Ravi Agarwal

09003017


The following project deals with the
designing of an apparatus to measure
Thermal Strain in a cylinder with the help
of a strain Gauge
Thermal
Strain
Measurement
using Strain
Gauge

Thermal strain Measurement using a strain
gauge:-
This project deals with the designing of a Thermal strain measuring apparatus that determines the linear
strain in a metal cylinder using a strain gauge. The design consists of a hollow aluminum cylinder with
Tie Rods above and below, one each. One end of the cylinder is fixed and the other has a plate, to which
strain gauge is attached. This measures the strain and gives the output voltage.
Objective:- The objective is to design an apparatus which could measure the thermal strain of a metal
using linear thermal strain analysis and measuring with the help of a strain gauge.

Theory:-

What is Strain?
Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More specifically, strain (c) is
defined as the fractional change in length, as shown in Figure 1 below.

Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although dimensionless, strain is sometimes
expressed in units such as in./in. or mm/mm. In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very small.
Therefore, strain is often expressed as microstrain (c), which is c 106.

When a bar is strained with a uniaxial force, as in Figure 1, a phenomenon known as Poisson Strain
causes the girth of the bar, D, to contract in the transverse, or perpendicular, direction. The magnitude of
this transverse contraction is a material property indicated by its Poisson's Ratio. The Poisson's Ratio v of
a material is defined as the negative ratio of the strain in the transverse direction (perpendicular to the
force) to the strain in the axial direction (parallel to the force), or v = cT/c. Poisson's Ratio for steel, for
example, ranges from 0.25 to 0.3.

The Strain Gauge
While there are several methods of measuring strain, the most common is with a strain gauge, a device
whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to the amount of strain in the device. For example, the
piezoresistive strain gauge is a semiconductor device whose resistance varies nonlinearly with strain. The
most widely used gauge, however, is the bonded metallic strain gauge.

The metallic strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more commonly, metallic foil arranged in a grid
pattern. The grid pattern maximizes the amount of metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the parallel
direction (Figure 2). The cross sectional area of the grid is minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain
and Poisson Strain. The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier, which is attached directly to
the test specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced by the test specimen is transferred directly to the
strain gauge, which responds with a linear change in electrical resistance. Strain gauges are available
commercially with nominal resistance values from 30 to 3000 O, with 120, 350, and 1000 O being the
most common values.

It is very important that the strain gauge be properly mounted onto the test specimen so that the strain is
accurately transferred from the test specimen, though the adhesive and strain gauge backing, to the foil
itself. Manufacturers of strain gauges are the best source of information on proper mounting of strain
gauges. A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain, expressed quantitatively as
the gauge factor (GF). Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to
the fractional change in length (strain): The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2.

Ideally, we would like the resistance of the strain gauge to change only in response to applied strain.
However, strain gauge material, as well as the specimen material to which the gauge is applied, will also
respond to changes in temperature. Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to minimize sensitivity to
temperature by processing the gauge material to compensate for the thermal expansion of the specimen
material for which the gauge is intended. While compensated gauges reduce the thermal sensitivity, they
do not totally remove it. For example, consider a gauge compensated for aluminum that has a temperature
coefficient of 23 ppm/C. With a nominal resistance of 1000 O, GF = 2, the equivalent strain error is still
11.5 c/C. Therefore, additional temperature compensation is important.

Strain Gauge Measurement
In practice, the strain measurements rarely involve quantities larger than a few millistrain (c 103).
Therefore, to measure the strain requires accurate measurement of very small changes in resistance. For
example, suppose a test specimen undergoes a substantial strain of 500 c. A strain gauge with a gauge
factor GF = 2 will exhibit a change in electrical resistance of only 2-(500 106) = 0.1%. For a 120
O gauge, this is a change of only 0.12 O.

To measure such small changes in resistance, and compensate for the temperature sensitivity discussed in
the previous section, strain gauges are almost always used in a bridge configuration with a voltage or
current excitation source. The general Wheatstone bridge, illustrated below, consists of four resistive arms
with an excitation voltage, VEX, that is applied across the bridge.

The output voltage of the bridge, VO, will be equal to:

From this equation, it is apparent that when R1/R2 = RG1/RG2, the voltage output VO will be zero.
Under these conditions, the bridge is said to be balanced. Any change in resistance in any arm of the
bridge will result in a nonzero output voltage.

