry I over his refusal to consecrate prelates invested by king; suffered exile by each in turn; reconciled w ith Henry through comprom ise (1107). During exile wro te treatise on the atonement, Cur Deus Homo? Canonized (1063 ? ) and declared doctor of the church (1720).

Bibliography

Theology Anthrop ology

Revelation Epistemology

Pneumatology Ecclesiology

Christology Soteriology

Eschatology Good & Evil

Character

Anselm of Canterbury 1033-1109 %rchbishop of A

Canterb ury. % Founder of Scholasticism.

% Deus homo** Cur

(Why God Became Man) % Monologion (Soliloquy, 1077) % Proslogion* (Discourse, 1079) % veritate De

% *Ontological argument :
existence of idea of God (that than which no greater can be thought) necessarily impli es objective existence of God. % Reason and Fai th in balan ce. Scholastic theology would seek proper balance between faith & reason on one hand & nature & grace on the other until the Reformation. %ll human beings sinned in and A with Adam. % *Impassibility: God compassionate in terms of our experience, but not in terms of the divine being itself. Language of love and compassion treated as purely figurative in relation to God. We may experience compassion; this does not mean God is compassiona te.

% *Credo, ut intelligam ( I believe in order that I might understand ) conscious echo of Augustine s crede, ut intelligas ( Believe, in order that you may understand ), & fides quaerens intellectum ( faith seeking understanding ). Christian faith should be open to rational reflection. % Theology begins with faith & proceeds through understanding toward vision. Anselm good example of a theologian who used the method of rigorous logical argument.
In his Proslogion, Anse lm sought to prove the existence of Go d from t he co ncep t of a perfec t being a nd in Cur Deus H o m o he argued that, given the existence both of a benevolent God and of the sinfulness of humanity, the Christian doctrines of incarnation and atonement may be deduced by logical necessity.

% **Satisfaction theory of
Atonement. Rejec ted Ransom theory. Since finite man co uld never make satisfaction to the infinite God, no one but one who is God-man can make the satisfaction by which man is saved.

%uarreled with Q
father as a youth. % Studied un der Lanfranc (c.10051089). %enedictine B Monk & Abbott in Bec, Norm andy. %dvice: Have A you tried not beating them ?

12th century

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography Born in B rittan y; joined at an early age the canons of St. Augustine at the monastery of Hamersleven. About 1115, he went to Paris and entered the Augustinian monastery of St. Victor. In 1133 he became head of the monastery school, where he remained until his death on Feb. 11, 1141. French philosopher & theologian. I understand so that I might believe. Bibliography Theology Anthrop ology Influenced by St. Augustine's teachings, Hugh arrived at a three-stage division of the contemplative life: (1) cogitatio, or though t, by whic h we recognize God in nature; (2) meditatio, or meditation, by which we see God in ourselves; and (3) contemplatio, or contemplati on, by which we see God as if face to fac e. Revelation Epistemology Proposed a classification of knowledge, consisting of theoretical science (includ ing theo logy, mathematics, physics, and music), practical science (ethics), mechanical science (the mechanical arts), and the science of discourse (rhetoric and dialectic). Pneumatology Ecclesiology Christology Soteriology
Not every sign of a sacred thing can properly be called a sacra ment (fo r the lett ers in sacred writings, or statues and pictures, are all signs of sacred things, but cannot be called sacraments for that reason)....Anyone wanting a fuller and better definition of a sacrament can define it as follows: a sacrament is a physical or material element set before the external senses, representing by likeness, signifying by its institution, and containing by sanctification, some invisible and spiritual grace.

Eschatology Good & Evil

Character

Hugh of Saint Victor 1096-1141 % French

philosopher and theologian. % Founded a school of mysticism that made the monastery of Saint Victor in Paris one of the great medieval centers of learning.

%idascalion: a D
compendium of knowledge. % Summa Sententiarum: a manual of philosophy and theology.

% Descended from
the royal family of Blankenburg in Saxony

Peter Abelard 1079-1142

% of My Story
Misfortune % et Non* Sic %ommentary on C Romans % Theologica Christiana % Ethics % Introduction to Theology % Theologia Summi Boni- sought to show how doctrine of Trinity might be understood by way of analogies provid ed by human reason .

