Huawei RNP User Manual v1.0

Radio Network Planning
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Editor in chief: Zhao Qiyong Checked by(Chinese version): Zhao Qiyong Checked by( English version): Overseas Radio Network Planning & Optimization Section
T5-030010-20011110-C-1.0
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. October, 2001
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Radio Network Planning T5-030010-20011110-C-1.0 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd provides customers with omnidirectional technical support and users can contact either a nearby Huawei Office or customer service center, or the headquarters of our company directly.
Copyright 2001 by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
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No part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written consent of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
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TELLIN, InfoLink, Netkey, Quidway, SYNLOCK, Radium, , M900/M1800, TELESIGHT, Quidview, NETENGINE, Musa, OptiX, Airbridge, Tellwin, Inmedia, VRP, DOPRA, iTELLIN are trademarks of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
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The information in this document is subject to change without notice. Although every effort has been made to make this document as accurate, complete, and clear as possible, Huawei Technologies assumes no responsibility for any errors that may appear in this document.
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All Rights Reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written consent of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
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, HUAWEI(R), (R), C&C08(R), EAST8000(R), HONET(R), (R), ViewPoint(R),
INtess , ETS(R), (R), DMC(R), SBS(R), TELLIN(R), InfoLink(R), Netkey(R),

(R)
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Preface 1 Version Description

This book is about GSM radio planning optimization. Some of the methods discussed here can serve as references for future mobile communications system.
2 Introduction
Radio Network Planning attempts to tell the commonly-adopted planning optimization methods based on Huawei GSM equipment. This book covers radio propagation, preplanning, antenna-feeder knowledge, BSC algorithm, frequency planning, traffic statistics, optimization, and some special topics. The last part of the book introduces briefly the planning optimization methods on future mobile communications system. We acknowledge the many efforts from our colleagues who have grown up together with the companys network planning. We show our respect and salute for their unswerving and unstinting contributions that have made the publication of this book possible. The editor in chief of this book is Zhao qiyong. The editors are Zheng shuhui, Si fazhong, Cheng jing, Cheng xin, Li xia. Zhao qiyong is responsible for the final version and check. We wish to thank our colleagues who have added their discussion when they are the most busy, in particular: Xiong yunxuan, Tan guanzhong, Miao jiashu, Li yuzhi, Wang Mingming, Yang yajun, Li Chengfei, Dong xiaohong, Wang cheng, He qun, Li zhongdong, Chen yongjian, Dong hengshang, Xiang lijing, and Bai xiaobing. We also wish to extend our thanks to the colleagure in the Material Development Department for their effort in compiling and proofreading, particularly Zhang jun, Cheng lin, and Weng haishang. Your critisms and recommendations are greatly appreciated.
3 Intended Readers
This manual is intended for the following readers: Installation and maintenance engineers Engineering technicians Telecom administrators
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Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview ..................................................................................... 1-12 1.1 Network Planning Flow .................................................................................................... 1-12 1.2 Network Pre-planning ...................................................................................................... 1-14 1.2.1 Outline of the Network Pre-planning ..................................................................... 1-14 1.2.2 Pre-planning Foundation....................................................................................... 1-15 1.2.3 Pre-planning Process............................................................................................ 1-16 1.2.4 Pre-planning Difficulties ........................................................................................ 1-24 Chapter 2 GSM Air Interface......................................................................................................... 2-1 2.1 GSM System Introduction.................................................................................................. 2-1 2.2 Radio Channel Structure ................................................................................................... 2-3 2.2.1 Time Slot and Frame Structure ............................................................................... 2-3 2.2.2 Physical Channel .................................................................................................... 2-5 2.2.3 Logic Channel ......................................................................................................... 2-6 2.2.4 Allowed Channel Combination Type....................................................................... 2-8 2.2.5 The Frame Structure of the Logic Channel............................................................. 2-9 2.2.6 The Use of the Common Control Channel.............................................................. 2-9 2.2.7 The Early Timing of Uplink and Downlink as well as MS........................................ 2-9 Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theory.......................................................................................... 2-1 3.1 Basic knowledge of Radio Propagation............................................................................. 2-1 3.2 Radio Propagation Environment........................................................................................ 2-3 3.2.1 Frequency Division Introduction.............................................................................. 2-3 3.2.2 Fast Fading and Slow Fading ................................................................................. 2-3 3.2.3 Propagation Loss .................................................................................................... 2-6 3.3 Radio Propagation Model ................................................................................................ 2-10 3.4 Correction for propagation model .................................................................................... 2-16 3.4.1 CW Basics............................................................................................................. 2-16 3.4.2 CW Test Method ................................................................................................... 