Therefore, if we replace R4 in Figure 3 with an active strain gauge, any changes in the strain gauge
resistance will unbalance the bridge and produce a nonzero output voltage. If the nominal resistance of
the strain gauge is designated as RG, then the strain-induced change in resistance, AR, can be expressed
as AR = RG-GF-c. Assuming that R1 = R2 and R3 = RG, the bridge equation above can be rewritten to
express VO/VEX as a function of strain (see Figure 4). Note the presence of the 1/(1+GF-c/2) term that
indicates the nonlinearity of the quarter-bridge output with respect to strain.


By using two strain gauges in the bridge, the effect of temperature can be avoided. For example, Figure 5
illustrates a strain gauge configuration where one gauge is active (RG + AR), and a second gauge is
placed transverse to the applied strain. Therefore, the strain has little effect on the second gauge, called
the dummy gauge. However, any changes in temperature will affect both gauges in the same way.
Because the temperature changes are identical in the two gauges, the ratio of their resistance does not
change, the voltage VO does not change, and the effects of the temperature change are minimized.

By using two strain gauges in the bridge, the effect of temperature can be avoided. For example, Figure 5
illustrates a strain gauge configuration where one gauge is active (RG + AR), and a second gauge is
placed transverse to the applied strain. Therefore, the strain has little effect on the second gauge, called
the dummy gauge. However, any changes in temperature will affect both gauges in the same way.
Because the temperature changes are identical in the two gauges, the ratio of their resistance does not
change, the voltage VO does not change, and the effects of the temperature change are minimized.

Finally, you can further increase the sensitivity of the circuit by making all four of the arms of the bridge
active strain gauges, and mounting two gauges in tension and two gauges in compression. The full-bridge
circuit is shown in Figure 7 below.

The equations given here for the Wheatstone bridge circuits assume an initially balanced bridge that
generates zero output when no strain is applied. In practice however, resistance tolerances and strain
induced by gauge application will generate some initial offset voltage. This initial offset voltage is
typically handled in two ways. First, you can use a special offset-nulling, or balancing, circuit to adjust
the resistance in the bridge to rebalance the bridge to zero output.
Alternatively, you can measure the initial unstrained output of the circuit and compensate in software. At
the end of this application note, you will find equations for quarter, half, and full bridge circuits that
express strain that take initial output voltages into account. These equations also include the effect of
resistance in the lead wires connected to the gauges.

Properties of aluminium:-
Background:-Physically, chemically and mechanically aluminium is a metal like steel, brass, copper,
zinc, lead or titanium. It can be melted, cast, formed and machined much like these metals and it conducts
electric current. In fact often the same equipment and fabrication methods are used as for steel.
Light Weight:-Aluminium is a very light metal with a specific weight of 2.7 g/cm
3
, about a third that of
steel. For example, the use of aluminium in vehicles reduces dead-weight and energy consumption while
increasing load capacity. Its strength can be adapted to the application required by modifying the
composition of its alloys.
Corrosion Resistance:-Aluminium naturally generates a protective oxide coating and is highly corrosion
resistant. Different types of surface treatment such as anodising, painting or lacquering can further
improve this property. It is particularly useful for applications where protection and conservation are
required.
Electrical and Thermal Conductivity:-Aluminium is an excellent heat and electricity conductor and in
relation to its weight is almost twice as good a conductor as copper. This has made aluminium the most
commonly used material in major power transmission lines.
Reflectivity:-Aluminium is a good reflector of visible light as well as heat, and that together with its low
weight, makes it an ideal material for reflectors in, for example, light fittings or rescue blankets.
Ductility:-Aluminium is ductile and has a low melting point and density. In a molten condition it can be
processed in a number of ways. Its ductility allows products of aluminium to be basically formed close to
the end of the products design.
Impermeable and Odourless:-Aluminium foil, even when it is rolled to only 0.007 mm thickness, is still
completely impermeable and lets neither light aroma nor taste substances out. Moreover, the metal itself
is non-toxic and releases no aroma or taste substances which makes it ideal for packaging sensitive
products such as food or pharmaceuticals.
Imposed functional requirements:- Both the design and the method of testing must be safe and
relatively simple. The apparatus must be inexpensive. The emphasis is on a novel, simple design
engineered to produce good results. Designs must not be complicated and must not require difficult,
expensive, or extensive fabrication.

Identified functional requirements:- In addition to the imposed functional requirements the design
must be able to measure the thermal strain properly.

