STOICHIOMETRY Explains why reactions occur.

deals with the quantities of materials consumed and The universe is made up of system (reaction vessel)
produced in chemical reactions and surroundings.

ATOMIC MASSES THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS

based on the assignment : 12C = 12.0000 amu
amu – atomic mass units
MOLE
one mole = 6.022 x 1023 atoms, molecules, ions or
formula units
6.022 x 1023 is the Avogadro’s number
FORMULA MASS
Sum of all the atomic masses in a chemical entity;
expressed in amu
MOLAR MASS
Also traditionally termed as molecular weight;
expressed in grams/mole
The formula mass and molar mass are numerically
equal.
PERCENT COMPOSITION OF COMPOUNDS
% by mass of each element in a compound.
The % by mass of each element in a given
compound will always be the same.
Internal energy, ∆E
Enthalpy, ∆H
Entropy, ∆S
Gibbs Free energy, ∆G
∆E, ∆H, ∆S and ∆G are state functions
State function
Depends only on the final state of the system and
not on the path taken by the system.
INTERNAL ENERGY AND ENTHALPY
A change which lowers the energy of a system
tends to occur spontaneously.
∆E = Efinal – Einitial = q + w
Q heat: absorbed (+) or evolved (-)
W work: done by the system (-), on the system (+)
W = - P∆V ; ∆V = Vfinal – Vinitial
Since PV = nRT for gases
W = ∆nRT ; ∆n = nproducts- nreactants
∆H = Hproducts – Hreactants = ∆E + P ∆V = qp

% mass = mass of the element in 1 mole of the cpd ENTROPY, ∆S

mass of one mole of the compound Degree of disorder of a system

EMPIRICAL FORMULA ∆S = Sfinal – Sinitial

Simplest whole number ratio of the elements in a Ssolid < Sliquid < Sgas
compound. Spontaneous reactions tend to go towards
maximum disorder.
MOLECULAR FORMULA
True formula of the compound GIBBS FREE ENERGY
∆G = ∆H - T∆S
BALANCING CHEMICAL REACTIONS
∆G < 0 reaction is spontaneous
The kind and number of elements on the reactant
side should be equal to the kind and number of ∆G > 0 reaction is non-spontaneous
atoms on the product side. ∆G = 0 reaction is at equilibrium
Subscripts of the elements in a given compound can
not be changed. G = ∆H - T∆S
Simplest whole number coefficients should be used + + spontaneous at high T
as much as possible. - - spontaneous at low T
- + spontaneous at all T
STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS + - non-spontaneous at all T
involving chemical equations
Steps:
Balance the given reaction. LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Convert known masses of substance to moles. First Law:
Set-up appropriate mole ratios according to the Energy of the universe is constant.
balanced equation. Second Law:
Calculate the number of moles of the desired The tendency of a system is to go towards
reactant or product. maximum disorder.
Calculate from moles to grams, molecules or desired Third Law:
quantity. The entropy of a perfectly crystalline solid is zero at
0 K.
LIMITING REACTANTS
Reactant/reagent completely used up in the reaction RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

THERMODYNAMICS COLLISION THEORY

Deals with energy changes and its flow from one Reactants must collide to form products.
system to another. Colliding units must be properly oriented
Colliding units must have sufficient energy to react. Pentene C5H10
Effective collisions make reactions possible.
ALKYNES – CnH2n-2 – C ≡ C
ACTIVATION ENERGY (Ea) Propyne Alkyne HC≡CH
Minimum energy that must be overcome to produce
a chemical reaction. AROMATIC
Benzene
TRANSITION STATE (T.S.)
A structure which shows bond breaking and bond
formation
H
Corresponds to the highest energy
H C H
C C
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RATE OF
C C
CHEMICAL REACTIONS C
H H
CONCENTRATION OF REACTANTS
The more reactants present, the more frequent H
collisions, the faster is the reaction.
ALKYL HALIDES: RX
SURFACE AREA
Chloroform CHCl3
The greater the surface area exposed, the faster the
reaction.
OXYGEN CONTAINING COMPOUNDS
TEMPERATURE
The higher the T, the faster the reaction.
ALCOHOL: ROH
Ethanol Alcohol CH3CH2OH
CATALYST
Accelerates a reaction by providing a pathway of
lower activation energy.
PHENOL: aromatic alcohol
Not used up in the reaction.
Maybe of the same phase or different phase as the
reactants.
OH
H C H
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY C C
C C
Study of CARBON compounds C
Examples: Plastic, fibers, dyes and drugs, H H
insecticides, perfumes, vitamins, hormones, foods,
solvents, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic H
acids
ETHER: ROR
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS Diethyl Ether
Hydrocarbons – chains or rings; saturated or
unsaturated H H
ALKANES: CnH2n+2 - C – C
Methane CH4
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8 H3C-C-O-C-CH3
Butane C4H10
Pentane C5H12
Hexane C6H14

H H
ALKENES: CnH2n - C = C
Ethene C2H4 : H2C=CH2
Propene C3H6
Butene C4H8
ALDEHYDE: RHC=O
Formaldehyde
 H CH3
CH3

H-C=O N O O

2 CH3COCCH3
N

KETONE: RRC=O
Acetone CH3C O O O CCH3
HO O OH

O Morphine O Heroin O

H3C-C-CH3 Synthetic Organic Chemistry

• Synthesis of complex molecules from simple
CARBOXYLIC ACID (OIC ACID): HO-C=O ones.
Acetic Acid • Synthetic polymer, drugs, insecticides
Natural Products Chemistry
O • Extracted from
plants/animals/microorganisms
• Compounds are mostly secondary

H3C-C-OH •
metabolites
Drugs, perfumes, plant pigments, toxins
Fossil fuels
AMIDE: N-C=O
• Products of decay of plants and animals

O •
•
Petroleum, coal and natural gas
Non-renewable and contributes to pollution.

RC-
NH2
ESTER: O-C=O
Ethyl Acetate

O
H3C-C-O-CH2CH3

AMINES: RNH2
♥ nicole s. san juan
09.30.08
23.34
CH2OH

COOH O
H COH O
O
O C C H3
H

HO OH
Ascorbic acid Acetylsalicylic acid or Aspirin