AP BiologyChapter 35-37 Lecture Notes Plant structures, Transport, and Nutrition

Plant Structures (35)

--basic plant structures are roots, shoots (stems), leaves, and, in Angiosperms, flowers --roots absorb water and minerals, provide support, and store food --shoots support the plant, transport water, minerals, and food, photosynthesize, and store food --leaves perform photosynthesis and can be highly-modified for protection and support, as well as for reproduction --flowers are modified leaves that function in the process of sexual reproduction --plants undergo two types of growth: 1. primaryincrease in length in either direction; growth is directed by apical meristems: Shoot Apical Meristem (SAM) and Root Apical Meristem (RAM) 2. secondaryincrease in diameter; growth is directed by vascular cambium and cork cambium --shoots have nodes and internodes; nodes are the location of stems, leaves and flowers coming from the main stem; internodes are areas of the stem that lack additional parts coming off them --leaves have a blade (flat part) and petiole (thin connection to the stem); they can be simple, compound, or doubly compound Plant Tissue Types 1. Dermalouter covering of the plant; composed of epidermis and later, periderm; produces a waxy cuticle that prevents water loss 2. Vasculartransports water, minerals, and food throughout the plant; composed of xylem and phloem; root vascular tissue is in the center and called the stele; shoot vascular tissue is in vascular bundles 3. Groundact in support and storage as well as other functions; pith is inside vascular tissue of roots and cortex is outside vascular tissue *These tissues are made of a variety of cell types; see fig. 35.9 for descriptions and pictures of these cell types --meristematic tissue is like stem cells; initials dont differentiate; derivatives divide until they become specialized Plant Growth --is indeterminate; there are three main types: 1. Annualplants complete life cycle in one season (not necessarily one year) 2. Biennialsplants complete life cycle in two seasons 3. PerennialsPlants grow and reproduce from season to season, until they die Root Primary Growth --root tip is composed of three main regions (see fig. 35.12): 1. Zone of cell divisionwhere the RAM is; cells are rapidly undergoing mitosis 2. Zone of elongationcells are increasing in length 3. Zone of maturationcells are maturing and specializing; they will be functional in this zone --lateral roots emerge from the stele and erupt out of the root (see fig. 35.14)

Shoot Primary Growth --shoots have leaf and bud primordia (young leaves and stems) --eudicots and gymnosperms have vascular bundles arranged in rings; monocots have scattered vascular bundles --leaf veins contain vascular bundles which are connected to shoots Secondary Growth --increase in diameter of plant --from vascular cambium: secondary xylem to inside of cambium; secondary phloem to outside of cambium --cork cambium involved in production of bark (see fig. 35.18); bark is everything extended from the outside of the plant to the vascular cambium --fusiform initials produce tracheids, vessels, xylem fibers, sieve tube members, companion cells, parenchyma, and phloem fibers --ray initials produce vascular rays (parenchyma) --secondary xylem becomes thickened, lignified, and dies; becomes wood

Plant Transport (36)

--Three levels of plant transport are: 1. across cell membranes 2. from one cell to another 3. long distance flow; ex: from roots to leaves --proton pump is the most important ion pump in plants; can be used for ion exchange in roots; a type of cotransport (see fig. 36.4) Water Potential (w) --water moves from regions of high potential to regions of lower potential --water potential is composed of solute potential (s) and pressure potential (p)

w = s + p
--see fig. 36.5 and 36.6 for examples of water potential --the large central vacuole or tonoplast helps regulate water potential within plant cells --symplast is the continuum of cytoplasm between living cells (connected by plasmodesmata) --apoplast is extracellular space --there are 3 transport routes: 1. cellexternal environmentcell 2. symplast 3. apoplast Roots --epidermis near root tip is site of most absorbtion --water enters and follows symplast and apoplast route --active transport pumps ions into cells (requires ATP)

--endodermis is selective barrier to vascular cylinder; contains waxy suberin (casparian strip); water and minerals must enter the symplast to enter vascular cylinder --xylem tracheids and vessels are apoplast (dead cells) (see fig. 36.9) Xylem Transport --fueled by transpiration from leaves (transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism) --root pressure results at night; roots pump ions into root, water follows; drives water up the stem (maybe 2 meters); can lead to guttation in morning --air/water interface is important in the leaves (see fig. 36.12) --cavitation limits xylem function --youngest secondary xylem transports water; pits allow for detours in cavitated xylem tubes Leaves --guard cells regulate rate of transpiration by increasing or decreasing diameter of stomata --hot, sunny, dry, windy days will result in cavitation; stomatal diameter must decrease --stomatal density is affected by genes and the envt; most are found on the bottom of leaves --water uptake swells guard cells and opens stomata (see fig. 36.15) --K+ enters the cell and water follows --stomata (excluding CAM plants) are generally closed at night --3 factors affect stomatal diameter: 1. blue light receptor 2. carbon dioxide concentration 3. internal clock Xerophyte Adaptations --small, thick leaves w/a waxy cuticle --guard cells on bottom of leaves located in pits --CAM; stomata open at night Phloem Translocation --sieve tubes have plates that connect one cell w/another; cells are basically just cytoplasmcompanion cells provide instruction via their nucleus --phloem sap contains about 30% sucrose --transport is from sugar source to sugar sink; sinks usually receive sugar from nearest source --sugar diffuses down a concentration gradient at sink --positive pressure drives sap in angiosperms (see fig. 36.18)

Nutrition (37)
--plant mineral nutrients come from the soil --biomass (mostly carbon) comes from carbon dioxide in the air --most total mass comes from water --macro and micronutrients are essential requirements for completing plant life cycles; macronutrients are required in large amounts (C, H, O, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg); micronutrients are required in small amounts (Cl, Fe, Mn, Bo, Zn, Cu, Ni, Mb) --hydroponic culture allows determination of essential nutrients (see table 37.1)

Mineral Deficiency --low Cl leads to yellowing (chlorosis) --low Fe can lead to chlorosis toobiochemical pathways --mobile minerals travel from source to sink --mobile nutrient deficiency affects old tissue first (shunting) --non-mobile nutrient deficiency affects new tissue first Soil --quality depends on texture (particle size) and composition (chemicals) --topsoil is eroded rock plus humus (decayed organic matter); there are soil horizons (see fig. 37.6) --water and minerals cling to soil particles; negative ions are not bound, positive ions are boundroots must perform cation exchange to release positive ions (see fig. 37.6) *Fertilizers contain NPK ratios because these are very important macronutrients; in terrestrial habitats, nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient, followed by phosphorus Nitrogen Absorbtion --absorbed as nitrate (NO3) or ammonium (NH4) --nitrogen fixation is accomplished by nitrogen fixing bacteria that contain nitrogenase enzyme --nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium to nitrate, which is more easily absorbed --legumes have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules; this process is anaerobic (see fig. 37.10) --nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide ammonium, which plants can use to make amino acids; bacteria are provided with carbohydrates; this is mutualism --roots release flavonoids, which activate bacterial regulatory proteins, which activate bacterial nod genes, which produce bacterial nod factors, which activate nodulin genes in the plant Mycorrhizae --are fungi that increase surface area for absorbtion in roots; fungi are given carbohydrates --ectomycorrhizae cover roots with a sheath; endomycorrhizae penetrate root cells