D % that man is actually free to %ialectic sole road to Held choose between good and evil. Sin, for him, consisted in the consenting to do an evil act which is recognized by the individual as evil. If one does wrong, but intends to do right, he is not a sinner. But if he knows that an act is wrong and persists in doing it, he is sinning. The choice of act is a matter of the free will of man. He can actually decide on the basis of his knowledge and can act in terms of his decision. Without choice sin could not exist. truth apart from Scripture. Nothing outside the Scriptures is infallible. %ominalistic, but N resemblances give rise to universals - conceptualism: universals as concepts in the mind having an objective realit y derived from process of mental abstraction. Thus God not a universal nor particulars the only rea lity. % *Role of faith & reason: Logic the chief Christian science- Logos. Showed that merely quoting authorities insufficient. Listed 158 theological proposition s and cited authorities affirming and denying each one. Students must ap ply their o wn intellectual skills. Reason must play as large a role as revelation and tradition in determining truth. Scholastic pioneer.

%oral example (of love) M

theory of atonement. God forgave sins as an unqualified act before C hrist came. In contrast to Anselm, declared that God is love and had voluntarily assumed the burden of suffering brought on by human sin. This act of God s grace- taken freely and without any demand for compensation for sin- a wak ens in p eople gratitude and love for G od. In Jesus Christ, the God-man, individuals see what they should be; by c ontrast are broug ht to a r ealiza tion of th eir sin; and by God s love as seen in Jesus, are won to a response which releases new springs of love, resulting in right conduct. In this fashion, the forgiven sinner becomes a truly new creation.

% Castrated by
Heloise uncle, Fulbert. %ondemned at C council of Soissons (1121) for unorthodox book on Tr inity, and again at council of Sens (1141) at insistence of Bernard. % named Son Astrolabe, by Heloise.

% Christ God is not man but In

has humanity. (Christological nihilianism: view holding that Jesus Christ in his human nature was nothing and that his essential being contained his Godhe ad alone.)

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography Bibliography Theology Anthrop ology Revelation Epistemology Pneumatology Ecclesiology Advocated a kind of militan t Christ ianity, but was upset by the Pope s use of military to protect lands, saying the Pope s domain was spiritual. Christology Soteriology Eschatology Good & Evil Character

Bernard of Clairvaux 1090-1153

% onastic M
reformer, mystic, theologian. %istercian C monk & abbot of Clairvaux.

% Twelve Steps to
Humility % of Praise of Book the New chivalry %n Loving God O

% Shifted emphasis from God s

judgement to Hi s infinite love & mercy: hope of redemption for worst sinner. %eep devotion to Mother of God D spawning cult of the Virgin in the West.

%sed allegory in U
interpretin g Scripture. %ostile toward H rationalism & a dvocated contemplation and mystical experien ce. Launched evangelistic mission to university students in Paris to limit heresy.

%ystical concord of M
divine and human wills, yet no confusing of God & man in Christ. % Mystical Christocentric union: the Word as spouse of the soul. % otto: To Know Jesus M and Jesus crucified.

% Prepared the rule

of order for the Knights Templars. % of a knight Son in the first crusade. % rote hymns: W Jesus the Very Thought of Thee, O Sacred Head Now Wounded. % Preached the second crusa de & lost influence, was disappointed at its failure. %elped elect H pope s Inno cent II and E ugen ius III. % 180 commentaries on the Sentences in England alone up to 17th century. % Fourth Lateran council (1215) declared him orthodox.

Peter Lombard c.1095-1169

The Master of the Sentences (Magister Sententarium) % Italian theologian & bishop of Paris.

Four Books of Sentences (Libri quatuor sententiarum): became the major theological textbook of later Middle Ages.

% Sentences basica lly a

compilation with numerous citations to church Fathers, esp. Augustine & contemporaries like Peter Abelard. Book I: God - sovereignty in history & cause of good in elect. Book II: creation - sinful nature of man and need for divine grace. Book III: Incarnation, redemption through death of Christ. Book IV: Sacramen ts & escha tology.

