PHEROMONES

1. AGGREGATION PHEROMONES

Aggregation pheromones function in defense against predators, mate selection, and overcoming host resistance by mass attack. A group of individuals at one location is referred to as an aggregation, whether consisting of one sex or both sexes. Male-produced sex attractants have been called aggregation pheromones, because they usually result in the arrival of both sexes at a calling site, and increase the density of conspecifics surrounding the pheromone source. Most sex pheromones are produced by the females and small percentage of sex attractants are produced by males. Aggregation pheromones have been found in members of the Coleoptera, Diptera,Hemiptera, Dictyoptera and Orthoptera. Aggregation pheromones are similar to sex pheromones but work to attract individuals of both sexes. They are used by some species to gather a group to a particular site for defense or settlement.

2. ALARM PHEROMONES

Some species release a volatile substance when attacked by a predator that can trigger flight or aggression in members of the same species. . Alarm selectivity is based more on volatility than on unique structural features. To deal with the threat, these pheromones may produce aggressive behavior, or they may trigger flight or extreme alertness
3. SEX PHEROMONES

In many animal species, sex pheromones are used to indicate that a female is ready for breeding and to attract partners. Males of some species also secrete pheromones to communicate information about desirable traits they may possess or to prevent inbreeding. The use of sex pheromones by insects is

also widespread and led to the characterization of the first pheromone, the sex pheromone bombykol, which is secreted by the female silk worm. Male animals may also emit pheromones that convey information about their species and genotype. Male gametes of many animals use a pheromone to help find a female gamete, for fertilization. Many insect species release sex pheromones to attract a mate, and many lepidopterans (moths and butterflies) can detect a potential mate from as far away as 10 kilometers.

4. TRAIL PHEROMONES

Trail pheromones are common in social insects. For example, ants mark their paths with these pheromones, which are volatile hydrocarbons. Certain ants lay down an initial trail of pheromones as they return to the nest with food. This trail attracts other ants and serves as a guide. As long as the food source remains, the pheromone trail will be continuously renewed. The pheromone must be continuously renewed because it evaporates quickly. When the supply begins to dwindle, the trail making ceases. In at least one species of ant, trails that no longer lead to food are also marked with a repellent pheromone. Trail pheromones are the reason that a long line of ants follow the same path. The path has been defined by the laying down of pheromones by the first ant to find the food as it returns to the nest. Other ants are attracted to the trail, follow it and reinforce it with their own pheromones. In some ant species a repelling pheromone is used to erase the trail when the food source is eliminated. An ant mill is a phenomenon where a group of army ants separated from the main foraging party lose the pheromone track and begin to follow one another, forming a continuously rotating circle. The ants will eventually die of exhaustion. This has been reproduced in laboratories and the behavior has also been produced in ant colony simulations. This phenomenon is a side effect of the self-organizing structure of ant colonies. Each ant follows the

ant in front of it, and this will work until something goes wrong and an ant mill forms. An ant mill was first described by William Beebe in 1921 who observed a mill 1,200 feet (365 m) in circumference. 5. OTHER TYPES OF PHEROMONES Other types of pheromones include 1. Territorial pheromones 2. Epideictic pheromones 3. Releaser and signal pheromones 4. Information pheromones.