History of Sri Lanka

The story of ancient Lanka has its beginnings in the culture of stone, the stone Age. An ageless, timeless period, the Stone Age in Sri Lanka stretched from 125,000 BC to 1000 BC. Encompassing tens of thousands of years, the scales are so vast that we still cannot measure it properly. It is like peering through a telescope, looking at a world so far away that is visible only in fractions, a fleeting glimpse here and there. This era is called prehistory. The time before the dawn of history. It is during the period that we find traces of early man. He appears to have lived almost everywhere ; along the coast, on the plains and amongst the rolling grasslands of the hill country. The richest evidence however survives in caves. It is only then that the stone Age begins to take shape in our minds. At caverns like Fa Hsien lena, near Buthsinhala ( c. 35,000 3400 BC ) Batadomba lena in Kuruwita ( C 29,000 9500 BC ) and Beli lena in Kitugala ( C 28,000 1500 BC ). The Balangoda Man is a popular parlance, derived from his being responsible for the Mesolithic Balangoda Culture first defined in sites near Balangoda. The bones are robust, with thick skull-bones, prominent brow-ridges, depressed wide noses, heavy jaws and short necks. The teeth are conspicuously large. These traits have survived in varying degrees among the Veddas and certain Sinhalese groups, thus pointing to Balangoda Man as a common ancestor. Sri Lanka has an enthralling recorded history of civilisation. Its unique and proud historical record of a great civilization spans over 25 chronicled centuries, and is documented primarily in three books; the Mahavamsa (Great Genealogy or Dynasty), Dipavamsa and Culavamsa. Sri Lankan history is distinctive as it has a historical record, which is ancient, continuous and trustworthy, and begins with the occupation of the island by civilised men in 5th century, BC. The story continues under each successive king for over 20 centuries. The Mahavamsa is primarily a dynamic and religious historical record. In addition to this record, there are over 2500 inscriptions in Sri Lanka. The earliest inscriptions are contemporary with the introduction of Buddhism in the 3rd century BC. More than 1000 epigraphs, mostly inscribed on caves, belong to the third, second and first centuries BC, exist in the dry zone as well as in the old caves temples in Colombo, Kegalla, and Kandy. The historical records reveal a past intricated by a mixture of the historical and the mythological. The legend of Prince Vijaya, from whom the Sinhalese people claim descent, is one such example. Archaeological evidence reveals early settlement in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankas earliest inhabitants were the Veddahs who arrived around 125,000 BC. Given its strategic placement, the country operated as an important trade port and retreat of nature for merchants of China, Arabia and Europe. Sri Lankas history can be categorized as follows;
1

The Historic Era

The Mahavamsa records the traditional history of Lanka as it was conceived in the fourth century AD. The account is based in large measure on an earlier work that brought the history of Lanka down to the time when Ashoka despatched his son Mahinda to convert Lanka and was completed by addition of a fourth century revision continuing the history of the island down to the reign of King Mahasena (337-364). The Mahavamsa, as it now exists, includes a few later additions inserted about the turn of the first millennium.

Pre Historic Period (beyond 1000BC)

Yaksha and Naga Times Thammanna Kingdom 543 BC - 505 BC Upathissa Grama - 526 BC - 504 Panduwas Nuwara - 504 BC 474 BC

The Historic Era (when Sri Lanka was ruled by local kings, rulers 483BC to 1815AD)
Anuradhapura Era 483 BC- 1017 AD Polonnaruwa Era 1017 - 1215 Dambadeniya Era 1215 - 1272 Yapahuva Era 1272 - 1300 Kurunagala Era - 1293 - 1341 Gampola Era 1341- 1415 Kotte Era 1415 - 1514 Kandyan Era 1514 - 1815

The Colonial Period

Portuguese Times 1505 Dutch Times 1796 British Rule 1815 - 1948

Pre Historic Times

The earliest-known inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the ancestors of the Wanniyala-Aetto people, also known as Veddahs. From the ancient period date some remarkable archaeological sites include the ruins of Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", the large "tanks" or reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate that alternates rainy seasons with dry times, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile. Ancient Sri Lanka was also the first in the world to have established a dedicated hospital in Mihintale in the 4th century BCE. Ancient Sri Lanka was also the world's leading exporter of cinnamon, which was exported to Egypt as early as 1400 BCE. Sri Lanka was the first Asian nation to have a female ruler in Queen Anula (4742 BC). The first literary links between Pandyas of Madura and Lanka appear in the semi-traditional part of the Mahavamsa which tells of the founding of the Sinhala monarchy by Vijaya who arrived on the island of Lanka in the year of Buddha's nirvana (486/483 BC). The earliest reference to the usage of coins in Lanka is found in the Buddhist Literature which mentions types of coins issued in the 3rd century BC. These earliest known coins were small pieces of metal, generally of silver, punched with a common Royal mark. The metal was subjected to punching with marks of various institutions. These punched marked metal are referred to as `purana' (Sanskrit for old) and Englished as `eldling'. The eldlings were manufactured by subdividing bars of metal or strips cut from a hammered sheet, the weight being adjusted where necessary by clipping the corners of each coin so formed. During the period of Pandya domination over Lanka which lasted from the time of the initial Tamil occupation about 177 BC until the period when the kings of Lanka were able to exert their independence in a definitive manner from about 28 BC the Elephant coinage of the Pandyas was current both in Madura and in Lanka. According to the Mahavamsa when the Sinhala king Sirinaga I died in AD 275 he was succeeded by his son Voharaka Tissa: but another son named Abhaya Naga collected an army on the mainland, invaded and took control of Lanka in 297. During the 360's AD Lanka was ruled by Sri Meghavarna (364-392), son of Mahasena, who is recorded to have brought the Buddha's tooth relic from Kalinga and to have sent an embassy to Samudragupta. Lanka was later visited by the Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien in 411-412, during the reign of Mahadharmakathin and by the Buddhist writer Buddhaghosha when Mahanaman (409-431) was king. Soon after the end of Mahanaman's reign the Sinhala king Mitrasena was killed by a "Damila named Pandya". The Pandya occupation of northern Lanka lasted some 27 years (433-460), until they were expelled by the Sinhala king Dhatusena (460-478). In 478 Kasyapa usurped the throne, after imprisoning his father Dhatusena, but he was eventually de-throned in 496 by his brother Maudgalyayana, who brought an Indian army from his exile in the Penninsula. The island remained at peace under Maudgalyayana (496-513) and his son Kumaradasa (513-522). Family struggles then supervened until Maudgalyayana II(537-556) brought a new period of peace. After Maudgalyayana's death his son Kirtisrmegha was quickly de-throned by Mahanaga (556-559), a former official from 3

Southern Lanka. When Mahanaga died he was succeeded by the heir apparent, his sister's son Agrabodhi (559-592). The throne then passed to Agraboahi's sister's son Agrabodhi 11 (592-602).

Polonnaruwa was established as the city of the land in 11th century AD. Replacing Anuradhapura as the capital city of Sri Lanka, due its constant south Indian invasions, it remained as the capital until 13 AD. The important kings of the Polannaruwa period were King Wijayabahu the first, King Maha Parakramabahu the first and King Nissankamalla. With the South Indian Kings ruling the country, Prince Keerthi of Sri Lanka formed an army and attacked. He defeated the South Indian King and was known as King Wijebahu the First. Because of this foreign trade was done between South Asia, Arab and China, the most important King during this period was King Maha Parakramabahu the first who ruled from 1153 AD to 1186 AD. During his period, he built 165 dams 3000 canals, 163 major and 2376 minor tanks. Following his death the Sinhalese kingdom began to break due to civil war and foreign attacks. At the end of 13 century the glory of Sri Lanka faded. For 70 years Sri Lanka was ruled by Cholas from South India.

Colonial era
Sri Lanka had always been an important port and trading post in the ancient world, and was increasingly frequented by merchant ships from the Middle East, Persia, Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia. The island were known to the first European explorers of South Asia and settled by many groups of Arab and Malay merchants. A Portuguese colonial mission arrived on the island in 1505 headed by Loureno de Almeida the son of Francisco de Almeida. At that point the island consisted of three kingdoms, namely Kandy in the central hills, Kotte at the Western coast, and Yarlpanam (Anglicised Jaffna) in the north. The Dutch arrived in the 17th century. Although much of the island came under the domain of European powers, the interior, hilly region of the island remained independent, with its capital in Kandy. The British East India Company established control of the island in 1796, declaring it a crown colony in 1802, although the island would not be officially connected with British India. The fall of the kingdom of Kandy in 1815 unified the island under British rule.

Sir Lankan independence and independence movement

Following the end of World War I and II, pressure for independence in Sri Lanka intensified. The office of the Prime Minister of Ceylon was created in advance of independence on 14 October 1947 and Don Stephen Senanayake was chosen as the first prime minister. On 4 February 1948 the country won its independence as the Commonwealth of Ceylon. On 21 July 1960 Sirimavo Bandaranaike took office as prime minister, and became the world's first female prime minister and the first female head of government in post-colonial Asia. In 1972, during Mrs Sirimavo Bandaranaike's second term as prime minister, the country became a republic within the Commonwealth, and the name was changed to Sri Lanka.

A life of a Sri Lanka from birth to death

Ethnic Groups
The people of Sri Lanka are divided into ethnic groups whose conflicts have dominated public life since the nineteenth century. The two main characteristics that mark a person's ethnic heritage are language and religion, which intersect to create four major ethnic groups--the Sinhalese, the Tamils, the Muslims, and the Burghers. Ethnic divisions are not based on race or physical appearance; some Sri Lankans claim to determine the ethnicity of a person by his facial characteristics or colour, but in reality such premises are not provable. There is nothing in the languages or religious systems in Sri Lanka that officially promotes the social segregation of their adherents, but historical circumstances have favoured one or more of the groups at different times, leading to hostility and competition for political and economic power.

Sinhalese
The Sinhalese are the largest ethnic group in the country, officially comprising 11 million people or 74 percent of the population in 1981. They are distinguished primarily by their language, Sinhala, which is a member of the Indo-European linguistic group that includes Hindi and other north Indian tongues as well as most of the languages of Europe. It is likely that groups from north India introduced an early form of Sinhala when they migrated to the island around 500 B.C., bringing with them the agricultural economy that has remained dominant to the twentieth century. From early times, however, Sinhala has included a large number of loan words and constructs from Tamil, and modern speech includes many expressions from European languages, especially English. The Sinhalese claim to be descendants of Prince Vijaya and his band of immigrants from northern India, but it is probable that the original group of Sinhalese immigrants intermarried with indigenous inhabitants. The Sinhalese gradually absorbed a wide variety of castes or tribal groups from the island and from southern India during the last 2,500 years. The Buddhist religion reinforces the solidarity of the Sinhalese as an ethnic community. In 1988 approximately 93 percent of the Sinhala speakers were Buddhists, and 99.5 percent of the Buddhists in Sri Lanka spoke Sinhala. The most popular Sinhalese folklore, literature, and rituals teach children from an early age the uniqueness of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, the long relationship between Buddhism and the culture and politics of the island, and the importance of preserving this fragile cultural inheritance. Buddhist monks are accorded great respect and participate in services at the notable events in people's lives.

To become a monk is a highly valued career goal for many young men. The neighbouring Buddhist monastery or shrine is the center of cultural life for Sinhalese villagers. Their shared language and religion unite all ethnic Sinhalese, but there is a clear difference between the "Kandyan" and the "low-country" Sinhalese. Because the Kingdom of Kandy in the highlands remained independent until 1818, conservative cultural and social forms remained in force there. English education was less respected, and traditional Buddhist education remained a vital force in the preservation of Sinhalese culture. The former Kandyan nobility retained their social prestige, and caste divisions linked to occupational roles changed slowly. The plains and the coast of Sri Lanka, on the other hand, experienced great change under 400 years of European rule. Substantial numbers of coastal people, especially among the Karava caste, converted to Christianity through determined missionary efforts of the Portuguese, Dutch, and British; 66 percent of the Roman Catholics and 43 percent of the Protestants in the early 1980s were Sinhalese. Social mobility based on economic opportunity or service to the colonial governments allowed entire caste or kin groups to move up in the social hierarchy. The old conceptions of noble or servile status declined, and a new elite developed on the basis of its members' knowledge of European languages and civil administration. The Dutch legal system changed traditional family law. A wider, more cosmopolitan outlook differentiated the low-country Sinhalese from the more "old fashioned" inhabitants of highlands.