2-16 3.4.3 Correction for Propagation Model and Instance ................................................... 2-18 3.5 Doppler Effect and its Impact on Handover..................................................................... 2-19 3.6 Fresnel Zone.................................................................................................................... 2-22 3.7 ASSET Software Introduction .......................................................................................... 2-24 Chapter 4 About Antenna & Feeder cable .................................................................................. 4-1 4.1 Basics of Antenna .............................................................................................................. 4-1 4.1.1 Antenna gain ........................................................................................................... 4-1 4.1.2 Directional Diagram................................................................................................. 4-2 4.1.3 Polarization.............................................................................................................. 4-3 4.1.4 Other technical indicators of antenna ..................................................................... 4-4 4.1.5 Antenna diversity..................................................................................................... 4-6
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4.1.6 Three-sector base station antenna selection derivation ......................................... 4-8 4.2 Antenna new technology ................................................................................................. 4-10 4.2.1 Shaped beam technology ..................................................................................... 4-10 4.2.2 Intelligent Antenna ................................................................................................ 4-12 4.3 Antenna Downtilt Planning............................................................................................... 4-19 4.3.1 Antenna Downtilt Design....................................................................................... 4-19 4.3.2 Practical Application.............................................................................................. 4-22 4.4 Antenna Selection............................................................................................................ 4-24 4.4.1 Current Problems of Using Antenna ..................................................................... 4-24 4.4.2 Application Principle for Base Station Antenna in Urban Areas ........................... 4-24 4.4.3 Application Principle for Suburb Base Station Antenna........................................ 4-25 4.4.4 Application principle for base station antennas in rural areas .............................. 4-25 4.4.5 Application principle for antennas to cover highroads .......................................... 4-26 4.4.6 Other factors in antenna application ..................................................................... 4-27 4.4.7 Notes on special antennas.................................................................................... 4-27 4.4.8 Reference for antenna selection ........................................................................... 4-29 4.5 Combining and distribution unit ....................................................................................... 4-30 4.5.1 Principle for combining and distribution unit ......................................................... 4-30 4.5.2 Combining and distribution unit configuration ....................................................... 4-32 4.6 Outdoor antenna feeder system ...................................................................................... 4-34 4.6.1 Tower amplifier...................................................................................................... 4-34 4.6.2 Feeder cable ......................................................................................................... 4-35 4.7 Distributed antenna system ............................................................................................. 4-37 4.7.1 Principle for composition of distributed antenna system....................................... 4-37 4.7.2 Types of distributed antenna system .................................................................... 4-38 4.7.3 Indexes for component key technologies.............................................................. 4-39 Chapter 5 Design of Radio Network ............................................................................................ 4-1 5.1 Design of Base Station Address ........................................................................................ 4-1 5.2 Design of Parameters for Base Station Project ................................................................. 4-4 5.2.1 Environment for Antenna Installation ...................................................................... 4-4 5.2.2 Antenna Separation in GSM System ...................................................................... 4-6 5.2.3 Antenna Separation Form GSM and CDMA Base Station ..................................... 4-7 5.2.4 Antenna Installation Interval.................................................................................. 4-10 5.3 Link Budget ...................................................................................................................... 4-12 5.3.1 Link Budget Model ................................................................................................ 4-12 5.3.2 Reference point for base station sensitivity .......................................................... 4-13 5.4 Design of Coverage Area ................................................................................................ 4-16 5.5 Capacity Distribution........................................................................................................ 4-18 5.5.1 Voice channel distribution ..................................................................................... 4-18 5.5.2 Configuration of control channel ........................................................................... 4-20 5.6 Location Area Design ...................................................................................................... 4-21 5.6.1 Definition of location area...................................................................................... 4-21 5.6.2 Division of location areas ...................................................................................... 4-22
