Passive Magnetic Levitation (Maglev) and Eddy Current

Wang Ying
U069418R Engineering Science Program, National University of Singapore 21 Lower Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 119077

Project Summary
The objective of this Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (UROP) project is to design and carry out an experiment to demonstrate the Inductrack technology developed by Paul Friend from Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Bradley University without too many mathematics for future beginner students.

Basic Concepts
This part of the report consists of Passive Magnetic Levitation, Halbach Array and Levitation Track. The Propulsion system is not included because the relative physical concepts are out of the scope of the objective of the experiment. Passive Magnetic Levitation Passive Magnetic Levitation makes use of the induced repelling magnetic field generated by intersecting magnetic field and inductors when there is relative motion between them. So the train obtains kinetic energy from an external propulsion which is the only power source, and then the energy is converted into electrical energy in the track to produce a repelling interaction. The interacting force between the train and track can be dissolved into Lift force and Drag force. Halbach Array This is a special arrangement of permanent magnets to strengthen the B field below and cancel above the array. (Fig2.1 and Fig2.2)

Fig2.1 Special Arrangement 1 -- the Standard formation using 90 degree angles with wavelength shown Fig2.2 Magnetic field 1 Halbach Array creates a sinusoidal magnetic field below with
1

Magnetic Levitation Train Technology 1 by Paul Friend on May. 12, 2004 Bradley University Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 1

fringe effect shown at the two ends

Levitation Track There are mainly two kinds of methods being pursued in the world Arrays of Inductors and Laminated Copper. The first method is to create a series of separate inductors along the track while the other one use laminated Copper sheets with separated slots to allow eddy current to flow around. (Fig 2.3 and Fig 2.4)

Fig 2.3 Levitation Inductor 2

Fig 2.4 Laminated Copper Sheet 2

Experimental Setup
The main components of our model are wooden framework for supporting purposes, a rotor acting as the track, a handle to power the rotor and a scale down train with Halbach Arrays below it. (Fig 3.1) The idea of making a traditional model with a long linear track and a movable train was abandon due to its big size and the high workload involved. Materials that are abundant and widely available are chosen during the setting up process.

Wooden Framework Wood pieces of exact dimensions were cut out of several wooden boards found in the Mechanical Engineering Workshop and later fixed together to provide support as well as protections for the whole model. Rotor and Handle During this part of the project, we try to combine the two kinds of levitation track introduced above in order to see whether a lower speed of levitation can be achieved. (Fig 3.1) A bicycle wheel (dia. about 0.48m) with gear attached to is used to make the base of the track. Three layers of 2mm diameter copper wires are coiled onto it in separate
2 Magnetic Levitation Train Technology 1 Project Proposal by Paul Friend on May. 12, 2003

Fig 3.1 Maglev Model

Fig 3.2 Inductors and Copper sheet with slots

2

sections (40x35x35mm, about 50turns) after the tire had been removed. The two ends of each of the coil were then soldered together to allow the eddy current to flow. A layer of copper sheet with slots cut mechanically was mounted on the top of the coils and then fastened by Scotch tape. (Fig 3.2) The Rotor was placed onto the base and then connected to a gear with a handle by a standard bicycle chain. (Fig. 3.1) The wheel was modified such that the angular velocity of the handle to the wheel is a fixed ratio. Controlling of the velocity of the wheel is much easier in this way. In order to detect the speed of the spinning rotor easier, a LED controlled by a copper contact switch was used. The LED will flash once every time the rotor completes one revolution. (Fig 3.4) The circuit was made such that the LED can be easily replaced by other more advance devices, such as an oscilloscope or DAQ Board. When testing the speed, the angular frequency of the rotor should be kept constant and so as the handle. For this reason, a speedometer made of a DC motor was created and connected to a voltage meter. The angular frequency of the rotor was considered to be constant when the voltage produced only fluctuates within a few mV. (Fig 3.5) A simple hand brake was also made to stop the rotor in case of emergency. (Fig 3.5)
Fig 3.6 A Simple Bake Train Fabrication Two Halbach Arrays with five NdFeb and dimensions 1x1x1mm and Grade 38 made up the train body. The magnets were secured by plastic, copper and aluminum slots (inside out) due to their extremely powerful repelling force. The car was hung to a light wood rod using thin strings and the rod was in turn supported by the wooden framework via a spring and a hinge. A copper frame was also used to ensure that the Fig 3.3 Train with a pole pointing train does not wobble too much during working at the origin of a dial supported by time. (Fig 3.3) a copper frame This whole structure ensures the train body to move forth and back when it experiences forces from the rotor.
3