First to number sacraments, which not merely visible signs of invisible grace but also the ca use o f the gra ce it signifies. The New Testament affirms one mystery-God's plan for redee ming the world through Christ. Lom bard summarized a growing consensus that there should be just seven: baptism, confirmation, eucharist, penance, extreme unction (anointing of the Sick ), Holy Orders, and marriage . These were, in fact, what the church found ne cessary for the regular, adeq uate liturgical celebration of the Christian myste ry. A series of conciliar decisions in the 13 th century made the number seven official.

Criticized for too much agreement with Abelard on Christ ology.

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography Trained in medicine; became chief qadi (religious judge) in native cordoba; succeeded Ibn Tufayl as physician to caliph AbuYusuf (1184-95); banished briefly (1195). Bibliography Author of treatise Kulliyat (General Medicine, c.1169); philosophical works Fasl (c.1179, on religious law and philosophy), Manahij (c.1179, on logic and religion), Tahafut at-tahafut (c.1180); and esp. commentaries on Aristotle and on Plato' s Republic. Theology Anthrop ology Revelation Epistemology Pneumatology Ecclesiology Christology Soteriology Eschatology Good & Evil Character

Averros 1126-1198 % Islamic philosopher.

% principal interpreter of A
Aristotle, influencing later Jewish and Christ ian writers, an d chief reconciler of Islamic a nd Greek thought. %ejected the concept of a R creation of the world in the history of time; the world, he maintained, has no beginni ng. God is the "prime mover," the self-moved force tha t stimulates all motion, who transforms the potential into the actual. % individual human soul The emanates from the one universal soul. %verroes's extensive A commentaries on the works of Aristotle were translated into Latin and Hebrew and greatly influenced the Scholastic school of philosophy in medieval Europe and medieval Jewish philosophy.

%verroes held that A

metaphysical truths can be expressed in two ways: through philosophy, as represent ed by the vi ews of Aristotle, and through religion, which is truth presented in a form that the ordinary person can understand. Although Averroes did not actually propound the existence of two kinds of truth, philosophical and religious, his views were interpreted in that way by Christian thinkers, who called it the theory of "double truth." % Knowledge is the conformity of the object and the intellect.

% name: Full
Abual-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Rushd.

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography Bibliography Theology Anthrop ology Revelation Epistemology Pneumatology Ecclesiology Christology Soteriology Eschatology Good & Evil Character

Peter Waldo (Valds) fl. c.1170 d. between 1205 & 1218

% French
Reformer: wealthy merchant in Lyon. % endicant M preacher: Gave all his goods to poor & founded Poor Men of Lyon, later to become kn own as the Waldenses. % Flourish as chiesa Evangelica Valdese to this day.

% Began a crusade for 1170:

observance of law of Christ: Evangelistic effort rejecting all other endeavors, thus recommend ing mend icancy, celibacy, anti-clericalism. % aldensians at times called nudi W nudum christum sequentes (the naked ones who follow a naked Christ) beca use they had str ipped themselves of worldly possessions in imitation of Christ.

% aldenses insisted on W
right & duty of preaching. % aldo used a vernacular W French trans. of Scripture thus eschewing Vulgate and setting movement apart from others e.g. Francis Assisi. %ible as supreme B authori ty.

%ttacked immorality A
of clergy (Donatist): Excommunicated from catholic church (1184) & organized apart from church, appoin ting th eir own ministers. %iew of church: V strong perfectionist & antisacerdotal tendency. Priests were known as perfecti, untainted by sin, & thus able to hear confession & grant absolution. Tied efficacy of sacraments to moral quality of priest (Donatism). Believed Roman church had lost spiritual authority when Pope Sylvester I received a gift of property & worldly power from Emperor Constantine in 4th cent.

% Rejected some
sacraments, but practi ced baptism & Eucharist; refused to venerate saints or pray for the dead & purged worship of many rituals common in RCC: saint s days, feast days, relics, pilgrimages, indulgences. % Similar to Cathari in dividing members into perfect & believers, but rejected dualism and had wanted to reform church not leave it.

%ejected R
purgato ry. %ejected death R penalty. %ejected R violence. %eld H possessions in common.

% Heavy
persecution fo rced Waldenses into remote mountain areas of France & Italy in the 13th & 14th centuries. Many united with Hussites and other pre-Reformation groups in the 15th century. Later many merged with Reformed church at the Reformation. % Waldo was named Peter later to show his continuity with the apostle.