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5.6.3 Calculation of location areas ................................................................................. 4-25 5.7 Design of Indoor Coverage System................................................................................. 4-28 5.7.1 Design of indoor antenna system.......................................................................... 4-28 5.7.2 Capacity Analysis and Design............................................................................... 4-35 5.7.3 Frequency Plan ..................................................................................................... 4-37 5.8 Design of Cell Data.......................................................................................................... 4-38 Chapter 6 Frequency Planning and Anti-interference Technology.......................................... 6-1 6.1 Frequency Planning........................................................................................................... 6-1 6.1.1 Frequency Division and C/I Requirements ............................................................. 6-1 6.1.2 Principles of the Frequency Planning ..................................................................... 6-3 6.1.3 Basic Frequency Reuse .......................................................................................... 6-4 6.1.4 Compact Frequency Reuse .................................................................................... 6-6 6.2 Anti-interference Technology........................................................................................... 6-16 6.2.1 Frequency hopping Technology............................................................................ 6-16 6.2.2 Power Control........................................................................................................ 6-21 6.2.3 Discontinuous Transmission ................................................................................. 6-22 Chapter 7 Parameter Design ........................................................................................................ 6-1 7.1 System message ............................................................................................................... 6-1 7.2 Cell Selection and Cell Reselection................................................................................... 6-3 7.2.1 Network Selection ................................................................................................... 6-4 7.2.2 Cell Selection and Reselection ............................................................................... 6-4 7.2.3 Location Updating ................................................................................................... 6-8 7.3 Huawei Handover Algorithm ............................................................................................ 6-11 7.3.1 Handover Decision Flow ....................................................................................... 6-11 7.3.2 Measurement Report Pre-processing ................................................................... 6-12 7.3.3 Penalty Processing ............................................................................................... 6-13 7.3.4 Handover Sequencing Algorithm .......................................................................... 6-13 7.3.5 Emergency Handover ........................................................................................... 6-15 7.3.6 Load Handover...................................................................................................... 6-16 7.3.7 Normal Handover .................................................................................................. 6-17 7.3.8 Power prediction after handover ........................................................................... 6-19 7.3.9 Concentric Circle Algorithm................................................................................... 6-21 7.4 Huawei Power Control Technology ................................................................................. 6-25 7.4.1 MR Preprocessing................................................................................................. 6-26 7.4.2 Second Generation of Huawei Power Control Policy ........................................... 6-27 7.5 New Channel Allocation Algorithm .................................................................................. 6-30 7.6 Dual-band Network Technology ...................................................................................... 6-31 7.6.1 Necessity for Building Dual-band Network............................................................ 6-31 7.6.2 Fast Fading Characteristic and Coverage Problem of GSM1800......................... 6-31 7.6.3 Dual-band Networking Structure ........................................................................... 6-32 7.6.4 Traffic guidance and Control Policy of Dual-band Network .................................. 6-35 7.6.5 Dual-band Networking Engineering Implementation ............................................ 6-37
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Chapter 8 Traffic Statistics......................................................................................................... 8-40 8.1 Brief Introduction to the Calling Flows ............................................................................. 8-41 8.1.1 Ultra-early TCH Assignment Flow......................................................................... 8-41 8.1.2 Calling Flow (Calling Party)................................................................................... 8-42 8.1.3 Handover Flow within the BSC ............................................................................. 8-43 8.1.4 Handover Flow between the BSCs ....................................................................... 8-44 8.1.5 Handover Flow between MSCs............................................................................. 8-45 8.1.6 Subsequent Handover Flow (MS Roams from MSVb to MSCb )....................... 8-46 8.2 Analysis of Key Indexes of Traffic Statistics .................................................................... 8-47 8.2.1 TCH Drop-off Ratio ............................................................................................... 8-47 8.2.2 SDCCH Drop-off Ratio .......................................................................................... 8-48 8.2.3 Intercell Handover Success Ratio Within the BSC ............................................... 8-48 8.2.4 Incoming BSC Handover Success Ratio .............................................................. 8-49 8.2.5 Outgoing BSC Handover Success Ratio .............................................................. 8-49 8.2.6 TCH Congestion Ratio .......................................................................................... 8-50 8.2.7 SDCCH Congestion Ratio..................................................................................... 8-52 8.2.8 Radio Connection Ratio ........................................................................................ 8-52 8.3 Description of Traffic Statistics Registration .................................................................... 8-52 8.3.1 Routine Performance Measurement Tasks Necessary to Be Registered ............ 8-52 8.3.2 Performance Measurement Tasks Used for Network Optimization and Location Problems ........................................................................................................................ 