8.1 Energy degradation and power generation 8.1.

1 State that thermal energy may be completely converted to work in a single process, but that continuous conversion of this energy into work requires a cyclical process and the transfer of some energy from the system. 8.1.2 Explain what is meant by degraded energy. The second law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to take heat from a hot object and use it without losing some heat to the surroundings. Energy becoming more spread out is known as the degradation of energy. Whenever thermal energy is converted into mechanical energy some of the energy is degraded (lost) to the environment. 8.1.3 Construct and analyse energy flow diagrams (Sankey diagrams) and identify where the energy is degraded. Sankey diagram for a petrol engine.

8.1.4 Outline the principal mechanisms involved in the production of electrical power. Mechanical energy can be converted into electrical energy using a generator of dynamo. A coil is turned in a magnetic field. As the coil cuts the field lines, electrons move round the coil. The movement of electrons causes a potential difference which results in a current flowing. A current has been induced in the coil. A more detailed explanation of electromagnetic induction can be found in Unit 12, Electromagnetic induction.

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8.2 World energy sources 8.2.1 Identify different world energy sources. Modern society requires a lot of energy. Most of the energy recourses used by hum humans are used to make electricity or to make things move. 8.2.2 Outline and distinguish between renewable and non renewable energy sources. non-renewable A renewable source of energy cannot be used up. A non renewable source of energy can be used up non-renewable and will eventually run out. Renewable Energy Solar Wind Hydroelectric Wave Tidal Biofuels (Wood, ethanol) Geothermal Non-Renewable Energy Coal Oil Gas Nuclear (Uranium)

8.2.3 Define the energy density of a fuel. Energy density is the amount of energy that can be obtained per kilogram of fuel. can

8.2.4 Discuss how choice of fuel is influenced by its energy density. The cost of transporting fuels is dependent on the fuel density. A fuel with a low fuel density will be expensive to transport.

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8.2.5 State the relative proportions of world use of the different energy sources that are available. Worldwide Energy resources

8.2.6 Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of various energy sources.

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8.3 Fossil fuel power production A fossil fuel fired power plant is and based on somewhat ancient methods of energy production. The fossil fuel is placed in a combustion chamber and burnt to produce heat. In order to turn the heat energy to electric energy, water is pumped around the combustion chamber and the heat from the chamber heats the water and it turns to steam. In the case of a coal fired plant this heats the water to 1000C. The steam is used to turn a turbine which is attached to a generator. The generator generates converts the kinetic energy into electrical energy. Meanwhile the used steam goes to a condenser where it is cooled and turns to liquid water again; this lets off the big clouds often seen coming from these power plants. These clouds are nothing more than steam. The water is then pumped back into the combustion chamber to begin the cycle again. Coal Fired Power Station

8.3.1 Outline the historical and geographical reasons for the widespread use of fossil fuels. 8.3.2 Discuss the energy density of fossil fuels with respect to the demands of power stations. 8.3.3 Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages associated with the transportation and storage of fossil fuels. 8.3.4 State the overall efficiency of power stations fuelled by different fossil fuels. 8.3.5 Describe the environmental problems associated with the recovery of fossil fuels and their use in power stations.

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8.4 Non Non-fossil fuel power production Nuclear power

8.4.1 Describe how neutrons produced in a fission reaction may be used to initiate further fission reactions (chain reaction). In a nuclear reactor a large nuclei, e.g. Uranium 236, is bombarded with a neutron and spl Uranium-236, splits into two smaller nuclei. The daughter nuclei have less mass than the parent and so energy is released.

During the reaction two or 3 neutrons are released. They can move on and collide with other uranium nuclei and create a chain reaction. A chain reaction will only occur if the neutrons are slowed down by chain a moderator and if there is a large enough piece of fissional material. The minimum amount of material needed for a chain reaction to take place is called the critical mass. 8.4.2 Distinguish between controlled nuclear fission (power production) and uncontrolled nuclear fission (nuclear weapons). In a nuclear power station it is important that the chain reaction is controlled. Only one neutron from each reaction can be allowed to make fission. The other neutrons are absorbed by control rods in the fission. reactor. In a nuclear weapon the chain reaction is not controlled. The fissionable material and a moderator are mixed together. 8.4.3 Describe what is meant by fuel enrichment.
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99.3% of the uranium dug out of the ground is Uranium-238. Uranium-238 will absorb neutrons but will not fission so its presence in a nuclear reactor can hinder the chain reaction. The fuel in the reactor (or weapon) needs to have a much higher concentration of Uranium-235. The raw uranium must be enriched before it can be used. Commercial reactors use fuel with 5% Uranium-235. Weapon grade Uranium has over 85% Uranium-235. 8.4.4 Describe the main energy transformations that take place in a nuclear power station.