Tamils
The people collectively known as the Tamils, comprising 2,700,000 persons or approximately 18 percent of the population in 1981, use the Tamil language as their native tongue. Tamil is one of the Dravidian languages found almost exclusively in peninsular India. It existed in South Asia before the arrival of people speaking IndoEuropean languages in about 1500 B.C. Tamil literature of a high quality has survived for at least 2,000 years in southern India, and although the Tamil language absorbed many words from northern Indian languages, in the late twentieth century it retained many forms of a purely Dravidian speech--a fact that is of considerable pride to its speakers. Tamil is spoken by at least 40 million people in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu (the "land of the Tamils"), and by millions more in neighbouring states of southern India and among Tamil emigrants throughout the world. There was a constant stream of migration from southern India to Sri Lanka from prehistoric times. Once the Sinhalese controlled Sri Lanka, however, they viewed their own language and culture as native to the island, and in their eyes Tamil-speaking immigrants constituted a foreign ethnic community. Some of these immigrants appear to have abandoned Tamil for Sinhala and become part of the Sinhalese caste system. Most however, continued to speak Tamil and looked toward southern India as their cultural homeland. Their connections with Tamil Nadu received periodic reinforcement during struggles between the kings of Sri Lanka and southern India that peaked in the wars with the Chola. It is probable that the ancestors of many Tamil speakers entered the country as
7

a result of the Chola conquest, for some personal names and some constructions used in Sri Lankan Tamil are reminiscent of the Chola period. The Tamil speakers in Sri Lanka are divided into two groups that have quite different origins and relationships to the country. The Sri Lankan Tamils trace their immigration to the distant past and are effectively a native minority. In 1981 they numbered 1,886,872, or 12.7 percent of the population. The Indian Tamils are either immigrants or the descendants of immigrants who came under British sponsorship to Sri Lanka to work on plantations in the central highlands. In 1981 they numbered 818,656, or 5.5 percent of the population. Because they lived on plantation settlements, separate from other groups, including the Sri Lankan Tamils, the Indian Tamils have not become an integral part of society and indeed have been viewed by the Sinhalese as foreigners. The population of Indian Tamils has been shrinking through programs repatriating them to Tamil Nadu. Ethnic Tamils are united to each other by their common religions beliefs, and the Tamil language and culture. Some 80 percent of the Sri Lankan Tamils and 90 percent of the Indian Tamils are Hindus. They have little contact with Buddhism, and they worship the Hindu pantheon of gods. Their religious myths, stories of saints, literature, and rituals are distinct from the cultural sources of the Sinhalese. The caste groups of the Tamils are also different from those of the Sinhalese, and they have their rationale in religious ideologies that the Sinhalese do not share. Religion and caste do, however, create divisions within the Tamil community. Most of the Indian Tamils are members of low Indian castes that are not respected by the upper- and middle-level castes of the Sri Lankan Tamils. Furthermore, a minority of the Tamils--4.3 percent of the Sri Lankan Tamils and 7.6 percent of the Indian Tamils--are converts to Christianity, with their own places of worship and separate cultural lives. In this way, the large Tamil minority in Sri Lanka is effectively separated from the mainstream Sinhalese culture and is fragmented into two major groups with their own Christian minorities.

Muslims
Muslims, who make up approximately 7 percent of the population, comprise a group of minorities practicing the religion of Islam. As in the case of the other ethnic groups, the Muslims have their own separate sites of worship, religious and cultural heroes, social circles, and even languages. The Muslim community is divided into three main sections--the Sri Lankan Moors, the Indian Moors, and the Malays, each with its own history and traditions. The Sri Lankan Moors make up 93 percent of the Muslim population and 7 percent of the total population of the country (1,046,926 people in 1981). They trace their ancestry to Arab traders who moved to southern India and Sri Lanka sometime between the eighth and fifteenth centuries, adopted the Tamil language that was the common language of Indian Ocean trade, and settled permanently in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan Moors lived primarily in coastal trading and agricultural communities, preserving their Islamic cultural heritage while adopting many southern Asian customs. During the period of Portuguese colonization, the Moors suffered from persecution, and many moved to the Central Highlands, where their descendants remain. The language of the Sri Lankan Moors is Tamil, or a type of "Arabic Tamil" that contains a large number of Arabic words. On the east coast, their family lines are traced through women, as in kinship systems of the southwest Indian state of Kerala, but they govern themselves through Islamic law. The Indian Moors are Muslims who trace their origins to immigrants searching for business opportunities during the colonial period. Some of these people came to the country as far back as Portuguese times; others arrived during the British period from various parts of India. The Memon, originally from Sind (in modern Pakistan), first arrived in 1870; in the 1980s they numbered only about 3,000. The Bohra and the Khoja came from north western India (Gujarat State) after 1880; in the 1980s they collectively numbered fewer than 2,000. These groups tended to retain their own places of worship and the languages of their ancestral homelands. The Malays originated in Southeast Asia. Their ancestors came to the country when both Sri Lanka and Indonesia were colonies of the Dutch. Most of the early Malay immigrants were soldiers, posted by the Dutch colonial administration to Sri Lanka, who decided to settle on the island. Other immigrants were convicts or members of noble houses from Indonesia who were exiled to Sri Lanka and who never left. The main source of a continuing Malay identity is their common Malay language (bahasa melayu), which includes numerous words absorbed from Sinhalese and Tamil, and is spoken at home.

Burghers
The term Burgher was applied during the period of Dutch rule to European nationals living in Sri Lanka. By extension it came to signify any permanent resident of the country who could trace ancestry back to Europe. Eventually it included both Dutch Burghers and Portuguese Burghers. Always proud of their racial origins, the Burghers further distanced themselves from the mass of Sri Lankan citizens by immersing themselves in European culture, speaking the language of the current European colonial government, and dominating the best colonial educational and administrative positions. They have generally remained Christians and live in urban locations. Since independence, however, the Burgher community has lost influence and in turn has been shrinking in size because of emigration. In 1981 the Burghers made up .3 percent (39,374 people) of the population.

Religion in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka's population practices a variety of religions 70% of Sri Lankans are Theravada, 15% are Hindus, 7.5% are Muslims and 7.5% Christians. Sri Lanka was ranked the 3rd most religious country in the world by a 2008 Gallup poll, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion is an important part of their daily life. Buddhism [70%] Hinduism [15%] Christianity [7.5%] Islam [7.5%]

Distribution of the four major denominations in Sri Lanka. The percentages shown are from 2001 census except where the numbers are italic, which are from 1981 census. Population movements have occurred after 1981, and accurate statistics do not exist for these districts .

10

Buddhism

Exterior of the sacred temple of the Tooth in Kandy Theravada Buddhism is the major religion in Sri Lanka, with about 70% of the country's population as followers. Arahath Mahinda son of Indian Buddhist emperor Ashoka, led the mission to Sri Lanka in 246 BC where he converted the Sri Lankan king of that time Devanampiya Tissa to Buddhism. Arahath Sanghamitra, daughter of King Ashoka, brought a sampling of the Bodhi tree in Buddha Gaya to Sri Lanka. She also established the Order of Nuns in Sri Lanka. The Sapling of the Bodhi tree, known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi was planted in the Mahameghavana Park in Anuradhapura by the King Devanampiya Tissa. From then on, the royal families had helped to encourage the spread of Buddhism, aiding Buddhist missionaries and building monasteries. Around 200 BC, Buddhism became the official religion of Sri Lanka. The Sacred Tooth Relic was brought to Sri Lanka in 4th century AD by Prince Danta and Princess Hemamala. Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any Buddhist nation. During the periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contacts with Myanmar and Thailand. However, later on, Hindu and European colonial influences contributed to the decline of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. By the mid 19th century, Buddhist leaders such as Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera, Colonel Henry Steel Olcott and Anagarika Dharmapala started a successful national Buddhist movement for the revival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

11

Hinduism

A Hindu temple in Colombo Hindus make up 16% of Sri Lanka's population. Hinduism was the major religion practiced on the island prior to the introduction of Buddhism in the 3rd century BC and the subsequent adoption of the new religion by the Sinhalese population. Nonetheless, Hinduism survived and endured in Sri Lanka, supported by South Indian and Orissan dynasties that conquered parts of the island through history. As with other religions, it experienced some decline during the European colonization of the country as a result of the heavy emphasis on Christianity. In modern times the religion is still dominant in the Northern and Eastern provinces, among the Tamil ethnic group, though modern day conversions to Christianity still represent some decline. With 16% of the total population Hinduism is a minority religion in Sri Lanka, though it continues to flourish among the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora; with many temples and religious establishments being built by this community in their new homelands. The most important Hindu religious figure in Sri Lankan modern history is, inarguably, Satguru Siva Yogaswami of Jaffna. One of the greatest and most profound mystics of the twentieth century, Yogaswami was the official satguru and counseling sage of Lanka's several million Tamil Hindu population.

12

Islam

A Mosque in Galle By the 15th century, Arab traders had controlled much of the trade on the Indian Ocean, including that of Sri Lanka's. Many of these traders settled down in Sri Lanka, encouraging the spread of Islam. However, when the Portuguese arrived at Sri Lanka during the 16th century, many of their Muslim descendants were persecuted, thus forcing them to migrate to the Central Highlands and to the east coast. In modern times, Muslims in Sri Lanka are handled by the Muslim Religious and Cultural Affairs Department, which was established in the 1980s to prevent the continual isolation of the Muslim community from the rest of Sri Lanka. Today, about 8% of Sri Lankans adhere to Islam; mostly from the Arab-descendant Moor and Malay ethnic communities on the island.

13

Christianity

St. Sebastian's Church in Negombo According to Christian traditions, Thomas the Apostle first arrived in Sri Lanka (as well as India) during the 1st century. After his arrival, small Christian settlements were recorded to have been established on Sri Lanka's coastline. However, the population of Christians in Sri Lanka didn't dramatically increase until the arrival of Portuguese missionaries during the 15th century. In the 17th century, the Dutch took over Sri Lanka and Dutch missionaries were able to convert 21% of Sri Lanka's population to Christianity by 1722. In 1796 the Dutch were displaced by the British and in 1802 Ceylon became a Crown colony. Anglican and other Protestant missionaries arrived at Sri Lanka during the early 19th century, when the British took control of Sri Lanka from the Dutch. Under British rule missionary work was undertaken by English societies: Baptist, Wesleyan Methodist, the CMS and SPG.] The Salvation Army is also strong in Sri Lanka. Even so, Christianity has heavily declined in Sri Lanka ever since the end of colonial rule. By the 1980s, the population of Christians (mostly concentrated in the northwest of Sri Lanka) reached 1,283,600, 8% of Sri Lanka's population. Of these Christians, about 88% are Roman Catholics and the rest are Anglican and Protestant.

14

A Traditional Village Meemure

The last King of Mahanuwara, Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe despatched his two daughters for safety to a little remote village before enemies captured him. This village is refreshingly beautiful Meemure, nestling at the foothills of the Lakegala Peak of the Dumbara range of hills. According to legend the two princesses committed suicide on hearing of the King's capture and the royal jewellery which they wore is said to be in the possession of traditional families in the village. Another legend says that Meemure belonged to a veddah named 'Benduruwa' which was taken away from him by King Vimaladharma and handed over to Herath Hamy whose descendants are believed to be still living in the village. Driving through the Knuckles range on a gravel road we arrived at a spot from where continuous range of stone ridges were seen lining the sideways of the road. These stone ridges signified that we were entering the Meemure village, lying in a valley amidst the Vamarapuagala, Uda Vannimana and Palle-Vannimana and Lakegala peaks - the village I had heard so much of and longed to visit. An aura of serenity pervaded this quaint little village, the life-style and its traditional values zealously guarded by its elders from the 'pollution' of rapid technological developments. Acres and acres of green paddyfields stretching endlessly, dotted here and there with patches of arecanut trees or reed-bushes; cattle grazing peacefully in homegardens; the boundaries of houses and lands demarcated by stone-ridges with stones piled neatly one on top of the other; wooden fences leading to large home-gardens with rock stones as steps to the houses and the Karambaganga Ela gently flowing by marking one boundary of Meemure. This is my first impression of this environment-friendly peaceful village of Meemure boasting of a history dating to the period of Ravana and long before the advent of Prince Vijaya to Lankapura. The village is self-sufficient and does not depend on the outside world for sustenance. A native of the village and teacher of Kaikawela Madya Maha Vidyalaya Gamini Abeyratne said that there are 125 families in the Gramasevaka Wasama and paddy cultivation is their livelihood. There are 3 schools in the village - over 200-year-old Meemure Primary School, over 50-year-old Kaikawela Madya Maha Vidyalaya and the Kumbukgolla school which is about 6 years old.