Fig 3.4 LED and Copper Switch

Fig 3.5 Speedometer Made of A DC Motor

A dial and a pointer were also made to detect the displacement of the car body. (Fig 3.3) Problems Encountered
During the experiments, we encountered a lot of problems which could not be all solved in this project due to time limitation. Some of them are listed here as a precaution to future students researchers. Material of the Rotor The rotor is mainly made of iron aluminum alloy with spacing iron spokes which will be attached to the Arrays of the train and cancel the life force. Besides, the material of the wheel may be non-homogeneous which causes the trembling of the train and fluctuations in data. It is recommended to put a Styrofoam layer on the wheel next time to increase the spacing and eliminate the above effect before coiling the copper wire. Furthermore, the producer of the bicycle wheel inserted an iron rod of about 35mm into the wheel, and it caused the foreside of the train to dip down and collide with the track every time that particular part of the wheel passed the train. To solve the above problem, the particular section of the wheel was sawed off and replaced by an aluminum block with similar dimensions. (Fig 4.1 and Fig 4.2)

Fig 4.1 Iron Rods inserted by the Producer and Replacing Block

Fig 4.2 Replacement made

Wooden Framework The framework is not stable enough to withstand a high rotating speed of the rotor. When the relative speed between the train and the top surface of the rotor reaches 2.6m/s, the model starts to shake and the train shudders, which make further experiments at even higher relative speed very inaccurate or even impossible. For this reason, an anti-shake frame on both sides of the train was added to restrict its transverse displacements. (Fig 3.3) Magnets When the magnets are arranged in Halbach arrangement, the repelling interactions between them were extremely strong and it is a bit difficult to handle merely by hands. Several copper blocks went under deformations when we attempted to slide in the arrays. The magnets arranged themselves in a wave-like array. (Fig 4.3)
4

Fig 4.3 Deformations of Copper Case

So the Array requires a framework made up of light and stiff materials. Some aluminum alloy and wood block can be used while copper is not recommended. Moreover, one of the disadvantages of passive magnetic levitation compared to traditional electromagnetic levitation found in this experiment is that the strength of the magnets (originally 1.210~1.250 T) keeps decreasing with time. This lead to a weaker B field by Halbach Arrays over time, and the efficiency of a commercialized train will reduces with this problem. So the arrays should be in a way that permanent magnets can be easily replaced or strengthened. Inductors Thick copper wire of diameter 2mm was used to make the Skin Frequenc inductors based on the original consideration that wire with big Depth y (Hz) diameter will reduce the resistance and hence increase the induced (mm) current. However, skin effect will make the AC current only travel 60 8.57 on the surface of a conductor with a small depth. (Table 4.1) The 10k 0.66 frequency of our model is about 62.95Hz when operating at 85% 100k 0.21 of its maximum speed according to: 1M 0.066 f = v/ 10M 0.021 , where frequency f in Hz, relative velocity v in m/s and Table 4.1 Skin Depth of wavelength in m Copper 3 The current density in the conductor is given by equation: J(d) = Js e-D/d , where J (A/m2) the current density at depth D (m) below the surface of the inductor, and Js at the surface, the skin depth d in meter 3 The table shows that the thickness of the wire is not all wasted, though. This is mainly due to the low angular frequency of the rotor. However, in real Inductrack system, the frequency may reach 2800Hz due to the high speed of the train, and thinner wires are recommended. It should be noted that the winding direction of the copper wire does not matter according to Litz Law. Copper Sheet of the Track The slots in the copper sheet were not properly cut because specific equipments needed were unavailable. It results in its bad guiding of induced current and a large drag force.