Design:- In addition to the imposed functional requirements, three additional functional requirements
were identified: the rod temperature must be uniform yet variable, the elongation measurement equipment
must have adequate sensitivity, and the measurement equipment must be dimensionally stable over the
temperature range.

My design includes an aluminum cylinder with two tie wooden rods above and below. One end of the
cylinder is fixed on a thick wooden sheet, while at the other end there is a thin aluminum sheet on which a
strain gauge is attached to measure the thermal strain.

The uniform temperature functional requirement is accommodated with the help of flexible band, strip
heaters which could be rapped on the curved surface of the cylinder and could provide uniform heating to
the cylinder.

The accurate elongation measurement can be achieved with the help of highly sensitive strain gauge. Any
manufacturing errors or variations in Gf (Gauge factor) will result in a measurement error. In addition, if
the adhesive contact is poor, this will be another source of measurement error. Temperature changes
between measurements are another possible source of measurement error. That is, the resistance of the
strain gage can change with temperature changes as well as strain. Somehow, the resistance change of the
strain gauge due to temperature change must be minimized. This is done by using a full bridge
measurement having gages in both compression and tension. As long as the thermal coefficients of all
the gages track each other, the errors due to thermal drifts can be minimized. The strain gauges are put on
the 1mm thick aluminum sheet.



The figures drawn below show all the views of the proposed design. The third figure shows the 2-D views
of the proposed design. The dimensions are mentioned in the next section.






Variables:-

R-Radius of cylinder (m)
L-Length of cylinder (m)
T-Thickness of cylinder (m)
t- Thickness of the aluminum plate (m)
M-Mass of the cylinder (kg)
H-Heat supplied to the cylinder (joules)
Temp-Temperature change (kelvin)

Constants:-

Coefficient of linear expansion of aluminum
- Density of aluminum
C-Specific heat capacity of aluminum
V
ex
=5 volts
G.F=2

Calculations and Observations:-

- For uniform heating Heat per unit area should be high. Hence, area should be optimized to such a
value such that the above factor is high for good heating.
- Tie-Rods of the cylinder are cylindrical in nature with diameter=1 cm each.
- Distance between the Tie-Rods and the cylinder is taken to be 5mm.
- Length of the Tie-Rods is same as that of the cylinder.
- Aluminum sheet is square in shape and has a side length of 15 cm.
- H=M*C*Temp
- Volume=2**R*H*T
- Curved Surface Area=2**R*H
-
-

Values of Constants:-

C=0.8969 (J/gm.k)
=2.7 gm/cm
3

=23*10
-6
/
o
C
M=1000 gm

Fulfilling the above objective and requirements and using the above values and formulas, the following
dimensions and values of variables are attained:-

Volume=370.370 cm
3
R=5 cm
T=1cm
L=11.79 cm
t=1 mm

Strain=Change in length/Original length

= *Temp

Example:-

Change in Temperature=1
o
C

Heat to be supplied by the heater=896.9 J

Strain=Change in length/Original length

= *Temp= 23*10
-6

Strain

E
out
=230 v

Results:-

- A thermal strain measuring apparatus was designed which could effectively measure the strain
using a strain gauge.
- Understanding of the concepts of strain theory is enhanced.
- Understanding of the strain gauges, their proper choice and their application is enhanced.

Conclusion and Discussion:-

- Strain gauge measurement involves sensing extremely small changes in resistance. Therefore,
proper selection and use of the bridge, signal conditioning, wiring, and data acquisition
components are required for reliable measurements.
- Strain Gauges are also used for load measurement, pressure measurement, torsion measurement
etc.
- In mechanical testing and measurement, it is often important to understand how an object reacts
to various forces. We commonly measure strain, or the amount of deformation of a body because
of those applied forces, using a strain gage. When using a strain gage, you bond the strain gage to
the device under test, apply force, and measure the strain by detecting changes in resistance.
Ideally, we would like the resistance of the strain gage to change only in response to applied
strain. However, strain gage material, the lead wiring, as well as the specimen material to which
the gage is applied, also responds to changes in temperature. Temperature related effects are the
most common causes of error in strain measurements.

Bibliography:-
- National Instruments-How is Temperature affecting your strain measurement efficiency?
- Thermal Engineering Design project-By R.S.Mullisen (Mechanical Engineering
Department, California Polytechnic Institute of technology)
- Measurement Of Thermal Expansion Coffiecients using a Strain Gauge-John.N.Fox
- www.google.com