15

The village had produced several professionals including government servants. There is a 60-year-old uninhabited ancient temple and an ancient Bo-tree in the village. Elders in the village spoke of how politicians introduced some of the village people to Cardamom cultivation in the Knuckles range. With the declaration of the Knuckles as a Forest Reserve cardamom cultivation in the area is being discouraged. Villagers said they loved the forest and would co-operate if alternate, economically viable livelihoods were provided. An elder, Kiribanda said that even paddy cultivation was affected due to the lack of varieties of paddy they cultivated earlier which only needed carbonic fertiliser but yielded bountiful harvests. With the introduction of weedicides and pesticides and new kinds of fertiliser, the soil is affected. In addition to paddy cultivation the villagers engage themselves in chena cultivations and other kinds of plantations. M. D. Seneviratne (38) said people were experiencing financial difficulties as a result of fertiliser being expensive. With regard to other types of income generation methods such as tourist potentials being introduced, Seneviratne said that the villagers would unanimously oppose unplanned developments into their village since they wanted to preserve the existing unpolluted traditions and cultures in the community which they had treasured for generations. There were 30 to 40 graduates in the village still unemployed. A visit to the Uda Walawwe an ancient traditional Kandyan-style built house including a `Meda Midula'was a remarkable experience. Stocks of paddy were stored in one corner of the house. Lasanda Manike (80) said that the house was over 100 years old with the roof covered with local traditional tiles. The road leading to Meemure village was earlier a footpath. Now it has been widened, untarred and motorable - though rugged in certain places. Meemure's community is simple and unsophisticated village-folk. While taking leave of a group of elders we were chatting with seated on a range of rocks under the spreading Bo-tree, we wished them well with hopes that whatever development projects were introduced, they would meet with the villagers' expectations of protecting their traditional values while at the same time preserving the serenity and pristine beauty of Meemure. Personally for me, this visit is an unforgettable and an exhilarating experience.

Stone Boundaries within the village

16

Vedda people

Figure:2.1 A Veddah school girl

Total population

2,500 (2002)

Regions with significant populations

Sri Lanka 2,500 (2002)

Badulla District Polonnaruwa District

Languages Vedda language, Sinhala, Tamil Religion Animism, Buddhism, Hindu Related ethnic groups Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamils

17

The Wanniyala-Aetto, or "forest people", more commonly known as Veddas or Veddahs are an indigenous people of Sri Lanka, an island nation in the Indian Ocean; they were never numerous and are now few in number.

Roots

figure:2.2 saurce:google image Related to Veddah man from Yemen, from the broader Australoid people According to Early Man and the Rise of Civilisation in Sri Lanka: the Archaeological Evidence by S. U. Deraniyagala, by about 125,000 BP it is certain that there were prehistoric settlements in Sri Lanka . From as early as 18,000 BC a genetic continuum is shown with present-day Veddas. According to the genesis myth of the Sinhala "race"/people, recorded in the ancient chronicle of the Sinhalese royalty, the Mahavansa, the Pulindas also called Veddas are descended from Prince Vijaya (6th-5th century BC), the founding father of the Sinhalese nation, through Kuveni, a woman of the Yakkha clan whom he had espoused. The Mahavansa relates that following the repudiation of Kuveni by Vijaya, in favor of a "Kshatriya" princess from the "Pandya" country, their two children, a boy and a girl, departed to the region of "Sumanakuta" (Adam's Peak in the Ratnapura District), where they multiplied, giving rise to the Veddhas. Anthropologists such as the Seligmanns (The Veddhas 1911) believe the Veddhas to be identical with the "Yakkhas" of yore. Veddas are also mentioned in Robert Knox's history of his captivity by the King of Kandy in the 17th century. Knox described them as "wild men," but also said there was a "tamer sort," and that the latter sometimes served in the king's army.

18

The Ratnapura District, which is part of the Sabaragamuwa Province is known to have been inhabited by the Veddhas in the distant past. This has been shown by scholars like Nandadeva Wijesekera (Veddhas in transition 1964). Indeed, the very name Sabaragamuwa is believed to have meant the village of the Sabaras or "forest barbarians". Such place-names as Veddha-gala (Veddha Rock), Veddha-ela (Veddha Canal) and Vedi-kanda (Veddha Mountain) in the Ratnapura District also bear testimony to this. As Wijesekera observes, a strong Veddha element is discernible in the population of Veddha-gala and its environs. As for the traditional Veddha lifestyle, a number of authorities have delved on this and we can easily describe their life-style as it existed in the past, and as it exists today.

Language
The original language of the Veddas is the Vedda language. Today it is used primarily by the interior Veddas. Communities, such as Coast Veddas and Anuradhapura Veddas, that do not identify themselves strictly as Veddas also use Vedda language in part for communication during hunting and or for religious chants. When a systematic field study was conducted in 1959 it was determined that the language was confined to the older generation of Veddas from Dambana. In 1990s selfidentifying Veddas knew few words and phrases in the Vedda language, but there were individuals who knew the language comprehensively. Initially there was considerable debate amongst linguists as to whether Vedda is a dialect of Sinhalese or an independent language. Later studies indicate that it diverged from its parent stock in the 10th century and became a Creole and a stable independent language by the 13 century, under the influence of Sinhalese. The parent Vedda language(s) is of unknown genetic origins, while Sinhalese is of the Indo-Aryan branch of Indo-European languages. Phonologically it is distinguished from Sinhalese by the higher frequency of palatal sounds C and J. The effect is also heightened by the addition of inanimate suffixes. Morphologically Vedda language word class is divided into nouns, verbs and invariables with unique gender distinctions in animate nouns. Per its Creole tradition, it has reduced and simplified many forms of Sinhalese such as second person pronouns and denotations of negative meanings. Instead borrowing new words from Sinhalese Vedda created combinations of words from a limited lexical stock. Vedda also maintains many archaic Sinhalese terms prior to the 10th to 12th centuries, as a relic of its close contact with Sinhalese. Vedda also retains a number of unique words that cannot be derived from Sinhalese. Conversely, Sinhalese has also borrowed from the original Vedda language, words and grammatical structures, differentiating it from its related Indo-Aryan languages. Vedda has exerted a substratum influence in the formation of Sinhalese.
19

Sinhala-speaking Veddas are found primarily in the southeastern part of the country, especially in the vicinity of Bintenne in Uva District. There are also Sinhalaspeaking Veddas who live in Anuradhapura District in the North Central Province. Another group, often termed East Coast Veddas, is found in coastal areas of the Eastern Province, between Batticaloa and Trincomalee. These Veddas have adopted Tamil Tamil. The Sinhala speaking East Coast Veddas, are called Panama Veddas. They live just south of Batticoloa.

Cultural aspects
Religion
Animism is the original religion of Veddas. The Sinhalized interior Veddahs follow a mix of animism and nominal Buddhism whereas the Tamilized east coast Veddahs follow a mix of animism and nominal Hinduism, known as folk Hinduism amongst anthropologists. One of the most distinctive features of Vedda religion is the worship of dead ancestors: these are termed "nae yaku" among the Sinhala-speaking Veddas. There are also peculiar deities that are unique to Veddas. One of them is "Kande Yakka". Veddas along with the Island's Buddhist, Hindu and Muslim communities venerate the temple complex situated at Kataragama, showing the syncretism that has evolved over 2,000 years of coexistence and assimilation. Kataragama is supposed to be the site at which the Hindu god Skanda or Murugan in Tamil met and married a local tribal girl, Valli, who in Sri Lanka is believed to have been a Vedda. There are a number of other shrines across the island, not as famous as Kataragama that are as sacred to the Veddas as well as to other communities. Veddha religion centred round a cult of ancestral spirits known as Ne yakku, whom the Veddhas invoked for game and yams. The Veddha marriage ceremony is a very simple affair. The ritual consists of the bride tying a bark rope (diya lanuva) of her own twisting, around the waist of the bridegroom. This is the essence of the Veddha marriage and is symbolic of the bride's acceptance of the man as her mate and life partner. Although marriage between crosscousins was the norm until recently, this has changed significantly, with Veddha women even contracting marriages with their Sinhalese and Moor neighbours.

20

In Veddha society, woman is in many respects man's equal. She is entitled to similar inheritance. Monogamy is the general rule, though a widow would be frequently married by her husband's brother as a means of support and consolation (widow inheritance). Death too is a simple affair without any ostentatious funeral ceremonies and the corpse of the deceased is promptly buried. Although that medical knowledge of the Veddha is limited, it nevertheless appears to be sufficient. For example, pythonesa oil (pimburu tel), a local remedy used for healing wounds, has proven to be very successful in the treatment of fractures and deep cuts.

Figure:2.6 Burial

Since the opening of colonisation schemes Veddha burials changed when they dug graves of about 45 feet in depth and left the body wrapped in some cloth and covered with leaves and earth. The Veddas also scooped the trunks of the Gadumba tree and laid the body between the scooped out wood planks and then buried. At the head of the grave were kept three open coconuts and a small bundle of wood, while at its foot were kept an opened coconut and an untouched coconut. Certain plants of the cactus species (pathok) were planted at the head of the grave, the middle and the foot their personal possessions like the bow and arrow, betel pouch, were also buried. This practice varied according to the different communities of the aboriginal settlements. The contents of the betel pouch of the deceased were eaten after his death.(see figure 2.6) In Vedda burial rituals the dead body was scented or smeared with some juice obtained from the leaves of jungle trees or a lime tree. The foot or the head of the grave was never lit either with fire or wax and water was not kept in a vessel by the grave side.

21

Cult of the Dead

The Veddas believe in the cult of the dead. They worshipped and made incantations to their Nae Yakka (Relative Spirit) followed by other customary ritual (called the Kiri Koraha) which is still in vogue among the surviving Gam Veddas of Rathugala, Pollebedda Dambana and the Henanigala Vedda re-settlement (in Mahaweli systems off Mahiyangane). They believed that the spirit of their dead would haunt them bringing forth diseases and calamity. To appease the dead spirit they invoke the blessings of the Nae Yakka and other spirits, like Bilinda Yakka, Kande Yakka followed by the dance ritual of the Kiri Koraha. According to Sarasin Cousins (in 1886) and Seligmann's book - 'The Veddas' (1910). "When man or woman dies from sickness, the body is left in the cave or rock shelter where the death took place, the body is not washed or dressed or ornamented in any way, but is generally allowed to be in the natural supine position and is covered with leaves and branches. This was formerly the universal custom and still persists among the less sophisticated Veddas who sometimes in addition place a large stone upon the chest for which no reason could be given, this is observed at Sitala Wanniya (off Polle-bedda close to Maha Oya), where the body is still covered with branches and left where the death occurred."