8.4.5 Discuss the role of the moderator and the control rods in the production of controlled fission in a thermal fission reactor. Moderator The moderator slows down the neutrons. If the neutrons have too high an energy they will pass straight thorough the uranium nuclei and fission will not occur.

Control Rods Control rods are raised and lowered in the reactor to control the rate of fission. 8.4.6 Discuss the role of the heat exchanger in a fission reactor. The whole reactor is housed within a large pressure vessel. Pressurised gas is passed through the reactor core and then takes the heat out to a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger heats up water turning it into steam. This steam is used to turn a turbine which is connected to a generator. The steam is cooled down in a condenser and then recirculated. 8.4.7 Describe how neutron capture by a nucleus of uranium-238 (238U) results in the production of a nucleus of plutonium-239 (239Pu). 8.4.8 Describe the importance of plutonium-239 (239Pu) as a nuclear fuel. 8.4.9 Discuss safety issues and risks associated with the production of nuclear power. 8.4.10 Outline the problems associated with producing nuclear power using nuclear fusion. 8.4.11 Solve problems on the production of nuclear power. Solar power 8.4.12 Distinguish between a photovoltaic cell and a solar heating panel. A photovoltaic cell converts solar radiation directly into a voltage. Solar Heating panels absorb solar radiation and use it to heat water. This water can be used domestically and saves energy by reducing the amount of fuel being used for heating. 8.4.13 Outline reasons for seasonal and regional variations in the solar power incident per unit area of the Earths surface. 8.4.14 Solve problems involving specific applications of photovoltaic cells and solar heating panels. Hydroelectric power 8.4.15 Distinguish between different hydroelectric schemes. This form of renewable energy probably is the most simple of them all in terms of the concepts and science involved. The kinetic energy of water moving downhill is being used to turn a turbine which is attached to a generator. The generator turns the kinetic energy into electrical energy. A diagram of this basic model is shown below.
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A large store of water must be creat created for this method to be viable. Constantly produce an elevated onstantly power output means that a reservoir must be created. This causes the problem of an area of land his having to be flooded in order to create the reservoir this can cause ecological problems. reservoir, These problems are often overlooked as the amounts of energy produced are massive massive. power is currently the only widely used renewable energy source. Hydroelectric

8.4.16 Describe the main energy transformations that take place in hydroelectric schemes.

8.4.17 Solve problems involving hydroelectric schemes. Wind power 8.4.18 Outline the basic features of a wind generator. Wind power relies on the conversion of kinetic energy in the wind into electrical energy using turbines. There is a great deal of kinetic energy in the wind. Different parts of the atmosphere are heated to different temperatures. The temperature differences causes pressure differences, due to hot air risi rising or cold air sinking, which result in air flows flows.

There are some advantages and disadvantages of the use of wind power. The advantages are that its a very clean production, it is renewable and the source of energy is free. The disadvantages are that the source of energy is unreliable as there could be a day without wind, it has a low energy density, it able can be seen as visual pollution as it spoils the countryside, it can be noisy and the best positions for wind are usually far away from centers of population population.

8.4.19 Determine the power that maybe delivered by a wind generator, assuming that the wind kinetic energy is completely converted into mechanical kinetic energy, and explain why s this is impossible. 8.4.20 Solve problems involving wind power. Wave power 8.4.21 Describe the principle of operation of an oscillating water column (OWC) ocean ocean-wave energy converter.
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Wave power uses the kinetic energy of waves to generate electrical energy. One of the successful techniques is using the oscillating water column (OWC). The OWC is a device built on land. In-coming waves force air in and out of a turbine, which generates electrical energy. The particular design of the turbine (Wells turbine) means of that it generates electrical energy whatever the direction of flow of the air. 8.4.22 Determine the power per unit length of a wavefront, assuming a rectangular profile for the wave. 8.4.23 Solve problems involving wave power.