8-52 Chapter 9 Network Optimization.................................................................................................. 8-1 9.1 Process of Network Optimization....................................................................................... 8-1 9.2 Common Tools Used in Network Optimization.................................................................. 8-3 9.2.1 ANT Drive Test Equipment ..................................................................................... 8-3 9.2.2 Signaling Analyzer .................................................................................................. 8-4 9.2.3 Spectrum Analyzer.................................................................................................. 8-4 9.2.4 Network Optimization Software............................................................................... 8-4 9.3 Radio Network Problems Positioning and Solving ............................................................ 8-6 9.3.1 Obtaining Basic Information .................................................................................... 8-6 9.3.2 Coverage................................................................................................................. 8-7 9.3.3 Capacity .................................................................................................................. 8-8 9.3.4 Interference ............................................................................................................. 8-9 9.3.5 Handover............................................................................................................... 8-10 9.3.6 Call Drop ............................................................................................................... 8-11 9.4 Problem Positioning according to Network Indices ......................................................... 8-12 9.4.1 TCH Call Drop Rate .............................................................................................. 8-12 9.4.2 TCH Congestion Rate ........................................................................................... 8-16 9.4.3 SDCCH Call Drop Rate......................................................................................... 8-17 9.4.4 SDCCH Congestion Rate...................................................................................... 8-17 9.4.5 Rate of Handover Completion............................................................................... 8-18
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9.4.6 Traffic Analysis ...................................................................................................... 8-20 Chapter 10 Special Topic.............................................................................................................. 8-1 10.1 The Problem of Coverage................................................................................................ 8-1 10.1.1 Equipment Configuration....................................................................................... 8-1 10.1.2 Base Station Site Selection................................................................................... 8-2 10.1.3 Antenna Engineering Design and Installation ....................................................... 8-3 10.1.4 Antenna feeder, combiner (divider), CDU connections ........................................ 8-6 10.1.5 Parameters settings and others ............................................................................ 8-6 10.2 TCH Congestion .............................................................................................................. 8-8 10.2.1 The Causes of High TCH Congestion Ratio ......................................................... 8-8 10.2.2 Positioning Methods of High TCH Congestion Ratio ............................................ 8-9 10.3 Voice Prompt ................................................................................................................. 8-12 10.3.1 Paging Strategy................................................................................................... 8-12 10.3.2 Paging procedure................................................................................................ 8-13 10.3.3 Analysis on the Problem Subscriber Out of the Service Area .......................... 8-14 10.3.4 Supplementary Notes.......................................................................................... 8-16 10.4 The Problem of Signal Fluctuation ................................................................................ 8-17 10.4.1 Examine the Stableness of the Base Stations Transmission Power ................. 8-17 10.4.2 Cell Reselection (in idle state) or Handover (in conversation state) ................... 8-18 10.4.3 Power Control and DTX ...................................................................................... 8-18 10.4.4 TRX Down ........................................................................................................... 8-20 10.4.5 Interferences ....................................................................................................... 8-20 10.4.6 Cell Congestion ................................................................................................... 8-20 10.4.7 Multipath Effect ................................................................................................... 8-21 10.4.8 Other causes ....................................................................................................... 8-21 10.5 Other Main Problems..................................................................................................... 8-23 10.5.1 Poor Voice Quality .............................................................................................. 8-23 10.5.2 Failure to attach the network............................................................................... 8-23 10.5.3 Slow to attach the network .................................................................................. 8-23 10.5.4 Access slow......................................................................................................... 8-23 10.5.5 unilateral connection ........................................................................................... 8-24 Chapter 11 Development of Network Planning Technology................................................... 11-1 11.1 GPRS Basic Principle .................................................................................................... 11-1 11.1.1 GPRS Network Structure .................................................................................... 11-1 11.1.2 GPRS BSS and MS Function Introduction.......................................................... 11-2 11.1.3 GPRS Signaling Model ....................................................................................... 11-4 11.1.4 Radio Packet Channel Configuration.................................................................. 11-5 11.1.5 Packet Access Mode........................................................................................... 11-7 11.1.6 Paging Processing .............................................................................................. 11-7 11.1.7 Discontinuous Reception (DRX) ......................................................................... 11-8 11.1.8 Radio Resource Distribution ............................................................................... 11-9