Figure:2.3

Figure:2.4

22

Clothing
Until fairly recent times, the raiment of the Veddhas was remarkably scanty. In the case of men, it consisted only of a loincloth suspended with a string at the waist, while in the case of women, it was a piece of cloth that extended from the navel to the knees. Today, however, Veddha attire is more covering, men wear a short sarong extending from the waist to the knees, while the womenfolk clad themselves in a garment similar to the Sinhalese diya-redda which extends from the breastline to the knees.(see figure 2.3,2.4)

Music
Bori Bori Sellam-Sellam Bedo Wanniya, Palletalawa Navinna-Pita Gosin Vetenne, Malpivili genagene-Hele Kado Navinne, Diyapivili Genagene-Thige Bo Haliskote Peni, Ka tho ipal denne (A Vedda honeycomb cutter's folk song) Meaning of this song - The bees from yonder hills of Palle Talawa and Kade suck nectar from the flowers and made the honeycomb. So why should you give them undue pain when there is no honey by cutting the honeycomb.(see figure:2.8)

Art
Vedda cave drawings such as those found at Hamangala provide graphic evidence of the sublime spiritual and artistic vision achieved by the ancestors of today's Wanniyala-Aetto people. Most researchers today agree that the artists most likely were the Wanniyala-Aetto women who spent long hours in these caves waiting for their menfolk's return from the hunt.(see figure:2.7) Understood from this perspective, these cave drawings depict brilliant feats of Wanniyala-Aetto culture as seen through the eyes of its womenfolk. The simple yet graceful abstract figures are portrayed engaging in feats of vision and daring that place them firmly above even the greatest beasts of their jungle habitat. The nimbus or halo about the human figures' heads represents the sun's disc and, equally, the sacred power bordering upon divinity that accrues not only to great hunters but to all those endowed with the vision to behold and apprehend the marvel of divinity in humble guise. Even up to modern times, the Wanniyala-Aetto used to swear oaths of truth by the divinity of the sun, saying 'upon Maha Suriyo Deviyo'.

23

Such cave drawings have long served as visual memory aids and as teaching tools for the transmission of ancestral wisdom traditions to succeeding generations. To this day, they provide silent testimony to the profound heights attained by Lanka's indigenous culture expressed with elegant simplicity that people of all communities may appreciate.

Livelihood
A Vedda family with bows and arrows Veddas were originally hunter-gatherers. They used bows and arrows to hunt game,(see figure 2.3,2.5) and also gathered wild plants and honey. Many Veddas also farm, frequently using slash and burn or swidden cultivation, which is called "chena" in Sri Lanka. East Coast Veddas also practice fishing. Veddhas are famously known for their rich meat diet.

Figure:2.5

Venison and the flesh of rabbit, turtle, tortoise, monitor lizard, wild boar and the common brown monkey are consumed with much relish. The Veddhas kill only for food and do not harm young or pregnant animals. Game is commonly shared amongst the family and clan. Fish are caught by employing fish poisons such as the juice of the pus-vel (Entada scandens) and daluk-kiri (Cactus milk). Veddha culinary fare is also deserving of mention. Amongst the best known are gona perume, which is a sort of sausage containing alternate layers of meat and fat, and goya-telperume, which is the tail of the monitor lizard (talagoya), stuffed with fat obtained from its sides and roasted in embers. Another Veddha delicacy is dried meat preserve soaked in honey. In the olden days, the Veddhas used to preserve such meat in the hollow of a tree, enclosing it with clay.
24

Such succulent meat served as a ready food supply in times of scarcity. The early part of the year (JanuaryFebruary) is considered to be the season of yams and midyear (JuneJuly) that of fruit and honey, while hunting is availed of throughout the year. Nowadays, more and more Veddha folk have taken to Chena (slash and burn) cultivation. Kurakkan (Eleusine coracana) is cultivated very often. Maize, yams, gourds and melons are also cultivated. In the olden days, the dwellings of the Veddhas consisted of caves and rock shelters. Today, they live in unpretentious huts of wattle, daub and thatch. In the reign of King Datusena (6th century A.D.) the Mahaweli ganga was diverted at Minipe in the Minipe canal nearly 47 miles long said to be constructed with help from the Yakkas. The Mahawamsa refers to the canal as Yaka-bendi-ela. When the Ruwanweli Seya was built in King Dutugemunu's time (2nd century B.C.) the Veddas procured the necessary minerals from the jungles. King Parakrama Bahu the great of (12 century) in his war against the rebels employed these Veddas as scouts. In the reign of King Rajasinghe II (17 century A.D.) in his battle with the Dutch he had a Vedda regiment. In the abortive Uva-Welessa revolt of 1817-1818 of the British times, led by Keppetipola Disawe, the Veddas too fought with the rebels against the British forces.

25

Current status
Some observers have said Veddas are disappearing and have lamented the decline of their distinct culture. Development, government forest reserve restrictions, and the civil war have disrupted traditional Vedda ways of life. Dr. Wiveca Stegeborn, an anthropologist, has been studying the Vedda since 1977 and alleges that their young women are being tricked into accepting contracts to the Middle East as domestic workers when in fact they will be trafficked into prostitution or sold as sex slaves. However, cultural assimilation of Veddas with other local populations has been going on for a long time. "Vedda" has been used in Sri Lanka to mean not only hunter-gatherers, but also to refer to any people who adopt an unsettled and rural way of life and thus can be a derogatory term not based on ethnic group. Thus, over time, it is possible for non-Vedda groups to become Veddas, in this broad cultural sense. Vedda populations of this kind are increasing in some districts. Today many Sinhalese people and some east coast Tamils claim that they have some trace of Veddah blood. Intermarriage between Veddas and Sinhalese is very frequent. They are not considered outcasts in Sri Lankan society, unlike the low caste Rodiyas (see The current leader of the Wanniyala-Aetto community is Uru Warige Wanniya.

figure:2.7

figure:2.8

26

Ancient places in sri lanka

This remarkable city of Anuradhapura is Sri Lankas most sacred town and has some of the most extensive ruins in the world. This city served as a great monastic centre. It remained residence and royal capital for over 100 successive Sinhalese Kings for around 1500 years from the 4th century BC to the 8th century AD, after which it was abandoned and the capital moved to Polonnaruwa. Anuradhapura has eight main places of veneration, known as atamasthana. They are;

Sri Maha Bodhi

The Sri Maha Bodhi, the oldest historical tree in the world, is a cutting from the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya in India under which the Buddha attained enlightenment. For sure this is one of Sri Lankas greatest religious icons and symbolizes the greatness of the Buddha. In around 250 BC this sacred tree was brought to Sri Lanka by the daughter of the great Emperor Asoka of India and sister of Arahat Mahinda, the monk who introduced Buddhism to Sri Lanka. The following places are venerated monuments known as dagobas or stupas. Mostly shaped like a tea cup turned upside down, the significance of theses dagobas lies in the fact that one or more sacred relics of the Buddha are enshrined within the walls.

27

Ruwanweliseya
Known as the great stupa Ruwanweliseya is undoubtedly just that. A perfect dome standing over 300 feet tall with a diameter of 370 feet, the massive Ruwanweliseya is possibly the most sacred dagoba in the entire island, as it is believed to house the largest number of relics of the Buddha. Construction of this great dagoba was thought to have started during the reign of King Dutugemunu in the 2nd century BC. As with most historical monuments in Sri Lanka, Ruwanweliseya has a deep connection with Buddhism. The dome shape of the dagoba is thought to be the perfect milk bubble shape, representing the Buddhist philosophy on life the bubble of life which will burst in no time like the fragility of our lives.

Thuparamaya
Built in the shape of a heap of paddy, this dagoba is considered to be the first in Sri Lanka, following the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka by Arahat Mahinda. The collar bone of Lord Buddha is believed to have been enshrined here. The Thuparamaya as it stands today is after several renovations, having once been completely ruined

28

Lovamahapaya (Brazen Palace)

Situated between the Sri Maha Bodhi and Ruwanweliseya, is the Lovamahapaya. Also known as the Brazen Palace, this ancient 9 storey building was built in 150 BC as the monks residence for the monks of the Mahviharaya Buddhist University. At any given time, the Lovamahapaya was supposed to have housed 3000 monks! The bronze tiles that were used to cover the roof, gave this building the name, the Brazen Palace. It was thought to have taken 6 years to build this magnificent building. What we see today represents the Brazen Palace in ruin.

Abhayagiri Dagoba
The Abhayagiri Dagoba built around 88 BC with an original height of over a hundred metres is one of the tallest monuments of its nature in the world. This dagoba was more than just part of a complex of monastic buildings. Abhayagiri gained popularity as a fraternity for Buddhist monks, attracting scholars from all over the world across all nuances of Buddhism and as such its influence can be traced to other parts of the world. The 3rd century AD saw the golden age of Abhayagiri, and when the Buddhas Tooth Relic was brought to Sri Lanka the 4th century, Abhayagiri was selected to house the relic for public veneration. Apart from being a religious monument, the Abhayagiri Dagoba also serves as a symbol of national resurgence, as the king who built this great monument did it to fulfill a vow that he made when he was compelled to flee his kingdom. 14 years following his exile, the king returned, overthrew the Dravidians and regained the kingdom. This era marked the end of Brahmin and Jain influence in the country.

29

Jetavanaramaya
The Jetavanaramaya is a dagoba located in the ruins of the Jetavana Monastery in Anuradhapura. At a height of over 120m, Jetavana Dagoba is the largest dagoba in Sri Lanka and among the tallest monuments in the world. A part of a sash or belt tied by the Buddha is believed to be enshrined here.

Mirisaveti Stupa
This dagoba was built in the 2nd century by King Dutugemunu.

Lankaramaya
This is a stupa that was built in the 1st century BC and an important place of worship for Buddhists.In and around Anuradhapura there are many other ruins and important places of worship. A few other interesting historical places worth visiting are;

30

Isurumuniya Rock Temple

Isurumuniya was built in the 3rd century BC as part of a monastic complex. This temple is best known for its rock carvings, the most popular being the lovers. The style of the sculpture resembles the Gupta Art of India.

Samadhi Statue
The Samadhi Statue in Anuradhapura is believed to be a masterpiece of sculptural art and dates back to around the 4th century BC. The statue is 8 feet high and made of granite. The statue shows the Buddha in a deep state of meditation.

Aukana Buddha Statue

This magnificent granite Buddha statue which stands at 13 feet is among the tallest Buddha statues in Sri Lanka. The Aukana Buddha statue dates back to the 5th century AD.

31

Mihintale
A few miles east of Anuradhapura lies Mihintale, a 300m peak in a mountainous range with a splendid view of the countryside. The story of Mihintale goes way back to a full moon day in the month of June around 250 BC, when Arahat Mahinda was believed to have come from India to preach the doctrine of Buddhism. As the story goes, Arahat Mahinda met King Devanampiyatissa and converted the king and his court to Buddhism. Following this, the Mihintale Rock became a monastery and sanctuary. To this day Mihintale is revered by all Buddhists alike. And especially on Esala Full Moon Day, which falls in the month of June, pilgrims make it a point to climb Mihintale and pay their respects.

POLONNARUWA The Hindu Temples

Polonnaruwa has probably the largest number of Hindu temples spread out amidst Buddhist shrines. Compared to the larger Buddhist shrines, the Hindu temples can be considered small but significant in design and execution, with a definite Hindu character conforming to an orthodox religious architectural tradition.

32

Parakrama Samudraya
Also known as the Sea of Parakrama, a tank so vast that it is often mistaken for the ocean. It is of such a width that it is impossible to stand on one shore and view the other side. It encircles the town like a ribbon, being both a defensive border against intruders and the lifeline of people in times of peace.

The Royal Palace and Council Chambers

King Parakramabahus Palace must have once been an imposing structure, and historical records describe it as 7 stories high with a 1000 rooms. The large halls, royal pleasure gardens complete with royal baths, intricately carved stone pillars, grandiosely decorated windows and the fabulous architecture used to build this palace, are characteristic of this great era.

33

The Quadrangle
This sacred quadrangle contains some of the earliest and most sacred monuments of Polonnaruwa. The central unit here is the Vatadage or the circular relic house. An elegant and beautiful work of art. The Thuparama the largest Buddhist image house The Nissankalatamandapa a very pretty pavilion A Bo-tree shrine The Hatadage a shrine of 60 relics Satmahal Prasada a square pyramidal tower in 7 tiers is a Dagoba with a unique design Galpota A massive 8 meter long and 403 meter wide stone slab is inscribed with the deeds of a king of Polonnaruwa.

Gal Vihara
Is the most celebrated site in Polonnaruwa and one of the most famous in the whole island. It is known for its large rock-cut images which are in a perfect state of preservation. Across the face of the rock is (1) a seated Buddha image in deep meditation (2) a sculpture inside a cave out of sold rock (3) a standing Buddha statue 7 meters high (4) the Buddha lying down.

Alahana Pirivena
A monastic university. The area extends over 80 hectares. Excavations have exposed some of the most unique and significant buildings of the Polonnaruwa period. The brickbuilt image house of Lankathilaka with its 41 foot colossal Buddha statue occupies the center of this space. Is without doubt one of the most impressive ruins of this ancient city.