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8.5 Greenhouse effect Solar radiation 8.5.1 Calculate the intensity of the Suns radiation incident on a planet. 8.5.2 Define albedo. Albedo is the term used to describe the ratio of reflection to absorption for an object. The Albedo for a white shiny object is high. Snow reflects most of the radiation incident on it and has an Albedo of around 90%. The average Albedo for the earth is about 30%. 8.5.3 State factors that determine a planets albedo. There are a number of factors which affect a planets albedo: Firstly the albedo varies across the surface of the planet due to: Land coverage i.e. land or water or snow Vegetation coverage Latitude Time of year (Because it affects the vegetation)

The greenhouse effect 8.5.4 Describe the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect consists of the earth receiving short wave-length radiation from the sun, and this then causes the surface to warm up. The Earth will then emit infra-red radiation (longer wavelengths than absorbed, because the earth is cooler. Some of this outgoing radiation is intercepted and absorbed by the greenhouse gases and after which it is re-radiated in all directions. If the energy radiated and the energy absorbed is equal the temperature of the planet will remain constant. But that isnt happening at the moment more energy is absorbed than radiated, and so the earth gets warmer. Truck Analogy of the Greenhouse Effect If only 10% of the greenhouse gases are radiated from the Earth, then the Earth supposedly should be heating up but its not. So why is this so? Well, we could use an analogy of a truck delivering sand. Each time it delivers 100kg of sand, and 10% of the sand at the drop of point is carried away. At the beginning the amount of sand increases rapidly seeing as more is brought in then taken out. But eventually those 10% taken out will be equal to the 100kg brought in and the load would stabilize. The same is true for the earths temperature. A graph is shown below of this effect.

Load against Time

1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 20 40 60 80 Load (kg)

8.5.5 Identify the main greenhouse gases and their sources.

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The Greenhouse Gases that occur in the earths atmosphere are: Methane Water Carbon Dioxide Combustion of fossil fuels releases this gas into the atmosphere and it has a very important role in the greenhouse effect. It is naturally removed from the atmosphere by Carbon Fixation by plants in photosynthesis. Nitrous Oxide nd Livestock and industries are big producers of this and it has a significant effect as it can remain in the upper atmosphere for a long time as it is harder to fixate. Ozone This is responsible for absorbing high energy UV photons which could be harmful to living organisms. However these can be changed in their ratios due to human industry and technology.

8.5.6 Explain the molecular mechanisms by which greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation. Each of these gases absorbs certain wavelengths of the electromagnetic waves emitted by the sun. electromagnetic They do as a result of resonance. The natural frequency of the oscillation of the bonds within the molecules of the gas in within the infrared region. If the driving frequency (from the radiation emitted by the Earth) is equal to the natural frequency of the molecule, resonance will occur. The amplitude of the molecules vibrations increases and the temperature increases. The absorption will take place at specific frequencies depending on the molecular bonds. 8.5.7 Analyse absorption graphs to compare the relative effects of different greenhouse rption gases. Below is an absorption spectrum graph for each of the greenhouse gases, thus showing that each gas absorbs a different wavelength of radiation.

8.5.8 Outline the nature of black ck-body radiation. 8.5.9 Draw and annotate a graph of the emission spectra of black bodies at different temperatures. Black objects are the best absorbers and radiators of radiation. The range of wavelengths emitted for a black body emitter is shown below. The peak of the graph represents the most intense wavelength.

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The peak wavelength can be calculated using Wiens Law. Wiens Law = Where max T B Wavelength of maximum intensity Temperature of black body constant = 2.89 x 10-3 mK

8.5.10 State the StefanBoltzmann law and apply it to compare emission rates from different surfaces. The Stefan-Boltzmann law relates the total energy emitted per unit area by a black body emitter to its temperature. Stefan-Boltsmann Law = Where = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4 8.5.11 Apply the concept of emissivity to compare the emission rates from the different surfaces. The surface of the earth is not a perfect black body emitter. Emissivity compares the rate at which a body radiates energy to the rate at which a black body emitter at the same temperature emits radiation. Power emitted by object per unit area Power radiated by a black body at the same temperature

8.5.12 Define surface heat capacity Cs. The surface heat capacity is the energy that is required to raise 1m3 of the surface of a planet by 1C. 8.5.13 Solve problems on the greenhouse effect and the heating of planets using a simple energy balance climate model.