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11.1.9 Packet System Message..................................................................................... 11-9 11.1.10 Radio Link Control........................................................................................... 11-10 11.1.11 Channel Code and CS Change Control.......................................................... 11-11 11.1.12 Radio Link Monitoring ..................................................................................... 11-11 11.1.13 Radio Frequency Power Control ..................................................................... 11-12 11.1.14 Cell Reselection Control.................................................................................. 11-12 11.1.15 Flow Control and QoS Guarantee................................................................... 11-13 11.1.16 Mobility Management and Communication Management............................... 11-14 11.2 GPRS Network Planning ............................................................................................. 11-15 11.2.1 GPRS Capacity Planning .................................................................................. 11-15 11.2.2 GPRS Coverage Planning ................................................................................ 11-17 11.2.3 GPRS Frequency Planning ............................................................................... 11-20 11.2.4 Summary ........................................................................................................... 11-22 11.3 WCDMA System Overview.......................................................................................... 11-23 11.3.1 UMTS System Network Composition................................................................ 11-23 11.3.2 System Interface ............................................................................................... 11-26 11.3.3 Basic Principle of Spread Spectrum Communication ....................................... 11-26 11.3.4 Some of the Key Technologies in the WCDMA System ................................... 11-30 11.3.5 The Receive Sensitivity of the WCDMA System............................................... 11-34 11.4 WCDMA System Network Planning ............................................................................ 11-37 11.4.1 The Content of the WCDMA Network Planning ................................................ 11-37 11.4.2 WCDMA Radio Capacity Calculation................................................................ 11-40 11.4.3 WCDMA Service Description and Calculation .................................................. 11-49 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... i 1 Research on the Network Planning Technology.....................................................................i 2 Participation in the Primary Design of Radio Products ..........................................................ii 3 Radio Products Marketing and Marketing Plan Preparation..................................................ii 4 Radio Project Implementation ............................................................................................... iii Reference Documents ...................................................................................................................... i
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Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

1.1 Network Planning Flow
The purpose of the network planning is to construct a radio network, whose capacity and coverage area are both as large as possible and which can adapt to the network development and capacity extension in the future, at a certain cost and guaranteeing the network service quality. The network planning is a systematic engineering, which covers the whole process of the network construction, from the radio transmission research to the antenna feeder equipment specification analysis, from the network capacity prediction to the detailed project design, from the network performance test to the adjustment and optimization of the system parameters, large as the general design idea, small as each cell parameter; the network planning is also a comprehensive technique, which requires the knowledge in multiple aspects from wired to wireless, and abundant practical experiences. The telecom providers mostly concern the service quality provided by the system, whose most important factor is the coverage area. At the same time, when the radio frequency resource is limited, how to increase the network capacity and how to meet the requirement of the network development in the future have to be considered while designing. All of the above-mentioned problems need to be solved through the network planning, which will realize the benign balance in coverage, capacity, quality, cost and so on. See Figure 1-1, the Network Planning Flow
Figure 1-1 Network Planning Flow The first phase is traffic coverage analysis. The purpose of traffic coverage analysis is to provide the foundation for the network planning. It needs to collect the following information: cost, capacity, coverage, quality, grade of service (GoS), available
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frequency band, information of the increase of the system, population distribution, income distribution and the fixed telephone set subscription, etc. The second phase is emulation. The emulation is the site planning of the subscriber distribution with the help of the planning software. The purpose is to guarantee the coverage and capacity of a certain area and avoid the interference. In this phase, the Huawei Company applies the network planning software ASSET. The third phase is survey. Perform the field examination following the ideal station address book. Record the possible station addresses according to the different construction conditions (including power supply, transmission, electromagnetic background and land taken over, etc.). Consider the range of deviation from the ideal stations, effects on the cell splitting, economic benefit, coverage area prediction and so on. Then recommend a suitable station address plan and make sure if the electromagnetic environment around the base station is pure. The fourth phase is the system design. Set the frequency, the planning of the adjacent cell and running parameters of each cell, according to the actual base station distribution and station type. The fifth phase is installation and debugging. Following the design data, install and debug the system to make it run normally. The sixth phase is optimization. Along with the increase of subscribers, the network needs frequent optimization and adjustment. When the traffic hits a certain amount, the network needs expand the capacity; thus it returns to the phase of traffic coverage analysis.