34

GALLE Galle Fort

Galle Fort was first built by the Portuguese in the 16th century and then modified by the Dutch during the 17th century. During this time the fort became Sri Lankas main port and centre of trade and commerce among the Persians, Arabians, Greeks, Romans, Malays and Indians. The Galle Fort is one of the best preserved examples of 17th century colonial fortifications in the world and is on the UNESCO list of world monuments. In fact today, much of what visitors see of the Galle Fort is a reflection of the way Galle Fort was during the time of the Dutch. When the British took over Galle for the Dutch in the 18th century they did little to alter or eradicate any of the Dutch or influences. structures

KANDY Dalada Maligawa

Was built in the 15th century and currently houses the most sacred Buddha relic, the Tooth of Lord Buddha. The Dalada Perahera held continuously in honor of the sacred Tooth Relic is famous the world over. The pageantry unfolds through 10 nights each year with colorfully caparisoned elephants, drummers, dancers and chieftains.

The 3 Temples Lankathilaka Rajamaha Temple

Built on a rocky outcrop, the temple is reached by a long series of steps cut directly into the rock. The temple is full of exquisite painted scenes of the lives of 24 former Buddhas and there is a colossal seated image of the Buddha.

35

Embekke Temple
Built in the 14th century. This temple has been completely built from wood, and is famous for the unique wood work and the splendid carvings. A deistic shrine is dedicated to the God of Kataragama. The wood art of this temple is astounding with dancers, swans, soldiers on horseback, floral emblems and double headed eagles to name a few. Special treasures are the doorways of sandalwood.

Gadaladeniya Rock Temple

This temple is built almost exclusively from stone in the 14th century and sits on a hilltop with commanding views of the countryside. The Gadaladeniya rock Temple is famous for its stone carvings. The structure of the temple is influenced by South Indian architecture.

36

Yapahuwa
Yapahuwa served as the capital of Sri Lanka in the latter part of the 13th century (12731284). Built on a huge, 90 meter high rock boulder in the style of the Sigiriya rock fortress, Yapahuwa was a palace and military stronghold against foreign invaders. The palace and fortress were built by King Buvanekabahu I (12721284) in the year 1273. Many traces of ancient battle defences can still be seen, while an ornamental stairway, is its biggest showpiece. On top of the rock are the remains of a stupa, a Bodhi tree enclosure, and a rock shelter/cave used by Buddhist monks, indicating that earlier this site was used as a Buddhist monastery, like many boulders and hills in the area. There are several caves at the base of the rock. In one of them there is a shrine with Buddha images. One cave has a Brahmi script inscription. At the southern base of the rock there is a fortification with two moats and ramparts. In this enclosure there are the remains of a number of buildings including a Buddhist shrine. There is also a Buddhist temple called Yapawwa Rajamaha Vihara built during the Kandyan period. The Tooth Relic was brought from Dambadeniya and kept in the Tooth Temple built for the purpose at the top of the third staircase. The relics were carried away from the temple here to South India by the Pandyas, and then recovered in 1288 by Parakkramabahu III (12871293), who temporarily placed them in safety at Polonnaruwa.

37

World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka

Eight sites of Sri Lanka have been inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage, namely, the ancient city of Polonnaruwa (1982), the ancient city of Sigiriya (1982), the Golden Temple of Dambulla (1991), the old town of Galle and its fortifications (1988), the sacred city of Anuradhapura (1982), the sacred city of Kandy (1988), Sinharaja Forest Reserve (1988) and the Central Highlands of Sri Lanka (2010).

Sri Dalada Maligawa

Outside view of the Temple

Sigiriya

Sigiriya Rock from the main public entrance

38

Anuradhapura

Ruwanwelisaya, in the sacred city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.

Galle

The Fort: View of the Galle lighthouse, Sri Lanka

Polonnaruwa Cave Temple Dambulla

Dambulla Cave Temple

39

Sinharaja Forest Reserve

Mountains of Sinharaja Forest Reserve, Sri Lanka

Sinharaja Forest Reserve is a national park in Sri Lanka. It is of international significance and has been designated a Biosphere Reserve and World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Central Highlands of Sri Lanka

This site comprises the Peak Wilderness Protected Area, the Horton Plains National Park and the Knuckles Conservation Forest.

Cultural Triangle & Ancient Cities

This dry area of Sri Lanka contains the most famous cultural and arheological reminders of a rich civilization more than 2500 years old. Escavations during the last 100 years have pushed back years of jungle encroachment and restored many ancient sites and access to them.
If you have a late arrival into the airport, why not rest your heads for a night at Hideaway, a pineapple plantation, and Horathapola, a coconut plantation bungalow are within 1-hour from the airport towards Kurenagala and the Ancient cities.

Dambulla
Dambullas sacred temple - the Golden Temple - consists of 5 separate caves housing Buddhist statues and many paintings both religious and secular. The interiors are impressive but the climb up to the Rock temple is steep. Dambulla is the centre point of the Cultural Triangle and an ideal base for overnight stays. Na Mala Eco Village is ideal for the adventurous whilst Kaladiya has relaxing pool and complimentary mountain bikes and trails.

40

Sigiriya
Travel North now to Sigiriya to wonder at Lion Rock where the remains of a 5th Century fortress palace sits 600ft above the surrounding country. The steep and in parts precarious climb, accompanied by the long tailed monkey, is rewarded by frescoes and the mirror wall on the way. At the summit await spectacular views where you can wander amongst the foundations of a surprisingly sophisticated palace. One of the best views of the Lion Rock can be enjoyed from the dining verandah at the exclusive Elephant Corridor Villas.

Polonnaruwa
Also North of Dambulla but to the West lies the medieval capital of Polonnaruwa, once protected by 3 miles of walls. The many sculptures, friezes ruins, temples etc are contained within a family compact area. A preferable and equally historic destination to Anuradhapura for the traveller with less time. It is also just 2-3 hours drive to the beautiful beaches of the East Coast and Lotus Park Beach villas. Water is and has been of great significance and the Parakrama Samudra- a gigantic water tank covering 6000 acres- irrigated surrounding paddy fields by way of 11 channels. Inhabitants of that time could also enjoy the Baths with crocodile-mouth visitors, wild elephants and the tiered 8 petalled Lotus flower pond - the national flower of Sri Lanka. Amongst many rock carvings the Galvihara images of Buddha are the most remarkable. The delicate features of these carvings are apparent to this day and their size-standing 7m tall, 14m reclining- truly impressive.

41

Anuradhapura
The ancient city of Anuradhapura, lying to the North West of the modern town and 2 hours from Dambulla, was once the greatest monastic city of the ancient word. Abandoned in 1073 to the mercy of the jungle, the British explorers who discovered it in the 19th Century thought they had stumbled on a lost city. Restoration has continued to this day on this spread-out site. The sacred Bodhi Tree Sri Maha Bodhi- the oldest known in the World- a cutting of the tree in India where the Buddha achieved enlightenment- is central to the buildings and religious awareness. Golden railings maintain its safety and to approach with the pilgrims please remember to remove hat and shoes. Palaces and temples too numerous to list are there to be explored and revered.

42

Museums
Anuradhapura Archeological Museum:
Located within the ancient city, the Anuradhapura Archeological Museum has stone, timber, metal and terracotta artifacts of the Anuradhapura period. There are also ancient coins and drawings.

Anuradhapura Folk Museum:

Located within the sacred city close to the Archaeological Museum, this folk museum houses a collection of artifacts which illustrate the rural life on the North Central Province.

Colombo National Museum:

This was the first public museum to be established in Sri Lanka in 1877. The museum is housed in an impressive colonial building in the heart of the city, surrounded by extensive gardens filled with foliage.

Dutch Period Museum:

Located on Prince Street in Pettah, in the midst of all the hustle and bustle, the old "Dutch House" built by Count August Carl Van Ranzow in the latter part of the 17th century, now houses the Dutch Period Museum. The building embodies the unique architectural features of a colonial Dutch town house with columns, verandas, and courtyards. The museum provides an insight into the Dutch period in Sri Lanka and houses artifacts including furniture, ceramics, coins and photographs.

Galle National Maritime Museum:

Located within the Galle Fort, the National Maritime Museum is a little known Museum established in 1992. Housed in the Great Dutch-built Warehouse of 1671, near the `Old Gate of the Fort, the museum displays a variety of exhibits connected with sea-faring, maritime trade, fishing and sea-life.

Galle National Museum:

Housed in an old Dutch period building in the heart of the Fort, the Galle National Museum represents all that is Galle Portuguese and Dutch period history, the cultural and historical influences of the Moors, weaponry, porcelain plates used by the Moors of the area in the olden days, and indigenous crafts such as Beeralu lace making introduced by the Portuguese. Also on exhibit are masks from the Kolam folk dramas.

43

Kandy National Museum:

Situated behind the Temple of the Tooth, in a building of historical and architectural interest, the Kandys National Museum provides a glimpse into the Kandyan period in the 17th-18th Century. Various items donated to the Sri Dalada Maligawa by kings, noblemen, and other devotees have been put on display in this well laid out museum. The upper levels of the building houses rare Ola m manuscripts, Royal apparel, life size models of the lost King and Queen of Kandy, and a variety of antiquities.

Koggala Folk Museum:

Martin Wickramasinghe, one of Sri Lankas famous writers, whose literally works are treasured by school children and adults alike, grew up in this small fishing village of Koggala. The Folk Museum was the authors dream that was made a reality by the Martin Wickramasinge Trust. The Museum brings to life a little part of Koggala, which is so vividly depicted in Wickramasinghes writings.

Polonnaruwa Archeological Museum:

Located near the Rest House, this museum is thoughtfully laid out with interesting exhibits, and clear explanations giving an insight into the ancient kingdom of Polonnaruwa. The Museum takes you through a series of rooms, each dedicated to different aspects of the ancient city - the citadel, the outer city, the monastery area and the periphery, and the Hindu monuments

Sigiriya Museum:
Opened in August 2009, the Sigiriya Museum is an inspiring setting where history comes alive. This modern museum set against the backdrop of the magnificent Sigiriya rock fortress, has a series of galleries that elaborates on the different aspects of the rock fortress including its surrounding sanctuary.

44

Ancient forts
Sigiriya
Sigiriya is commonly referred to as a fortress built on the rock of Sigiriya with fortifications around it. However archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana claims that it was more a palace than a fortress.

Vijithapura
Vijithapura was a fortresscity that existed during the Anuradhapura Kingdom. It was the site of a major [1] battle between the forces of Elara and Dutthagamani

Colonial forts
Portuguese forts
Colombo fort Matara fort Mannar fort Galle fort Ruwanwella Fort Jaffna fort Fort Fredrick Batticaloa fort Pooneryn fort Negombo fort Elephant Pass Fort Kalutara Fort

Dutch forts
Fort Ostenburg Kalpitiya fort Tangalle fort Fort Hammenhiel Star fort

British forts

Fort Macdowall Martello tower of Hambantota

45

CULTURAL FESTIVALS IN SRI LANKA

Sri Lanka having a history as long as many ancient civilizations, positioning in the crossroad of the East and the West, and being a multicultural society, celebrates a wide variety of festivals, ceremonies and events. Sri Lanka is a country rich in culture and history and the people of Sri Lanka love to find reasons to celebrate. Festivals would leave most enchanting experiences on the minds of its travelers as the island enjoys the bright and colorful tradition festivals celebrated with full fun and enthusiasm. Mostly festivals in Sri Lanka are religion base and celebrated with same sprit among all sections of the society. The people of Sri Lanka are so lively that there is festivity mood throughout the year, which is easily depicted in their celebrations, with vivid traditional rituals, ceremonies and a splendid extravagance. The exact dates of most festivals tend to change from year to year as they depend on lunar and solar aspect.

Festivals / Events In Sri Lanka.