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8.6 Global warming Global warming 8.6.1 Describe some possible models of global warming. 8.6.2 State what is meant by the enhanced greenhouse effect. The enhanced greenhouse effect is believed to be caused by the increase in production of greenhouses gases by humans. 8.6.3 Identify the increased combustion of fossil fuels as the likely major cause of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Combustion of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The use of fossil fuels increased significantly during the second half of last century. This resulted in a increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and is believed to have resulted in an increase in the average temperature of the earth. 8.6.4 Describe the evidence that links global warming to increased levels of greenhouse gases. 8.6.5 Outline some of the mechanisms that may increase the rate of global warming. 8.6.6 Define coefficient of volume expansion. The coefficient of volume expansion tells us the change in volume of a substance per degree change in temperature.

Where V Vo

coefficient of volume expansion measured in K-1 increase in volume measured in m3 initial volume of water measured in m3 increase in temperature measured in K =

8.6.7 State that one possible effect of the enhanced greenhouse effect is a rise in mean sealevel. If the average temperature of the oceans is caused to rise then the mean sea level will rise. In the past 100 years the mean sea level has risen by 20cm. The rate that the sea level will rise is difficult to predict due to the difficulty in accurately measuring the volume increase of water. Water that is between 0 and 4C has a negative volume coefficient so at these temperatures it will contract as it warms. Another factor is the ice that covers the land. As this melts it will run into the sea causing the levels to rise by an unknown amount. Melting glaciers will have little effect on sea levels as they already displace their own mass of water. 8.6.8 Outline possible reasons for a predicted rise in mean sea-level. 8.6.9 Identify climate change as an outcome of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Global warming will cause changes to the climate. Models predict that it will become warmer closer to the equator and wetter in the northern hemisphere. Some models predict that as there is more energy in the atmosphere storms will become more frequent and powerful.
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8.6.10 Solve problems related to the enhanced greenhouse effect. 8.6.11 Identify some possible solutions to reduce the enhanced greenhouse effect. Reduction in the consumption of fossil fuels would reduce the enhanced greenhouse effect. Strategies include: Changing human activities that cause pollution o Using energy saving light bulbs o Improving efficiency of energy production o Using electric and hybrid vehicles o Replace fossil fuels with renewable or nuclear energy Reducing the pollutants at the point of emission o Capture carbon dioxide and store it underground o Reduce methane emission from cows by diet Clean up and restoration o Plant more trees to act as a carbon sink o Add iron to oceans to remove carbon dioxide from the air

8.6.12 Discuss international efforts to reduce the enhanced greenhouse effect. IPCC International Panel on Climate Change The IPCC was established to provide the decision-makers and others interested in climate change with an objective source of information about climate change. The IPCC does not conduct any research nor does it monitor climate related data or parameters. Its role is to assess on a comprehensive, objective, open and transparent basis the latest scientific, technical and socio-economic literature produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of the risk of human-induced climate change, its observed and projected impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation. http://www.ipcc.ch Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol is a legally binding agreement under which industrialized countries will reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2% compared to the year 1990 (but note that, compared to the emissions levels that would be expected by 2010 without the Protocol, this target represents a 29% cut). The goal is to lower overall emissions from six greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride, HFCs, and PFCs calculated as an average over the five-year period of 2008-12. National targets range from 8% reductions for the European Union and some others to 7% for the US, 6% for Japan, 0% for Russia, and permitted increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland."
http://www.kyotoprotocol.com

APPCDC

Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate APP partners Australia, Canada, China, India, Japan, Korea, and the United States have agreed to work together and with private sector partners to meet goals for energy security, national air pollution reduction, and climate change in ways that promote sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction. The Partnership will focus on expanding investment and trade in cleaner energy technologies, goods and services in key market sectors. http://www.asiapacificpartnership.org

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