13th century

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography
Entered Franciscan order (124 3); professor of theolo gy, Pa ris (1253-57); minister general of Franciscans (1257-74); named cardinal bishop of Albano by G regory X (1273 ). Renowned for piety, wisd om; effe ctively revitalized Franciscan ord er. canonized by Sixtus IV (1482); declared doctor of the church by Sixtus V (1 587).

Bibliography

Theology Anthrop ology %ne theme of his theology is the O

journey or rather ascent, of the human soul toward God . In this pilgrimage there are three stages. First, since God has left h is footp rints in the visible world, which he called into being, reason can argue from effects to cause and deduce the existence and power of the Creator from his earthly creation. Since man is made in God s image, the second sta ge in this journey is to turn to the inner world o f man s soul, with its pow ers of m emory , intellec t, and w ill. This will deepen and enhance the sense of God s being and unity. The doctrine o f th e T ri n it y , h o w e ve r , c a n be k n ow n only by supernatural revelation, which disclo ses th at Go d the F ather, who is infinitely good and ever active, gives rise to two processions, one of the Son and the other of the HS. The third and final stage of the ascent to God goes beyond reason. It is the mystical contemplation of the ineffable joys of the divin e pres ence , and is the pu re gift of the HS.

Revelation Epistemology % his contemporary, L ike

Thomas A quinas, wo rked to integrate Aristotelian insights into the Augustinian tradition. Bonaventure accepted much of Aristo tle's scie ntific philosophy, but he rejected wh at h e kn ew of A rist otle 's metaphysics as insufficient because Aristotle was not guided by the light of Christian faith. The doctrine of the illumination of the human mind (the soul) by the divine-a means of identifying truth or falsity of judgment-he took from St. Augustine.

Bonaventure c.1217-1274 % Italian

scholastic philosopher. %rig. name O Giovanni. % called "the Seraphic Doctor."

% Breviloquium: the
commentary on Scripture % Journey of the Mind to God (1259): concerned with the way in which the soul recognizes and unites with God % of St. Francis Life of Assisi

Pneumatology Ecclesiology Noted for his learning and good judgment, Bonaventure was elected minist er general (superior) of the Franciscans in 1257, at a time when the order was divi ded over how strictly it could, as an order, observe St. Francis's commitment to poverty. He healed the division and thus came to be regarded as the order's second founder.

Christology Soteriology In the Old Law, there were ointments of a kind, but they were figurative and did not heal. The disease was lethal, but the anointings were superficial...Genuinely healing ointments must bring both spiritual anointing and a life-giving power; it was only Christ our Lord who did this, since...through his death, the sacraments have the power to bring to life.

Eschatology Good & Evil

Character

% Concerned with implications of

neglecting practical side of theology.

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography Bibliography Theology Anthrop ology % God essence & existence are one. In
He is Being. Everything else has being. God & a ll creation linked together in a great chain of being. Distinction betw een e ssenc e & e xistenc e in all finite beings % Analogical language about God: Divine self-revelation makes use of images and ideas which tie in with our world of everyday existence -- yet which do not reduce God to that everyday world. The fact that God created the world points to a fundamental analogy of being (analogia e ntis) between Go d and the world, a continuity between God and the world because of the expression of the being of God in the being of the world. Thus it is legitimate to use entities within the created order as analogies for God. This does not reduce God to the level of a created object or being; it merely affirms that there is a likeness or correspondence between God and that being, which allows the latter to a ct as a signpos t to God. A created entity can be like God, without being identical to God. Aquinas argues that God as our father should be und erstoo d to me an Go d is like a human father in some ways and in others he is not. There are genuine points of similarity. God cares for us, as human fathers care for their children. God is the ultimate source of our existence, just as our fathers brought us into being. God exercises autho rity over us, as do human fathers. Equally, there are genuine points of dissimilarity. God is not a human being, for example. Nor does the necessity of a hum an mother po int to the need for a d ivine mother. % Separation o f will (moral likeness to God) & intellect (image of God), thus Fall did not effect reason. % Divided theology into three major categories: Go d, Man , Christ.