January

Thai Pongal - (Religious/Hindu) Duruthu Full Moon Poya - (Religious/Buddhist) Aluth Sahal Mangallaya - (Customary/Sinhalese/Agriculture related) Patti Pongal - (Religious/Hindu/Agriculture related) Patti Kiri Ithirima - (Customary/Sinhalese/Agriculture related)

February

Navam Full Moon Poya - (Religious/Buddhist) March Maha Shivaratri - (Religious/Hindu) Milad-Un-Nabi - (Religious/Islam) Medin Full Moon Poya - (Religious/Buddhist) Good Friday - (Religious/Catholic/Christian)

46

April

Day Prior to Sinhala and Tamil New Year - (Religious/Buddhist/Hindu) Sinhala and Tamil New Year - (Religious/Buddhist/Hindu) National herbal oil anointing ceremony - (Buddhist/Astrology related) Bak Full Moon Poya - (Religious/Buddhist)

May

Vesak Full Moon Poya- (Religious/Buddhist)

June

Poson Full Moon Poya - (Religious/Buddhist)

July

Esala Full Moon Poya - (Religious/Buddhist)

August

Nikini Full Moon Poya - (Religious/Buddhist) Esala Perahera (Religious/Buddhist)

September
Binara Full Moon Poya - (Religious/Buddhist)

October

Ramazan Fastival - (Religious/Islam) Vap Full Moon Poya - (Religious/Buddhist) Deepavali - (Religious/Hindu)
47

November

Il Full Moon Poya - (Religious/Buddhist)

December

Haj Festival - (Religious/Islam) Unduvap Full Moon Poya - (Religious/Buddhist) Christmas - (Religious/Catholic/Christian)

48

Religious Festivals.
Sri Lanka being a predominantly Buddhist country Buddhist festivals are more frequent. Full moon day of each month, called Poya day, is a day of religious observance for the Buddhists. On every Poya day there is some form of festival in the village temples. However the major full moon days are Duruthu, Vesak, Poson, Esala & Unduvap observed with greater pomp and pageantry. Important Hindu festivals are Thai Pongal , Vel & Deepavali . Muslims celebrate the Ramadan, Haj and Milad-un-Nabi festivals. Christmas and Easter are celebrated by the Christians in Sri Lanka.

Buddhist Festivals.
The full moon day of Duruthu is celebrated in January to comemorate the first visit of the Buddha to Sri Lanka. A procession is held for three nights at Kelaniya. This is a colourful occasion with elephants, dancers, drummers and whip crackers entertaining the spectators. For Buddhists all across the world, Vesak, a full moon day, is an occasion of paramount significance. The day marks the Birth, Enlightenment and Last Breath of the Buddha. Adherents of Buddhism bedeck and illuminate their houses with electric lamps and specially Vesak lanterns. They also visit places of worship to offer players. Towns wear a totally different outlook on the day. Colorful pandals with numerous electric jets are erected. Free meals are offered to passers by. Buddhism was introduced (poson)on this day in Sri Lanka. This was the day when Arahat Mahinda arrived in Sri Lanka. He introduced Buddhism in Sri Lanka. The festival is celebrated more vigorously in Anuradhapura and Mihintale. Large processions are taken out in both cities. Grand festival of Esala is celebrated in many parts of the Island specially Kandy. History of the festival dates back to 3rd century BC. Colourful large processions are held for several nights. This is the biggest festival in the region and is celebrated for ten nights.

49

Nawam Full Moon Poya Day

This incredible spectacle celebrates the February Full Moon with a two-day event that includes parades and processions with elephants, dancers and music...

Hindu Festivals.
Hindu community celebrates Deepawali or the 'festival of lights' to welcome Lakshmi the Godess of wealth. They illuminate their homes with oil lamps and lights. Deepawali signifies victory of good over evil. People wear new clothes, distribute sweets and indulge in pyrotechnics. Vel is a Hindu festival dedicated to the War God Skandha. On the occasion of Vel towns in Sri Lanka take on blissful atmosphere. Processions are taken with a colorful Vel chariot. In Colombo the procession marches from the Sea Street temple to Bambalapitiya temple and back.

50

Muslims Festivals.
Muslim community form a significant part of the population of Sri Lanka. They also celebrate their festivals with fervour. Milad-un-Nabi, Id-ul-Fitr and Haj are three major Muslim festivals. Milad-un-Nabi is observed in December on the occasion of birth of Prophet Mohammed. Id-ul-Fitr is celebrated when sacred fasting during the month of Ramadan ends. Haj festival is celebrated when pilgrimages leave for the holy shrine of Mecca. Eid-ul-Azha is celebrated to co-memorate the sacrifice of Prophet Abraham.

Christians Festivals.
Christmas and Easter are celebrated like in any other part of the world by the Christian Community of Sri Lanka. Christmas is mainly glamorous in Colombo and the coastal catholic areas, where the birth of Christ is celebrated with Rich cakes ,crackers, midnight mass, family gatherings and joyous sharing with the poor.
Celebrated by Catholics and Christians, The Madhu and the St Annes church are known to have miracle statues. Devotees visit the pilgrimage site and spend time in prayer while overnight sleep is in the camping site outside the church.

51

Sinhala & Tamil New Year.

Celebrated by all Sinhalese and Tamils, the traditional New Year celebrations fall on between 12 to 14 April and is the celebration of Sun God's passage from Pisces to Aries. It is a harvest thanksgiving and is mainly celebrated by the villagers in true traditional style. A colourful and extravagant festival, this season is usually a holiday for the whole country. The Aluth Avurudu (New Year) is a time for friendships and family and many traditions are observed according to the litha (A strological time). New clothes are worn, milk boiled and traditional ricemilk with sweets fill the tables. The youth spend the day engaged in various traditional games such as climbing a greased poll, pillow fighting, breaking a pot blindfolded and the girls plating swinging. The women also fill the air with Raban padha ( traditional drum instrument) dressed in their new year costume.

Esala perahera.
The festival of the tooth is the grand festival of Esala held in Sri Lanka. It is very grand with elegant costumes. Happening in July or August in Kandy, it has become a unique symbol of Sri Lanka. It is a Buddhist festival consisting of dances and nicely decorated elephants. There are fire-dances, whip-dances, Kandyan dances and various other cultural dances. The elephants are usually adorned with lavish garments. The Kandy Esala Perahera begins with the Kap Situveema or Kappa, in which a sanctified young Jackfruit tree (Artocarpus integrifolia) is cut and planted in the premises of each of the four Devales dedicated to the four guardiangods Natha, Vishnu, Katharagama and the goddessPattini. Traditionally it was meant to shower blessing on the King and the people. For the next five nights, the "Devale Peraheras" take place within the premises of the four Devales with the priest of each Devale taking the pole every evening, accompanied by music and drumming, flag and canopy bearers, spearman and the Ran Ayudha, the sacred insignia of the Gods.

52

On the sixth night, the Kumbal Perahera begins and continues on for five days. Initially, the Devale Peraheras assemble in front of the Temple of the Tooth, which is Sri Lanka's most important Buddhist Shrine and where the Buddhas Sacred Tooth Relic has been kept since the 16th Century) with their insignias placed on the ransivige (a domelike structure) accompanied by the Basnayake Nilames (the lay custodians of the Devales). The Randoli Perahera begins after five nights of the Kumbal Perahera. Randoli refers to palanquins on which the Queens of the ruling Kings traditionally traveled. After a further five nights of the Randoli Perahera, the pageant ends with the Diya Kepeema, which is the water cutting ceremony at the Diyakapanathota Sri Rakhkhanga Temple near to Mahaweli River at Getambe , a town a few miles from Kandy. A Day Perahera is held to mark the ceremony.

53

Agricultural Festivals.
The Aluth Sahal Mangalle or new rice festival is an important event of the harvest festival of the Maha kannaya in Sri Lanka. The first batch of new rice after being plucked, threshed and winnowed is offered to the Lord Buddha and deitie. Aluth Sahala Mangalya is a celebration of bounty harvest gathered after a year of hard work and toiling. In another way, it is a celebration of farmers' labour. Throughout the history agriculture is associated with royalty of the country. The most important new rice festival that happens afterwards is the Aluth Sahal Mangalle at the Sri Maha Bodhi in Anuradhapura. Thai Pongal festival is celebrated by Hindu community to express their regard for the Sun God. 'Pongal' word in Tamil means boiling over. People offer worship at a Hindu temple. Then a pot of rice is cooked in spicy, sweetened milk which is left to boil over. The dish is consumed as the prasada of the Sun Good.

World Spice Festival

First held in 2005, the World Spice Festival is an opportunity for locals and visitors alike to sample a ra representing all...

54

Kite festival

Kites of various shapes and sizes are flown in the sky in a grand contest held on seashore in Colombo.

Independence Day

Sri Lanka celebrates its Independence day on the 4th February every year. This day the Sri Lankan att independence from British rule.

55

Other festival
Edulkata gema Akuru kiyawima Attending of age(attaining of puberty) kondekeppima Wedding kandyan-eka gei kema binnabessima ekageai kema Down south Western

56

Sri Lankan cuisine

Sri Lankan cuisine is one of the complex and interesting cuisines of South Asia. Due to its proximity to South India the cuisine of Sri Lanka shows some influence, yet is in many ways quite distinct. As a major trade hub, it draws influence from colonial powers that were involved in Sri Lanka and by foreign traders. Rice, which is consumed daily, can be found at any occasion, while spicy curries are favorite dishes for dinner and lunch Much of Sri Lanka's cuisine consists of boiled or steamed rice served with curry. Another well-known rice dish is Kiribath, meaning "milk rice." Curries in Sri Lanka are not just limited to meat- or fish-based dishes, there are also vegetable and even fruit curries. A typical Sri Lankan meal consists of a "main curry" (fish, chicken, or mutton), as well as several other curries made with vegetable and lentils. Side-dishes include pickles, chutneys and "sambols" which can sometimes be fiery hot. The most famous of these is the coconut sambol, made of ground coconut mixed with chillies, dried Maldivian fish and lime juice. This is ground to a paste and eaten with rice, as it gives zest to the meal and is believed to increase appetite. In addition to sambols, Sri Lankans eat "mallung", chopped leaves mixed with grated coconut and red onions. Coconut milk is found in most Sri Lankan dishes to give the cuisine its unique flavor. A unique Sri Lankan snack is hoppers which is served with an egg or honey and yoghurt. It is similar to pan cake. Sri lankan also eat sring hoppers,roti,pittu with katta sambol or fish curry. As noted above many of Sri Lanka's urban areas are host to American fast food corporations and many of the younger generation have started to take a liking to this new style of cuisine although it is rejected by many, particularly the more traditional elder members of the community. Sri Lankan people use spices liberally in their dishes and typically do not follow an exact recipe: thus, every cook's curry will taste slightly different. Furthermore, people from different regions of the island (for instance, hill-country dwellers versus coastal dwellers) traditionally cook in different ways while people of different ethnic and religious groups tend to prepare dishes according to their customs. Although Sri Lankan food appears similar to south Indian cuisine in its use of chilli, cardamom, cumin, coriander and other spices, it has a distinctive taste, and uses ingredients like dried Maldive fish which are local to the area.

57

Sri Lankan food is generally much less spicier than most South Indian cuisine, yet many spicy Sri Lankan preparations are believed to be among the world's hottest in terms of chilli content. There is a liberal use of different varieties of scorching hot chillies such as amu miris, kochchi miris, and maalu miris (capsicum) among others. While native Sri Lankans are born into this cuisine and develop a healthy tolerance to spicy food, many visitors and tourists to the country often find the spiciness excessive. As a result, many local restaurants in developed and tourist areas offer special low-spice versions of local foods to cater to foreign palates, or have an alternative western menu for tourists. It is generally acceptable for tourists to request that the food is cooked with a lower chilli content to cater for the milder Western palate. The chili content in food cooked for public occasions is typically much less than home-cooked food.