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1.2 Network Pre-planning

1.2.1 Outline of the Network Pre-planning
The pre-planning is the basic of the radio mobile network. It reflects the systematic design level of the network planning and decides the layout of the future network. The output content of the pre-planning includes: the base station distribution, channel distribution, cell data and so on. Its major tasks are as follows (1) Analyze the construction companys requirements of the coverage area and the capacity. (2) Decide the position of the ideal station according to the cellular structure. You may select several key points in the area, from where you can observe with the help of a local relief map or an administration map, and mark the most dense regions of the subscribers as the addresses of the stations to be constructed at the first step. Then mark other base stations on the map according to the ideal cellular structure. (3) Analyze and decide the structure of the network and the base stations. Firstly, analyze and decide if its necessary to construct a Hierarchical Network according to the subscriber distribution, transmission conditions and the city development plan; and then analyze and decide to apply the omnidirectional or directional station to meet the requirement of coverage and capacity according to the different places of the area. (4) Compute the cell channel number of each base station. Predict the traffic according to the geographic location of each base station, and look up into the ERL table to get the number of channels to be configured for each base station according to the call lost ratio index Estimate the type of the largest base station according to the frequency bandwidth provided by the construction company. If it cannot meet the capacity requirement of the local area, it needs to add the number of base stations following the principle of cell splitting according to the real conditions. It also needs to select the ideal station locations on the map and estimate the base station channel number again. (5) Predict the coverage area and decide the base station project data, namely perform the preliminary emulation Select the design index: Select the minimum input power and the penetration ratio index at the coverage area edge. Select the design parameters: antenna height (above the ground), antenna azimuth angle and gain, antenna declination angle, base station height above sea level, base station type, feeder line length and antenna feeder system loss, combining and distribution methods, transmitter output power, receiver sensitivity, base station diversity reception and diversity gains and so on. Predict the coverage area of each base station cell according to the propagation models of different regions. Deliver the adjustment opinions for
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the base station address, antenna direction, declination angle, and height according to the potential blind area and weak signals. And get the project data of the real base station in the end. (6) Select the real station address and decide the station type. Perform the field examination following the ideal station address, according to the different construction conditions (including power supply, transmission, electromagnetic background and land taken over, etc.). Record the possible station address. Then propose a suitable address scheme based on the integrating consideration of the deviation range from the ideal address, effects on the future cell splitting, economic benefit and coverage area prediction and so on. After selecting the address, decide the real station type according to the number of the base station channel. After decided the station type, it needs to conduct an antenna feeder configuration scheme. As to the network moving, it needs to investigate sufficiently the antenna feeder combination of the original manufacturer, the development of the planned base station capacity and the antenna combination supported by the current equipments and deliver the best combination scheme of the antenna feeder. (7) Frequency and Adjacent Cell Planning Make the frequency and adjacent cell plan according to the real base station distribution and type. (8) Cell Data Making
1.2.2 Pre-planning Foundation

I. Service Area Requirements and Traffic
The traffic distribution and coverage requirement of a certain area is one of the foundations of the network planning and generally provided by the construction company. In the case without clear requirements, you should carry out the field investigation and analysis, make sure which area has coverage and capacity requirements to meet and which area has so little subscribers that its not economical to construct a station. You may ignore or reduce the service quality index. You should distinguish the short-term and long-term objects of the network construction. Mark these data and traffic distribution data on a geographical or a city planning map on the scale of 1/50000 or 1/200000. In the case of lacking traffic distribution data, you can mark how much percent each different area accounts for the assumed total subscriber number. Since the network construction is divided into different phases, the overall coverage and capacity requirements of an area cannot be realized from the very beginning. Generally, at the beginning of the network construction, when there are a few subscribers, the consecutive covering of the network should be focused on; in the late phase of the construction, improving network service quality is generally the objective.
II. Information of the Adjacent Network

For good preparation of the local network planning, it needs to collect the information of the network constructed in the adjacent related areas (including the coverage area design and frequency design of the adjacent base stations along the dividing line.)
