1 SEQUENCES AND SERIES Introduction: A sequence is a set of terms in a definite order with a rule of obtaining its terms.

Let N = {1, 2, 3, } be a set of positive consecutive integers. In general, a sequence may be defined as a mapping f : N X, where X is a non empty set. The elements of the range set X are denoted by a 1, a2, ,an, , in which an is the general term of the sequence. We write the sequence as {a n} or {a1, a2, a3, , an, }. There is a one to one correspondence between the elements of the domain set N and the range set X. If the domain set N has a finite number of elements, then the range set X has also a finite number of elements and the sequence {a 1, a2, , an} is called a finite sequence. If the domain set N has infinite number of elements, then the range set also has an infinite number of elements and we call the sequence an infinite sequence. The sum a1 + a2 + a3 + + an + , of the elements of the sequence {a n} is called a series. a1 is called the first term of the series, a2 is called the second term of the series and an is the nth term or the general term of the series. The series is finite if the sequence {an} is finite and the series is infinite if the sequence is infinite. If the term of a sequence follow a certain pattern, then the sequence is called a progression. Arithmetic Progression (A.P.): A sequence of numbers is said to be in A.P. when the difference between any two consecutive numbers is always same. If a is the first term and d the common difference, the A.P. can be written as a, a + d, a + 2d,., a + (n 1)d. The nth term tn is given by tn = a + (n 1)d. The sum Sn of the first n terms of such an A.P. is given by n n Sn 2a (n 1)d a l 2 2 where l is the last term (i.e. the nth term of the A.P.). Notes: If a fixed number is added (subtracted) to each term of a given A.P. then the resulting sequence is also an A.P. with the same common difference as that of the given A.P. If each term of an A.P. is multiplied by a fixed number(say k) (or divided by a non-zero fixed number), the resulting sequence is also an A.P. with the common difference multiplied by k. If a1, a2, a3,.and b1, b2, b3,.are two A.P.s with common differences d and d respectively then a1 + b1, a2 + b2, a3 + b3, is also an A.P. with common difference d + d . If an and bn are the nth terms of the two A.P.s, then the nth term of the resulting A.P. is an + bn = a + (n 1)d + b + (n 1)d = (a + b) + (n 1) (d + d ). If we have to take three terms in an A.P., it is convenient to take them as a d, a,a + d. In general, we take a rd, a (r 1)d, ., a d, a, a + d, ., a + rd, in case we have to take (2r + 1) terms in an A.P. If we have to take four terms, we take a 3d, a d, a + d, a + 3d. In general, we take a(2r 1)d, a (2r 3)d,...., a d, a + d, ., a + (2r 1)d, in case we have to take 2r terms in an A.P.

If a1, a2, a3, , an are in A.P., then a1 + an = a2 + an-1 = a3 + an 2 = . and so on.

Arithmetic Mean(s): If three terms are in A.P., then the middle term is called the arithmetic mean a c (A.M.) between the other two i.e. if a,b,c are in A.P. then b is the A.M. of 2 a and c. If a1, a2,., an are n numbers then the arithmetic mean (A) of these numbers is 1 A (a1 a2 a3 ...... an ). n The n numbers A1, A2, . , An are said to be A.M.s between the numbers a and b if a, A1, A2, ., An, b are in A.P. If d is the common difference of this A.P. b a then b = a + (n + 2 1)d d n 1 b a na b 2(b a) n(b a) a nb . A1 a , A2 a ,......,An a n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 Geometric Progression (G.P.) A G.P. is a sequence whose first term is non-zero and each of whose succeeding term is r times the preceding term, where r is some fixed non-zero number, known as the common ratio of the G.P. If a is the first term of a G.P. and r its common ratio, then its nth term tn is given by tn = arn-1. The sum Sn of the first n terms of the G.P. is

a(r n 1) , r 1 r 1 na, r 1. Notes: If each term of a G.P. is multiplied (divided) by a fixed non-zero constant, then the resulting sequence is also a G.P. with same ratio as that of the given G.P. . If each term of a G.P. (with common ratio r) is raised to the power k, then the resulting sequence is also a G.P. with common ratio r k. If the given G.P. is a, ar, ar2, and each term is raised to the kth power, we obtain the sequence ak, akrk, akr2k, . which is also a G.P. with ak as the first term and rk as the common ratio. If a1, a2, a3,. and b1, b2, b3,. are two G.P.s with common ratios r and r respectively then the sequence a1b1, a2b2, a3b3, . is also a G.P. with common ratio rr . If we have to take three terms in a G.P., it is convenient to take them as a/r, a, ar. a a In general, we take k , k 1 ,...., a, ar ,..., ar k in case we have to take (2k r r + 1) terms in a G.P. Sn

If we have to take four terms in a G.P., it is convenient to take them as a/r 3, a/r, a a a , ar,...., ar 2k 1 , in case we ar, ar3. In general, we take 2k 1 , 2k 3 ,...., r r r have to take 2k terms in a G.P. If a1, a2,. ,an are in G.P., then a1an = a2 an-1 = a3 an-2 = . If a1, a2, a3,. is a G.P. (each aI > 0), then loga1, loga2, loga3 . is an A.P. The converse is also true.