Revelation Epistemology % Combined

Aristotle&Christianity: Outstanding figure of Scholastic philosophy; integrated scientific rationalism and na turalism of Arist otle with Christian revelation and faith; supplanted Averroes as principal interpreter of Aristotle. Philosophy establishes what theology assumes: existence of God & immortality of soul. % Dichotomy (each has its proper sphere), yet essential harmony (bo th bear witnes s to the oneness of God, unity of truth, & fact that grace does not destroy nature but perfects it), between Re ason & Re velation. By reason alone one can know that God is, ab ut not what God is. Revelation supplies the what. % Philosophy: based on reason & religiously neutral based on universal truths of nature, & theolo gy com es from faith in divine revelation, yet bo th come from God, thus reason can support faith. %aith: intellectualist approach F treating it as something midway between knowledge (scientia) and opinion. Scientia, for Aquinas, has sense of s omething w hich is selfevidently true or can be derived from such, thu s truth co mpels assent from the hum intellect. Faith an accepts as t rue the art icles of the Christian fa ith. Objec t of faith is propositions about God or Christian faith in general. To have faith is to accept the articles of faith as true even thought they cannot be demonstrated to be so beyond doubt. Contents o f Christian faith can be shown to be consistent with reason however as in 5 wa ys, but faith a response t o divine revelation ( right knowledge of God)- beyond human reason. %ll kno wled ge be gins in A experience but born with a priori i n na t e ca p a ci ty t o k n o w . Certa inty abo ut reality is poss ible by m eans o f selfevident first principles: 1identity-being is being, 2-

Pneumatology Ecclesiology % rtality of s oul is Immo

prove n in that th e sou l is intellectual & desires eternal life as its final cause. % n is hylom orphic Ma (hylomorphism: from Aristotle, scholastic view that all physical beings are constituted by matter [Gr. hyl ] and form [Gr. morph ] which to gether define a single entity; way of under standing RC sacraments) unity of soul and body. Adam directly created by God in beginning, God directly creates each new soul in womb of mother. Des pite unity of sou l & body not identity between them; soul survives d eath and awa its reunion with body at resurrection. God alone is pure act(uality) without form. An gels are completely actualized potentialities (pure forms), and man is a composition of form (soul) and matter (body) with progressive actualization. % created universe ex God nihilo not in time, o nly eternity existed before, but with the world there was the creation of t im e . N o time before time began.

Christology Soteriology
Two types of grace: 1] Actual grace (gratia gra tis data, grace which is freely given ): series of divine actions or influences on human nature. 2] Ha bitual gr ace: ( gratia gratis faciens, grace which make s plea sing ): creat ed ha bit (something perm anent, supernatural change) of grace within h uman s oul. Th is is basis of justification- the permanent alteration of soul allowing to be ac ceptable to God . A sub stanc e or qu ality in man from God rather than simply God s attitude of grace as for the Reformers. Also Sanctifying grace.

Thomas Aquinas 1226-1274

Entered Dominican or der (1243 or 1244); studied un der Albertus % Italian RCC Magnus; taught theologian; at cologne Greatest (1248-52), Paris philosopher & (1252-59, theologian of 1269-72); medieval church, theological between adviser and Augustine & lecturer to papal Luther. curia (1259-68); % Prince of director of Scholastics . Dominican studies at U. of Naples (1272-74).

% Summa Theologica % Summa contra

Gentiles %ompendium of C Theology %atural theology: The N
world mirrors G od, as its creator -the analogy of being. God has stamped a divine signature on creation. 5 ways arguing from universal truths about nature to nature s cause & creator, Go d1) motion: first unmoved mover; 2) causation: first efficient cause; 3) contingency: necessary being; 4) degree: perfect good Being c auses values in humanity; 5) Design: intelligent purposeDesigner. First three cosmologica l, fourth moral, and last teleolo gical. A quinas did not think it worth demonstrating that the god whose existence he had proved was the god of the Christians : after all, what other god was there? In Mid dle Ages to prove the existence of God wa s, by definition, to prove the existence of the Christian God. Some philosophers suggest that Aquinas w as out to prove the existence of God. Clearly not the case : Summa Theologica is more than 4000 pages long; the discussion of whether God exists o c c up i es j us t ov e r t w o pages. The phrase proofs of God s existe nce is not fo und in A q u in a s o w n discussion. Late r writers have im pose d it upo n his thought. Aquinas

Eschatology Good & Evil %a t ur a l l a w : N

univers al, unchanging moral obligations derived from natural ends or final causes which are from God. % first Four principles of actions called laws : Eternal law is the plan by which God gove rns creation. Natural law is participation of rational creatures i n et e rn a l l a w . Human law is particular application of natural law to a local community. Divine law is the revelation of God s law through Scripture and church. Two classes of virtue s: natural prudence, justice, courage, temperance- part of n a tu r al la w ; supernatural- faith, hope, and love.