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III. Landform and Field Object Data

Landform data: champagne, flat, hill, mountainous area and water, etc.; Field object data: human environment, like city, urban, countryside, transport artery (including the newly built buildings, roads and scene points and so on), etc.; floor building data, like the building type, construction density distribution and ground vegetation (forest, grassland and crops, etc). The pre-planning is in the early stage of the radio mobile network construction and the most important phase. It reflects the system design level of the network planning. The pre-planning decides the layout, quality and development space of the future network
1.2.3 Pre-planning Process

I. Coverage Analysis
(1) Type of the Coverage Area Different signal propagation models are applied for the areas of different types, which decides the design principle, service level and frequency re-use pattern of the radio network of the coverage area. In order to decide the coverage area of the cell, you can divide the radio coverage area into several types: big city, middle-sized city, small town and countryside.
Area type Big city Middle-sized city Small town Countryside Description With dense population, developed economy, large traffic. In the center of the city, high buildings stand in great numbers, and the shopping cente is flourishing. With comparatively dense population, rather developed economy, fairly large traffic. In the center of the city, stand the dense buildings. The shopping center is rather flourishing and very promising. With a big population, promising economic development, moderate amount of traffic. In the center of the town, buildings stand rather densely. The shopping center has a certain scale and rather promising. With a population in low density, developing economy and rather low traffic.
In the connection area between the above-mentioned areas, there are various transport arteries, including: speedway, national highway, major provincial highway, railway and sea-route, common provincial highway, railway and sea-route, and so on. It also includes some roads in the mountainous areas. These areas need covering too. Generally, it is suggested to apply the Omnidirectional Coverage in the countryside on the plain and the areas with limited landform, and the Directional Coverage in the big, middle-sized and small cities and speedways. (2) Define the Field Strength of the Edge of the Coverage Area. The field strength defining of the falling edge of the service area concerns: mobile sensitivity -102dBm, quick fading protection 4dB (3dB for countryside), slow fading protection 8dB (6dB for countryside), and noise (environmental and interfering noises) protection 5dB.In the big and middle-sized cities, consideration should be taken for the indoor requirements; as to the outdoor requirement, the average insertion loss 15 dB; and plus the indoor signal improvement storage, 5dB. Generally speaking, the propagation fading of the GSM1800 signal is averagely more than that of the GSM900 signal by 8dB, the antenna gains of the GSM1800 system is averagely more than that of the GSM900 system by 3dB Since the radio links have up and down directions, and the coverage area is defined by the weaker direction, it needs to consider of the balance of the uplink and downlink. Before constructing an ideal network, its
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necessary to make a good power budget and keep the balance of the uplink and downlink as much as possible. (3) Define the Coverage Ratio The defining of the coverage ratio is different according to different coverage areas, and gradually improved along with the consecutive construction of the network. In China, at the beginning, the outdoor full coverage is generally realized in cities, national significant tourism areas, speedways, national roads, areas along the railways with large traffic, as for other major roads, railways and sea-routes, the network planning and construction should be performed for 90% of the object. Along with the deeper network construction and the increasing subscriber number, the requirement of the network service becomes higher and higher. At the same time of network planning according to the traffic, it needs to gradually enhance the indoor coverage construction of the significant areas (for example, government offices, press centers, airport lounge buildings, subways, top grade commercial office buildings, entertainment centers and large shopping malls. What needs to explain is that, according to the domestic regulations, the network can be accessed from 90% of the area and 99% of the time. This requirement should be enhanced in the outdoor areas of the big cities and simplified in the countryside. As to the transport arteries, different standards should be applied, and the consecutive covered blind areas should be limited according to the different artery types.