Geometric Mean(s): If three terms are in G.P., then the middle term is called the geometric mean (G.M.) between the two. So if a, b, c are in G.P. then b = ac is the geometric mean of a and c. If a1, a2,., an are positive numbers then their G.M.(G) is given by G = (a1a2a3.an)1/n. If G1, G2,.Gn are n geometric means between a and b then a, G 1, G2,., Gn, b will be a G.P. Here b = arn + 1 r=
n

b 1 a

G1 = a n

b b 1 , G2 = a n 1 a a

,. , Gn = a n

b 1 a

Arithmetico-Geometric Progression Suppose a1, a2, a3,. is an A.P. and b1, b2, b3,. is a G.P. Then the sequence a1b1, a2b2,., anbn is said to be an arithmetico-geometric progression. An arithmeticogeometric progression is of the form ab, (a + d)br, (a + 2d)br 2, (a + 3d)br3,. Its sum Sn to n terms is given by Sn = ab + (a + d)br + (a + 2d)br2 +.+(a + (n 2)d)brn-2 + (a + (n - 1)d)brn-1. Multiply both sides by r, so that rSn = abr + (a + d)br2+. +(a + (n 3)d)brn 2 + (a + (n 2)d)brn 1 + (a + (n 1)d)brn. Subtracting we get (1 r)Sn = ab + dbr + dbr2 +.......+ dbrn 2 + dbrn 1 (a + (n 1)d)brn = ab
Sn

dbr(1 r n 1) (1 r)
ab 1 r

n 1 d br n
a (n 1)d br n 1 r

dbr(1 r n 1) (1 r)2

If 1 < r < 1, the sum of the infinite number of terms of the progression is ab dbr lim Sn . 1 r (1 r)2 n (1 x)-1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 +. 1 < x < 1. (1 x)-2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 +. 1 < x < 1.

Harmonic Progression (H.P.) The sequence a1, a2, a3,., an,. (ai 0) is said to be in H.P. if the sequence 1 1 1 1 1 , , ,...... ,...... is in A.P. The nth term of the H.P. is an , where a (n 1)d a1 a2 a3 an 1 1 1 a and d . a1 a2 a1 Harmonic Mean(s):

If a and b are two non-zero numbers, then the harmonic mean of a and b is a number H such that the numbers a, H, b are in H.P. We have 1 1 1 1 2ab ( ) H . H 2 a b a b If a1, a2,.,an are n non-zero numbers, then the harmonic mean H of these n 1 1 1 1 1 number is given by H= . ....... 1 1 1 H n a1 a2 an a1 a2 an The n numbers H1, H2,.,Hn are said to be harmonic means between a and b, if 1 1 1 1 1 , , ....., , a, H1, H2,. ,Hn, b are in H.P. i.e if , are in A.P. Let a H1 H2 Hn b 1 1 d be the common difference of the corresponding A.P., Then n 1d b a a b d= . n 1 ab

Thus

1 H1

1 a

a b (n 1)ab

a nb 1 , (n 1)ab H2

1 a

2 a b n 1 ab

,....,

1 Hn

1 a

n a b n 1 ab

na b . (n 1)ab

Method of Differences Suppose a1, a2, a3,. is a sequence such that the sequence a 2 a1, a3 a2,. is either an A.P. or a G.P.. The nth term, an, of this sequence is obtained as follows: S = a1 + a2 + a3 +. +an-1 + an . (1) S= a1 + a2 +. +an-2 + an-1 + an . (2) Subtracting (2) from (1), we get, a n = a1 + [(a2 a1) + (a3 a2) +. + (an an - 1)]. Since the terms within the brackets are either in an A.P. or a G.P., we can find the value of an, the nth term. We can now find the sum of the n terms of the sequence as
n

ak .
k 1

5 If corresponding to the sequence a1, a2, a3,.,an, there exists a sequence b0, b1, b2,., bn such that ak = bk bk-1, (k = 1, 2, 3, .) then the sum of n terms of the sequence a 1, a2,an is bn b0. Some Important Results

1 + 2 + 3 ++ n =

n (n + 1) 2

(sum of first n natural numbers).

Inequalities A.M. G. M. H. M. :

For two positive numbers a and b, a b A.M. = , G. M. = ab , 2 A.M. G.M. =

H.M. =

2ab so that a b

a b 2 ab 2
ab 2ab a b

0 2 ab a b 2 ab
a b

and G.M.

H.M. =

ab
=

0 a b A.M G.M. H.M. Let a1, a2,., an be n positive real numbers, then we define their arithmetic mean a a .... an (A), geometric mean (G) and harmonic mean (H) as A = 1 2 , G = (a1 a2 n n an)1/n and H = . 1 1 1 1 .... a1 a2 a3 an
It can be shown that A only a1 = a2 =. = an. Weighted Means: Let a1, a2,. , an be n positive real numbers and m1, m2,., mn be n positive rational numbers. Then we define weighted Arithmetic mean (A*), weighted Geometric mean (G*) and weighted harmonic mean (H*) as
m a m2a2 .... mnan A* = 1 1 , G*= a1m1.a2m2 . .... anmn m1 m2 ...... mn and m1 m2 .... mn
1

H. Moreover equality holds at either place if and if

H* =

m1 m2 .... mn m1 a1 m2 a2 mn .... an

It can be shown that A* if a1 = a2 =.= an .

G*

H*. Moreover equality holds at either place if and only