Results and Discussions

Fig 4.4 Slots in the track
3

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_effect 5

Experiments were carried out at full speed (125r/min) of the model. However, the train could not be levitated up although drag force on it was observed. After careful considerations and discussions, a few points are summarized as below. Low Rotating Speed of the Wheel Critical speed of 22 miles per hour (9.83m/s) was reported by Richard Post in his previous work 4 . Its equivalent to about 6.2r/s in our model. However, the highest safe angular frequency of our model is only 2.1r/s. It results in a very low lift to drag ratio because the phase lag becomes bigger when the speed increases, and this phase lag is closely related to the changing of drag force into levitation force. Low Inductance and Round Shape of the Inductors Common copper wires with large diameter were used instead of Litz wires to make the inductor. Only about 50 turns were coiled to make an individual inductor, which sequentially had a very low inductance, due to size restrictions. Hence, a low lift to drag ratio was obtained according to Life/Drag = L/R 5 (*) Thus, Litz wire is recommended, although every single wire has a much smaller diameter which may seems to increase the resistance in Equ.(*). It should be noted that R will not increase too much because previously the common copper wire was not effectively used due to skin effects. For AC current, the resistance of a conductor is given by 6

Fig 4.5 Litz Wire 7

, where L and D the length and diameter of the conductor, respectively Furthermore, the top face of the coils is not flat and the horizontal components on both sides of the levitation force cancel off each other. Large Spacing between the Arrays and the Coils The shortest distance y1 from the bottom of the train to the top of the inductor is about 8mm. The B field intersecting the inductors gets weakened exponentially by By = B0 cos ((2/) x) e-(2/) (y1 y) Tesla8, where x and y are the

horizontal and vertical components of the B field of the Array, respectively.

4 5

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductrack Magnetic Levitation Train Technology 1 by Paul Friend on May. 12, 2004 Bradley University Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 6 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_effect 7. Source: http://www.globalspec.com/FeaturedProducts/Detail/NewEnglandWire/NEWind_TM_Specialty_Transformer_Win ding_Wire/4948/0?deframe=1 8. Magnetic Levitation Train Technology 1 Project Proposal by Paul Friend on May. 12, 2003 6

Optimum wavelength of Halbach Array optimum = 4 y1 m m 9 Optimum thickness of Magnets aoptimum = optimum/5 It is suggested to design the model such that the strength of B field of the Arrays reaches its maximum value when the spacing y = 10mm. By the above equations, the dimensions of the cube magnets ordered should be 2.5x2.5x2.5cm. Comparable Wavelength with Width of Inductor The wavelength of the Array is not significantly larger than the width of a coil. It increases the time the B field of the Arrays takes to pass an inductor and in turn tremendously reduce the B field frequency below the Arrays. So the lift to drag ratio is greatly reduced according to Equ. (*) One way to improve the model is to increase the number of magnets in one single wavelength. (Fig. 4.6 and 4.7)

Improvements

Fig 4.6 and 4.7 Alternative Versions of Halbach Array 10

After analyzing all the problems encountered and experimental results, we come out with some more improvements of the model listed as bellows. Matlab simulations are not included due to the length of the report. Nevertheless, it is a powerful tool to predict what is going to happen before you get down making your model. 2. Electric motor should be used to power the rotor. It can provide a much faster and steadier spinning speed. In this case, the gears attached to the wheel can be made use of to switch between speeds. 3. An oscilloscope can be connected to the signal line for real time detection, which is more accurate and efficient. 4. Copper coils are heavy and costly and hard to manufacture. These three drawbacks make this design not practical for commercial use. Probably, they are also reasons why Array of Inductors Design is not currently pursued by other
9 10 Magnetic Levitation Train Technology 1 Project Proposal by Paul Friend on May. 12, 2003 Magnetic Levitation Train Technology 1 by Paul Friend on May. 12, 2004 Bradley University Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

1.

Fig 4.8 New Design of the track

laboratories. I thereby suggest an improvement of design to minimize these disadvantages in the following. (Fig 4.8)

Conclusion
This is the first Inductrack model made in National University of Singapore (NUS). The theory of passive magnetic levitation and a lot of technical details have been studied in the process. This report illustrates the main problems that will be encountered when doing such project and finally suggests many improvements for future student researchers. It is hoped that our progress will see to it that NUS students will have a working model one day.

Acknowledgements
Thanks to A/Prof. Anjam Khursheed for his valuable instructions and advices through out the whole project and giving us the authority to use his lab! Thanks to Mr. Nelliyan Karuppiah for his useful suggestions on soldering techniques!
Thanks to Mr. Tay from ESP office for his very helpful introductions to the workshops!