Character % & silent, called Fat

dumb ox but also called angelic doctor for devotion&learning. % Father was count of Aquino of German nobility. % Kidnaped by brothers at mo ther s urging and spent year at home ca stle to persuade h im not to be a m onk. L egend : a girl was brought to his room to entice and he chased her out with flaming brand from the hearth & burned the sign of the cross on do or. % Thomas published writings fill 10,000 doub le-colu mn folio pages.

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography
Swa bian o f noble birth; entered Dominican order (122 3); tau ght in various German scho ols, at P aris (1245-48), and at Cologne (1248-54, 1257-59), where Provincial of Dom inicans in Germany (1254-57 ); bishop of Regensb urg (1260-62); papal legate for Urba n IV (1263-64). Retired and s pent re st of life (mostly at cologne) in scholarly and scientific pursuits. Born in Duns; Joined Franciscan order; studied at Oxford and Paris; ordained priest (1291); exiled from Paris (1303-04) for support of Pope Boniface V III agains t King P hilip IV; m aster in theology, U. of Paris (1305 ); professor at Cologne (1 307-08).

Bibliography % Summa theologiae

(incomplete) % natu ra boni, De Physica

Theology Anthrop ology % Attempted to unite theology and

Aristotelianism. % Succeeded in establishing place for natural science in system of Christian studies.

Revelation Epistemology
Knowledge of philosophy & science should be pursued but knowledge in ultimate sense cannot contradict divine revelation. Observed nature as well as reading books- unique in his time.

Pneumatology Ecclesiology

Christology Soteriology

Eschatology Good & Evil

Character % Thomas Aquinas

was his pup il. % Thomas With Aquinas and Bonaventure made notable defense of mendicant friars at Paris (1256 ). % c o gn i ze d in o w n Re lifetime as greatest scholar of the da y.

Albertus Magnus 1200-1280

%erm an sch olastic G philosopher, theologian, and scientist. % name: Real Albert, Graf von Bollstaedt. % Called Albert of cologne, Albert the Great and Doctor Universalis

John Duns Scotus 1266-1308

% S cottish
Franciscan scho lastic theologian. % Founder of Scotis m sch olastic scho ol: upheld the separability and independence of t he rational sou l from the body, provoking a long controversy between Sco tists and Thomists; argued that faith, upon which theology rests, is not speculative but an act of will; a conceptualist in logic, held that matter , basis of a ll existence s, has so me positive entity of its own.

% Commentaries on the
Sentences % Quodlibetic Questions % Questions on Metaphysics % the Fir st Principle On

% acts neither out of logical God

necessity nor o ut of the inner necess ity of his own nature. If God does not act nece ssarily, then o ne ca nnot log ically prove his necessity. God acts as he freely chooses. % asize d love of Go d to ex plain Emph creation, grace, the incarnation, & heaven. % that universals as such do not exist Held apart from the human mind, but that each separate or "singular" thing possesses a formally dist inct nat ure tha t it shar es in common with other things of the sam kind. e This fact, he t aught, pr ovides the o bjective basis of our knowledge of essential truths. Following the Franciscan tradition established by the Italian theologian St. Bonaventure, Duns Scot us stressed human freedom and t he primacy of human will and acts of love over the intellect. He avoided an arbitrary or voluntarist view of God's act s, although he pointed out that the actual existence of things depends on a fr ee decision made by Go d, and he argued that moral obligations depend on God's w ill. That w ill, he taug ht, is abs olutely free and not s haped or de termined by particular motives. God commands an action not, as Aquinas asserts, because he sees it to be good; he makes it good by commanding it.