Sweet
A well-known sweet is "Kavun" or oil cakes, a cake made with rice flour and treacle and deep-fried to a golden brown. A variety of "Kavun", called "Moong Kavun" is made from green gram - a type of pulse - which is then ground to a paste and shaped like diamonds before frying. Other types of Kavuns are Athiraha, konda Kavun, Athirasa & Handi Kavun. Many sweets are served during the Sinhala and Tamil New Year with "kiribath". Slight variations of the types of food eaten & preparation methods is observed from province to province. Undu Walalu/Undu wal or Pani walalu- Another sweet originating from the central province( Mathale area). this is prepared using urad (undu) flour & kithul treacle. Aluwa & Aggala- Made from flour & sugar/treacle. Dodol- A pudding like dish made from coconut milk. Cooking method is difficult & takes time. Weli Thalapa- Made from flour & treacle. "Wattalapan" - a steamed pudding made with coconut milk, eggs, and jaggery (a sort of solidified treacle extracted from the kitul palm) has become a staple Sri Lankan dessert, although first introduced by the Malays. Bibikkan- A rich, cake like sweet made from grated coconut, coconut treacle & flour. Originas in the coastal areas. Kokis- A savoury crispy biscuit like dish made from flour.

58

Dessert
Curd and treacle is a common dessert. Curd is made of buffalo milk and the treacle is usually palm syrup from either the kittul or coconut tree.

Drinks
Sri Lanka is among the topmost producers of tea in the world. Usually, it is consumed with sugar and milk. Some people are fond of taking 'plain tea' which means tea only with sugar and without milk. Crushed ginger can add more flavour to the tea. Tea is served whenever a guest comes to a house, many sri lankans drink at least three cups a day. Sri Lanka is also one of the best tea-producing in the world.The Sri Lankans also like to have coffee. Colombo is a place to enjoy really good espresso. Indigenous cold drinks in Sri Lanka are made of fresh fruit. Bottled carbonated branded drinks like Coca-Cola, Sprite, Pepsi etc. are also widely available. Carbonated drink brands Elephant House and Ginger Beer are very popular in Sri Lanka. People also like drinking water of young coconut. Cut fresh they are delicious and nutritious too. An array of locally produced and imported beers are also available. Two local intoxicating drinks are Toddy and Arrack. Toddy is made out of palm trees while Arrack is fermented and refined toddy. Kolakeda is a modern nutritionists dream of a perfectly balanced meal and a porridge of brown rice and coconut cream flavoured with the juice of green herbs such as polpala (Averva Lanata) Hatha wariya (Asparagus falcatus), Gotukola (Hydrocotyle asiatica), Welpenela,Karapincha or Elabatu (Solanum xanthocarpum) Kolakanda is served steaming hot with a piece of juggery. Tambili ( King Coconut juice ) drunk straight from the golden fruit, the delicate Kurumba, the crushed pink rice of water - melon juice, passion fruit juice, orange, pineapple, papaya - take your pick.

59

Fruits
Several varieties of fruits are found in Sri Lanka. One can enjoy fruits like mangoes, pineapple, water melon, papaya, woodapple, bananas (also known as plantains), and rambuttan (a fruit resembling lychees). Some of these fruits are found only in Sri Lanka. Papaya, pineapple, several varieties of mangoes, passion fruit, and over a dozen varieties of bananas. Or go for the unusual - pearly white Mangosteen in its purple husk, Rambutan,Sapodilla.Soursap,Guava,Beli,Varaka&Durian.

60

Farming Rituals Of Sri Lanka

In view of the fact paddy cultivation was pivotal to the survival of the community, all activities connected with paddy cultivation were treated with the highest honour and respect. The causes for floods, droughts, epidemics, crop failures and sicknesses being not aware to the people, they condescended to accept them as a wrath of an unseen god or demon and made supplications to them to safeguard them against such calamities. These were plebian needs, that had to be found solutions to spontaneously and the cults of gods and demons (yakkha) came about. In the primitive communities of Veddahs of Sri Lanka, these omnipresent and malevolent forces were reckoned as 'Yakkha' (Herein Yakkha is derived from the word root 'yaj' meaning fit for worship and not fearful monsters), namely, 'Ne Yaka' (departed relatives reborn as Yakkhas), 'Gale Yakkha', (yakkha of the mountains) Kande Yakkha (yakkha of the hills) and 'Ruk Yakkha' (yakkha resident of trees). The Veddahs in their pursuit of games and in case of sicknesses had various rituals such as 'kiri koraha' (similar to kohomba kankariya). With the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka in the third century B.C. a centralized government was introduced with the king as the supreme supporter of Buddhism, these rituals too underwent a complete change in its conception. Buddhism being 'the Great Tradition'. The Buddha was placed at the apex of the hierarchy of gods and was identified as 'devatideva', god of gods. Thus all gods came to be functional under a warrant (varan) of the Buddha. Therefore, all rituals commenced with the worship of the Buddha and followed by ritual practices. In the matter of land holdings, the farmers (share croppers or 'pangukaraya') had fields among a vast tract of fields to commensurate with his requirements for subsistence from the harvest to another. Therefore, in tilling, harvesting and other agricultural activities they had to work in unison. In the village, there were weather beaten and well-seasoned and aged farmers who were well conversant with farming traditions and customs. One of them was referred to as 'Gama Rala' (Leader of the farmers). Immediately after the rainy season, the farmers under the leadership of the gamarala would meet at the 'Ambalama'. Ambalamas were resting places for travellers built by the orders of the king, in a place where land was available for grazing of cattle and water, these being requirements of carters and other travellers for rest at mid-day or in the night.
61

The hexagonal structured roof, with a minaret at the top indicated that it was under royal protection. These ambalamas were meeting places of farmer communities and others to resolve matters connected with farming. Having met they would decide whether to work the entire tract of fields or a part thereof depending on the availability of water. They would decide on an auspicious date and time, computed by 'Nekathirala' the astrologer. On the appointed date and time all the farmers would commence cleaning up waterways (elaweli) and he footpaths running (niyara) through the fields. Each farmer would attend to those sections adjacent to his field and finally including fences would have bene constructed encircling the entire trace in this cooperative manner. Thereafter on an evening the gamarala would go to the bund of the tank (wewa) and tie a coin (panama) on a clean piece of white cloth and tie it to a branch of a banyan tree (nuga tree) and make a vow to the god. He would then fire a gun once, and release water into the fields from the sluice (sorowwa or bisokotuwa). This report of the gun is to communicate to all farmers, that water had been released and it is now time for them to commence tilling the fields. The second stage is turning the sod (Heema). The govirala, takes his herd of buffaloes and commences turning the sod and the others follow suit. The farmers cooperatively construct the common fence (poduweta or aniyamveta). Then seed paddy is kept in a clean place in a tub of water. This too is done at an auspicious time with the consent of all the farmers. During the period the seed paddy (bittarawee) is germinating, on a auspicious day and time the second tilling is done (dehiya). There is still another ritual to be followed known as 'Bittara Vadanawa), conducting seed paddy. Having made appropriate vows and supplications to gods by the gamarala, in a small place in the centre of the field (liyaddaka) the seed paddy is sown, by the gamarala. Within three days after the 'bittara wedima' all the farmers should complete sowing the fields. In sowing, a strip of the field called 'Vagala' is left unsown to enable people and cattle to move to and fro and this strip is sowed on completion of the entire sowing of the rest of the fields. The farmers in rotation had to perform watching duties in the night to scare away animals intruding to the fields. These watch huts (pela) were set up on wooden poles about 10 feet in height so that the watchers could survey the entire track. These huts were set up two or three number along the frontier fields (issarawal). A fire was kept alight right through the night to scare away elephants.
62

In case a farmer is unable to take his watching duty according to the roster he could exchange his turn of duty with another. If in any case a farmer wilfully failed to take up his turn of watch duty, the resultant destruction of the crop became his responsibility and had to be compensated by him. In case of a sickness or any other family problem, the farmer was exempted from watching duties and others performed his turn of duty. There was no application of artificial manures or chemicals to control pests and weeds. The manure was green leaves such as, keppettiya, titta, (wild sun flower) etc., and in order to control insects and pests certain vines and leaves of the forests were crushed and mixed with water and sprinkled on the water ways and the fields. The pungent and strong aroma and the tastes of these, convulsed the insects and they left. There was no exterminating. Additionally there were other rituals called 'kema' such as 'dodam kema' and 'mande kema'. Another method of controlling the insects was to have a long strip of fields at the two extremities of the field called, 'kurulupaluwa' which was not harvested but allowed to be fed on by the birds, so that the birds will be ever present and would pick up flying or crawling insects in the fields. Still another effective way of controlling insects was to prepare a good amount of milk rice and sprinkle them on the field prior to break of dawn and provide dried branches of trees (ipal) at convenient distances in the field for the birds to perch. The birds, while feeding of grains of milk rice, pick all insects too. In the chain of rituals the last one is the harvesting ritual. In the harvesting festival not only the farmers participated but the entire village. This was a thanksgiving ritual to the gods for ensuring a rich harvest. After the harvesting is done, the ritual held is called, 'Kiri itirima'. All the share croppers (pangukarayo) having collected rice from parade to the bund of the tank (wewa) and set up hut under a banyan tree (kirigahak). Inside the hut a stage (messa) is set up and a white clean cloth is laid over it. On the 'messa' 100 betel leaves, and 100 arecanuts are kept. Thereafter in three separate pots the fresh rice is cooked along with coconut milk and the 'kiribath' thus made is offered to the gods. Thereafter, the remaining kiribath is shared among those present. Thus the entire village having worked in unison, gets about their daily chores with no friction but based on the Buddhist four sublime states of Loving kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), blissful joy (muditha) and equanimity (upekkah).
63

Etiquette
Many of the most important rules of etiquette serve to mark differences in social rank. Both Sinhala and Tamil contain a range of linguistic markers for status as well as relative social distance and intimacy. In routine social interactions, personal names are avoided in preference to nicknames, relationship terms, or other titles. Gender is also an important factor in determining appropriate conduct. Among all but the most urbanized, women are expected to defer to men of relatively equal status and to avoid all implication of sexual impropriety by keeping themselves well covered at all times. They are also expected to refuse all alcohol and tobacco and to refrain from direct physical contact with men. Between members of the same gender and with children, however, there is a great deal of physical contact that emphasizes closeness. At meals, women usually eat last, after they have served the men and the children of the household, although visitors are served first, regardless of gender. While the more Westernized may use silverware, food is commonly eaten with the right hand, a preference that extends to other domains as well. In public, people tend to speak in hushed tones if at all, although leaders and sellers are expected to shout. Large emotional displays of any type are uncommon in public. Greetings are often unvocalized, with broad smiles exchanged between strangers and a friendly raised eyebrow to frequent acquaintances. When new people are involved in a conversation, the mutual acquaintance is asked questions about the stranger. Seldom does direct self-introduction occur. Unusual behavior of any kind draws unconcealed observation.

64

Religious Beliefs.
Buddhism, the religion of the majority of people in Sri Lanka, is given a place of preference in the national constitution and public life, although Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity are also practiced by significant portions of the population. Except in the case of Christians, who are drawn from a variety of ethnic groups, these religious traditions map directly onto the three major ethnic groups: Sinhala/Buddhist, Tamil/Hindu, and Muslims. The 1981 census reported that 69 percent of the population considered themselves Buddhists, 15 percent Hindus, 8 percent Muslims, and 8 percent Christians. In practice, however, there is a degree of blending between these practices as well as an incorporation of ancient indigenous and astrological beliefs. Sri Lankan Buddhists and Hindus, in particular, share a number of foundational beliefs and ritual practices. The moral codes of both of these religious traditions recommend moderation and restraint, Hindus stressing the discipline of one's behavior and Buddhists advocating "the middle path." In both, the concept of karma and rebirth are central, ideas that posit that one's actions in this lifetime determine the kind of life into which one will be reborn through the quantity of merit that one earns. While both Buddhism and Hinduism also propose that one can escape the cycle of rebirth, a goal that is highly elaborated within Buddhism, the acquisition of spiritual merit to gain a better rebirth either for one's self or one's loved ones generates much of the religious activity of the laity. Among the participants in both of these religions, there is also a belief in a broad pantheon of gods, spirits, and demons, into which many local deities have been absorbed. These beings may be male or female, benevolent or malevolent, moral or amoral, but they are all considered subject to the same laws of death and rebirth as other beings. Devotees, including some Muslims and Christians, appeal to these gods to assist them with a variety of (mostly worldly) concerns.