% Christian truths must be Basic accepted by faith not proofs. This helped drive a wedge between faith & reason and began decline of scholasticism. % a m atter o f the w ill Faith rather than a process based on logical proofs. % Closely analyzed the concepts of causality and possibility in an attempt to set up a rigorous proof for the existence of God, the prim ary and infinite being. He held, however, t hat in order to know t he trut h in all its fullness and to fulfill one's eternal destiny, a person m ust not only make use of the i sights n afforded by natural knowledge or philosophy but must also be taught by divine revelation. Revelation supplements and perfects natural knowledge, a nd, in conseque nce, no contradiction can exist between them. For Duns Scotus, theology and philosophy wer e distinct and separate disciplines; they were, however, complementary, because theology uses philosophy as a tool.

%niqueness & U
importance of individuals. God creat ed ind ividuals intentionally, not merely a universal human na ture that heredity & environment have particularized.

% Christ

s incar nation w ould have occurred even w ithout the Fall bec ause G od w illed Him to be example of a life of dynamic, creative love. % of God as b eginning and Son end of all creation. % Zealous defender of the doctrine of the Imm aculate Concep tion. (Mary at the very moment of her being conceived, re ceived immunity from all stain of original sin, due to the merits of Jesus Christ the Savior of humanity. )

% Advocated
doctrine of immaculate conception, decla red div inely revealed & official catholic dogma by Pope Pius IX in 1854.

% Called

the Su btle Doctor . % Ridiculed as obscure by Protestant Reformers, thus duns used as an epithet - dunce.

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography %erman mystic, G
pastor, theologian. % Johannes E ckhart Von Hochheim. % general of Vicar Bohemia. % Dominican.

Bibliography % Sermons % Quaestiones

Parisienses

Theology Anthrop ology % Nature of God unknowable &

unknown even to itself: divine knowledge must be unrestricted knowledge suitable to its transcendent subject. % Influenced by Thomism & Neoplatonism. % Intellection is the foundation of God s being. He is b ecau se He is understanding, thus perfect in unity.

Revelation Epistemology % divine knowledge one For

must be detached in thought and see all reality as from within Godhead, from standpoint of divine subjectivity.

Pneumatology Ecclesiology
Every person possesses a nonintellectual knowledge of God (divine spark, Fncklein der Seele ) in his soul, making possible, by renouncing individuality, communion with God a nd participation with divine nature.

Christology Soteriology
Christ as focal point of mankind & Redee mer.

Eschatology Good & Evil

To create the state of mind required for the mystical union with God, a person had to withdraw from sin. The person also h ad to conquer time and human nature.

Character % Popular prea cher,

many sermons given in convents of nuns. % Played important part in shaping German language: wrot e & p reach ed in vernacular instead of Latin. % 1329, Pope Jo hn In XXII condemned as heresy 28 ideas from Eckhart's writings.

Meister Eckhart c.1260-1327

14 th century

William o f Ockham c.1280-1349

% E nglish scho lastic theologian & philosopher. % Franciscan. % Known as Doctor Invincibilis (Lat., uncon quera ble doctor ) and Vene rabilis Inceptor (Lat., worthy initiator ).

Joined Franciscans; pupil, later rival, of Duns Scotus. To Avignon, France (1324). In Franciscan controversy defended evangelical pove rty against Pope John XXII, esp. in Opus nonagin ta dierum (c.1330); excommunicated and fled (1328 ) to Italy and later (1330) to Munich, where he spent rest of life.