65

Religious Practitioners.
In Sri Lanka, each of the four major religions are served by native religious leaders, although not exclusively; the island is home to training institutions for specialists in each of its organized religions. The largest and most active group of religious specialists are the members of the Buddhist monkhood, or Sangha, who are ordained for life to follow a path of celibacy committed to the disattachment from worldly life. As temple monks, they provide spiritual guidance to the laity, serve as role models, and act as a source of merit acquisition for those who support them. They do not, however, traditionally play a role in secular matters or life-cycle rituals, except the death rites. Well organized and often in control of fair amounts of property, the Sangha have considerable influence in society, both historically and today. The priests of the various gods are more independently organized. The ethnicity of the priests depends on their clientele more than the origin of the gods they serve. Tamil Hindu priests are born into their roles, almost traditionally but not exclusively coming from the Brahman caste. Sinhala Buddhist priests, who serve many of the same gods, are drawn from the laity and are increasingly likely to be women. Members of both the Buddhist and Hindu laity also play a variety of specialized religious roles as mediators, renunciates who withdraw from worldly pursuits, and other kinds of adepts.

66

Sri Lankan Myths, Miracles & Mysteries

"The island of Sri Lanka has been a favorite haunt of aliens, extra terrestrials, gods, devas, angels, sky dwellers, demons, deities whichever way you describe them. Our chronicles, traditions, folklore, prehistoric cave drawings, archaeological evidence and ancient traveler's' records testify that there have been strange beings living in this island from time immemorial." There were and there are Mountains, Hills, buildings and even plants with full of mysteries, power and wisdom which are beyond human understanding. 200 million years ago, geologically Sri Lanka was linked with India, Madagascar, Australia and Antarctica, in a land mass known as Gondwana. Sri Lanka separated into a land mass known as Lanka Dvipa (Island of Lanka), and part of the land submerged into the sea. According to the Ramayana epic this took place because of the misdeeds of Ravana, but this seismic happening is confirmed by modern science."

Bahirawa: Legend of a dreaded demon (Tradition recounts that during the Kandyan period human sacrifices were made to propitiate the demon of Bahirawakanda. The first such sacrifice is credited to the fancy of a 17th century childless queen. The queen dreamt that Bahirawa manifested himself to her in a dream and demanded a human sacrifice if she were to be with child.)

Mahasona: famous demon of Sri Lanka(This is a famous demon of Sri Lanka who it is claimed uses a black dog as the vehicle. When it's influence is felt, people see the apparition of a black dog and faint off; some have the hand print on the body where the apparition struck.) (see picture)

Devil Dance Masks of Sri Lanka ( The yakun natima, or devil dance ritual of Sri Lanka, is nothing if not full of drama. Not just a charade or interval designed to entertain, the yakun natima is a carefully crafted ritual with a history reaching far back into Sri Lanka's preBuddhist past. )

67

Daha Ata Sanniya(The "Daha Ata Sanniya" is a traditional dance ritual held to exorcise 18 types of diseases from the human body.) Kohomba Kankariya(Kohomba Kankariya ritual is performed to ensure freedom from diseases, invoke blessings and for the people to live in prosperity.)

Walli Yak mangallaya(According to myth, legend, and folklore, Gara Yakka has no evil disposition toward humans. But, he has an evil eye; all he wants is to eatthe satisfaction he demands is for his appetite. He is said to have the capacity to eat more than any other devil in the nether world.)

Superstitions & Omens in Sri Lanka (If a crow flies through a house, it is a sign that an inmate of the house will have to leave it soon. The cawing of a crow from the house-top is the harbinger of good news; and the arrival of visitors is portended by the cawing of a crow in the front of the house, or by a cat washing itself on the doorstep. If ones right nostril smarts it is a sign that a near relation is speaking well of him, but if it is the left nostril, it is very much the other way about)

The Gods & Deity Worship in Sri Lanka (In Sri Lanka there are four deities regarded as the guardians of the Buddha-sasana in the island: Vishnu, Saman, Kataragama, and Vibhishana. Although Vishnu is originally a Hindu god, the Buddhists have taken him over as a Buddhist deity, referring to him also by the localized designation Uppalavanna. And so are Siva, specially under the name Isvara, and Ganesha under the name Ganapati or the more popular appellation Gana-deviyo.)

Deity worship in Sri Lanka ( Lanka is a land where all the major religions of the world are practised. Therefore it could be surmised that this is a blessed land. According to Buddhist belief Lanka is known as the thrice-blessed land due to the "Tun Saranaya". )

68

The Guardian Deities of Lanka: Skanda-Murukan and Kataragama ( In the Buddhist tradition as found in Sri Lanka, Kataragama is one in the list of sixteen sacred sites. Since medieval times it was closely associated with the worship of Kanta-Kumara or Karttikeya, one of the four guardian gods of Lanka, the others being Natha, Pattini and Visnu, whose images are still paraded in festival processions conducted annually in honour of the Tooth Relic in the town of Kandy in the central highlands. )

Ganesha - the playful god of wisdom ( The elephant-headed god Ganapati of the Hindus, or Pillaiyar of the Tamils, or Ganadevi as known to the Sinhalese, is a Vedic deity later absorbed into the Hindu pantheon and worshipped as God of wisdom and prosperity.)

Hindu Gods & Worship (Puja) in Sri Lanka (Several Hindu gods predominate in the many myths, legends, and styles of worship in Lanka. One of the main Hindu gods is Vishnu, often represented as a divine king accompanied by his beautiful wife, Lakshmi, the bestower of wealth and good fortune.)

OLA LEAF HOROSCOPES - THE IDEAS OF KARMA AND RE-INCARNATION ( Horoscopes of contemporary people, Asian and non-Asian, written on ancient palm (ola) leaves have been known for decades in both Sri Lanka and in southern India. On why they were written, it has been surmised that they were tutorial exercises set by the ancient sages (rishis) to their pupils who were set the task of composing the horoscopes of persons yet to be born in a series of dates and times, or that the sages made these writings for the guidance of people.)

Elephant lore - in myth, legend, religion and war (Even today the elephant has a prominent place in Buddhism unlike other animals. It is the only animal possessed of grace to carry the sacred reliquary containing the 'Danta-dhatu' (Tooth-relic) of the Buddha, in the annual Esala Perahera in Kandy.)

69

Kadupul & Naga Valli: Legandary Flower & Betel of Nagas (Kadupul - the legendary flower of the Celestial Nagas. It is believed that when these flowers bloom, the Nagas come down from their celestial abodes, to offer them to the Buddha on the Holy Mountain Sri Pada. The strange fragrance, the midnight miracle, and the fact that flowers bloom in the season when people flock to Sri Pada, seem to add authenticity to this belief)

Valli Marries Kande Yaka ( Valli Amma, was a princess of sorts - a stone-age jungle princess who grew up among the prehistoric hunting people of the island. Valli, who was only twelve years old at the time, had her heart set on Kande Yaka, the age-old hunting God of the Kataragama Mountain whose power and wisdom - they say - was beyond human understanding. The Spirit of the Mountain was so touched by Valli's innocent love that he came down to earth in disguise to touch her in return - but she wouldn't let him! Of course, they both fell in love at last, and their love story still continues to this day in far-off Sri Lanka. )

Utuwankande Saradiel - The Robinhood of Lanka (Though over 125 years have passed away since the death of Saradiel caused by execution, still his name as a legend Saradiel was a daredevil highway robber. Saradiel was born in 1835 to a family in Otumankanda.)

Utuwankande Saradiel - The Robinhood of Lanka (The money Saradiel robbed from the rich, he often distributed generously among the poor. So Saradiel came to be known as the "Robin Hood of Sri Lanka". Sentence of death was executed on this bandit believed to be the most daring brigand that ever lived in this country on May 07, 1864.)

Saradiel: the making of a bandit (Saradiel from his childhood to boyhood was a quiet but unmoved type of village boy. He with his brother Harmanis was admitted to the Idangoda Vihara Dahampasala in Molligoda. It must be recalled bitterly with a sense of aversion how the British rulers of the time had even banned the holding of Dahampasals in these villages around its environs.)
70

 UFOs in Lanka: Are extra, terrestrials the cause for violence and unrest in Sri Lanka? ( The island of Sri Lanka has been a favourite haunt of aliens, extra terrestrials, gods, devas, angels, sky dwellers, demons whichever way you describe them. Our chronicles, traditions, folklore, prehistoric cave drawings, archaeological evidence and ancient travellers' records testify that there have been strange beings living in this island from time immemorial. )

Sri Lanka: Gateway to Other Worlds? Scientists re-examine legends of Serendip(Long before modern scientist ever dreamed of the existence of gateways between parallel

universes, the ancient world already regarded Lanka or Serendip as being the Antipodes, a topsy-turvy wonderland inhabited by nagas, yakas and various other-worldly spirits. Oral traditions still current in Lanka tell of hidden gateways situated islandwide through which yogis and siddhas, including Lord Buddha and His assembly of arahats, could travel to distant places or even to other lokas or worlds in the blink of an eye, reputedly through sheer comprehension alone. ) Rama, Ravana & Sita: Road to Ramayana (When Ravana abducted Sita, it led to war. 200 million years ago, geologically Sri Lanka was linked with India, Madagascar, Australia and Antarctica, in a land mass known as Gondwana. Sri Lanka separated into a land mass known as Lanka Dvipa (Island of Lanka), and part of the land submerged into the sea. According to the Ramayana epic this took place because of the misdeeds of Ravana, but this seismic happening is confirmed by modern science.)

71

KUMBHAKARNA (Kumbhakarna, the brother of Ravana was a seemingly ordinary creature of the universe but his appearance posed a grave problem for the creator himself. Pleased by his penance when Brahma arrived to grant him a boon, he got worried even before granting one and began to think: " If this man takes a regular meal, he will devour everything on earth." So Brahma invoked Saraswati to create illusions in Kumbhakarna's mind. Thus in illusion, Kumbhakarna begged Brahma to grant him a boon of a 6 month long sleep and wake up only for a day in these six months of slumber. )

Tall Tales and Deep Truths (The ancient art of storytelling (Sanskrit: iti-hasa 'thus-told') is highly regarded in traditional cultures where it is often the principal vehicle for the transmission of in-depth understanding as opposed to the mere accumulation of bits of information. Many anonymous storytellers have spun or woven tender songs and thrilling stories sung in spontaneous verses of ecstasy, while others have enacted mute pantomime performances offered up to the divine Source of their inspiration.)

72

Ayurveda
The concept of ayurveda is old as the civilization of mankind. This had taken many turns, inherited many an ideology along the passage of time, getting refined in to a fine art. The word "ayurveda" is made of two syllables. The first part "ayur" means long life, "veda" means science. A man who wishes to live a long and healthy life should follow this concept. Ayurveda shows how you can achieve this long and healthy life. The basic rule or the law is to live among and to take care of oneself with nature. The creatures living on the surface cannot live under water and those that live under water cannot live on surface. Nature is considered as the mother of all beings, and that all living creatures are dependant on nature for their survival i.e. everything revolves around nature and nature itself brings up, preserves its creations.

Ayurveda strictly follows the rules of nature, as it points out: what, when, why, how, how much: to, eat, work, rest, wash, bathe, which help us to lead a perfectly healthy life. There are two divisions in Ayurvedic treatment 1. To protect the health of oneself 2. To take care of the sick To lead a healthy life one has to follow the ayurvedic principles. To take care of the sick, the ayurvedic physician has to get a thorough knowledge so that he could determine whether the invalid is ill mentally or physically or both. Where for each patient, the physician has to diagnose the root of the cause and treat it accordingly. Since when the root of the illness is destroyed, the illness would not rise again.

73

Almost all prescriptions used in curing are produced by raw materials found naturally, where no artificial substances are used. These would come from roots, stems, barks, leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits & nuts of many a plant. From animals: milk, honey, pearls, musk, shells and from earth iron, gold, silver & copper are used. Ayurvedic drugs do no harm to the organs of the body and do not give rise to any side effects. It has been shown in medical studies that drugs used in ayurveda act as nutrients. The treatments done in ayurveda vary from simple oral treatment to more complex acupuncturing, electro treatment and inoculation by injection. Panchakarma is a another effective form of ayurvedic treatment. Various effects that take place when the human system grows old could be minimized or reversed by applying principles of ayurvedic treatment. Ayurveda is an ancient form of healing, which had been improved thorough generations of healers who have thought of nothing but the well being of the living. one could find many a proficient physician of ayurveda in Sri Lanka.

74

75