% Dialogues* % Summa Logicae % Sac ramen to Altaris De % Philosophical Writings

%efense of voluntarism, giving priority to D the divine will over the divine intellect. % enied synthesis of Aristotle & Christianity D of Thomi m, contributing to disi tegration of s n Scholast icism. %heolo gical dog ma not r ationally T demonstrable - must be accepted on authorit y of church. %od above all kno wledge & can t be G apprehended by reason, only by faith through revelation & intimate personal experience. %ractically closed the Scholastic controversy P over universals wit h his Nominalistic doctr ine that the real is always individual not , universal, that universals have no real existence but a re only abstrac t terms, and the corollary tha t "entities must not be unnecessarily multiplied"(ca lled Ockham' s Razor) , thus p reparing the way fo r Francis Bacon' s philosophy. % Almighty doe s not mea n that G od is presently able to do everything. He was once free to act in this way. God confronted wi h t whole array of p ossibilities-such as cr eating the world, or not cr eating it. This is t he absolute power of God (potentia absoluta). Now He has established an order of things which reflects a loving a nd righteou s divine will-that order wi l remain until the end of l time. God s power is restricted by virtue of God s own decision. By choosing to actualize some options, God has chose to reject something else. Onc e God chose to creat e the world, the op tion of not creating it is closed. This is the ordained power of God (potentia ordinata). Thes e are t wo differe nt moment s in the great history of salvation and our concern is with the ordaine d power of God, the way in which God orders the creation at present. Thus, if God is re ally capable of doing anything, then God must be able to beomce committed to a course of action-& stay committed.

%ible alone infallible source B

of authority; pope not infallible; g enera l counc il highest authority. % Nominalist - real is always individua l, not univ ersal. Universals are abstractions of the mind observing particular things & have no real existence outside the mind. The via moderna owe s con sidera ble debt to O ckham. % Ockham s Razor: Aristotelian principle that "entities must not be mu ltiplied b eyond what is necessary." In philosophy, a problem sho uld be stated in its basic and simplest terms eliminating unnecessa ry hypot heses (like univ ersals in Ockham s opinion). In science, the simplest theory that fits the facts of a problem is the one that should be selected. Referred to as the principle of parsimony .

% *Papacy &

empire both founded by God, neither superior to the other; each had its own sphe re. Th is was foundation for modern theory of indep ende nce o f civil rule from the church. W ith Michael of Cesena, general of the Franciscan order, joined side of Empe ror Lo uis of B avaria in contesting temporal power of the pope.

% his Used

razor to eliminate Aquinas idea of habitual grace claiming the intermediate supernatural entity was unnecessary since God can work directly , witho ut this infused change in m an, to confer his favor and accept the sinner. This opened the way for the more personalist approach of the Reformation.

% Greatly influenced
John Wycliffe & Martin Luther. % Nominalism, emphasis on direct experience of individual things, paved way for Francis Bacon s scientific efforts. % la ter rival o f Pupil, Duns Scotus. % with Spiritual Sided Franciscans for strict p o ve r ty & excommunicated.

Medieval Period
Name/Date Biography % I talian philosopher
and theologian of the modern Augus tinian sc hool of late medieval period. % Augustinian monk; superior general (1357)

Bibliography
Lectura in librum I et II sententiarum

Theology Anthrop ology

Taught a moderate Nominalism combined with Augustinian doctrine of man' s moral depravity and utter dependence on divine grace.

Revelation Epistemology

Pneumatology Ecclesiology

Christology Soteriology

Eschatology Good & Evil

Abso lute do uble predestination without any reference to me rits or demerits; fate rests t otally o n will of God rather than individualities. (Late medieval Augustinianism was possibly an influence on Ca lvin in this doctrine)

Character

Gregory of Rimini d. 1358

John Wycliffe c.1329-1384

English reformer; Bible translator. Spen t most of life teaching at Oxford.

% Wyclif Bible

(from Vulgate) % Summa Theologica % Divine Dominion On % Civ il Dominion On % Tru th of Holy The Scripture % Power of the The Papacy

% hmen w ho lived Churc

in sin sho uld be relieved of authority & wealth. % Christians directly resp onsible to God, nee d to read the B ible in order to obey Him.

Holy Scriptures o nly standard of faith & source of authority.

Personal relationsh ip with % Opposed p apal authority, % sale of indulgences, transubstantiation, & church hierarchies & ritual. % Church is predestined body of true believers. % Wyclif divided church into 3 parts: 1) church Triumphant (including angels) in heaven; 2) church Militant on earth; 3) chu rch D ormien t in purgatory. God throu gh Jesus C hrist apart from any ecclesiastical authority. % Salvation through grace not works.

% righteous Only
have moral right to rule.

% Called

Morning Star of the Reformation. % Organized Lollards (mumblers) to preach & read Scripture in English throughout England. % Condemned after death & dug up & b u rn e d ; a s h es t hr o w n i n Sw i ft R . % Influenced John Hus.