II. Network Structure Analysis

While considering the layout of the base station, it needs to analyze deeply the network structure. Generally, the network can be divided by layer into high layer, middle layer and low layer station. Most of the network traffic is carried by the middle layer base station. (1) Middle Layer Station The middle layer station of the big and middle-sized cities refers to the base station, whose antenna is generally 25~30 meters high and a little higher than the average height of the buildings, and installed on the top of the buildings, and which generally covers several blocks. Most of the base stations in the small towns and countryside are middle layer stations, except of some special high layer stations constructed because of the traffic direction control or landform. On one hand, the middle layer station can efficiently apply the frequency resource (better than the high layer station), on the other hand, it can efficiently absorb the traffic (better than the low layer station). It has been carrying most of the traffic generated in the network running. Except in the countryside, the average station distance between most of the two middle layer stations ranges from 0.6 to 5km; while in the big cities, there are also some areas, whose average station distance between the middle layer stations is under 0.6km. But even in the big cities, the average station distance between middle layer stations is suggested not to be under 0.4Km. If more of the station distance is reduced, the buildings will affects the signal strength between each base stations more obviously, even to a degree out of control and that no suitable floor objects can be applied, thus the network service quality cannot be guaranteed; based on the experiences of the project construction and maintenance, the address selection, design and construction of the base station, network maintenance and quality control will face a very big challenge. (2) High Layer Station The high layer station in the big and middle-sized cities refers to the base station, whose antenna is generally 40 ~ 50 meters high and much higher than the average height of the buildings, and whose coverage area covers several middle layer base stations. Since the high layer station cannot make full use of the frequency resource, it
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should only be considered of and constructed, or changed from the original base stations, in big cities and some special middle-sized cities with many high buildings. The high layer station address selection should follow the principle of little but extractive. The high layer station is constructed mainly to solve the coverage problem of the high buildings in the cities. Some high layer stations are also constructed in the suburb, road, small towns and countryside because of the traffic direction control and wide coverage. (3) Low Layer Station The low layer station refers to the base station, whose antenna is less than 20 meters high and lower than the average height of the buildings. The antennas are generally installed on the outside wall of the lower floors of a building, building group, the top of the low roof garden or somewhere, or the rooms of a building. The coverage area only includes a street, part of a street or the rooms of a building. The low layer stations are frequently used. But they have rather low capacity of absorbing the traffic, mainly because the coverage area of the low layer station is small, when a station departs a little from the hot traffic center, it can hardly have an ideal traffic. Therefore, the low layer station construction needs you to consider if the purpose of construction is to supplement the coverage or solve the problem of high traffic, which will affect the address selection and the scale defining of the low layer station. After the field investigation with the help of the map, the general network structure can be decided. Generally, at the early stage of the network construction, single layer network design is applied, most base stations are middle layer station, when the basic network is established, the new base stations will be added of adjusted according to the traffic and coverage requirement. In the extremely high traffic area of the dense commercial areas, the low layer stations are constructed with the microcell layer and distributed antenna system, which meets the requirement of the indoor coverage, and at the same time avoids the interference and difficulties of station selection due to the too short distance between stations. The low layer stations will develops into the layered network structure.
III. Capacity Analysis

(1) Capacity Prediction The network construction requires the consideration of economical feasibility and rationality. Only after predicting the network capacity of the early stage and the late stage, you can make a reasonable investment decision. The network capacity prediction should be based on the integrating consideration of the population distribution, family income, fixed telephone subscription ration, national economical development and city construction, etc. The different charge policy is also an important factor when the subscribers decide to access the network or not. After getting the predicted total capacity of the network construction, you need to predict the subscriber distribution density. Considering the real requirement of the project, the base stations are generally constructed in the city, suburb and transport artery. So the percentage ration can be applied for the prediction. At the early stage of the network construction, the subscribers in the cities account for more percentage of the predicted total subscribers, along with the deeper development of the network construction, the subscribers in the suburbs and along the transport arteries will increase in the percentage. Generally the traffic of each subscriber from a city and a suburb is 0.025Erl and 0.020Erl respectively. The traffic calculation formula is: A= n /3600
In this way, the speech channel needed for a special base station can be predicted according to the traffic prediction.
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Caution: Its necessary to consider of the effects of the cell splitting while calculating the speech channel number.
In the GSM system, the ERL model is applied to calculate the density of the traffic, which can be carried by the network. The call loss applies 2% or 5% depending on the real conditions. Limited by the cell coverage area and the bandwidth of the available frequency, the cell capacity should be planned reasonably and the channel usage ratio should be raised as much as possible without affecting the good voice quality. As to the traffic share of the two bands in dual band network construction, the looser frequency bandwidth can be used to realize the high usage ratio of the channels. In the real networking, on the premise of guaranteeing the network quality at a certain level, there are two capacity solutions, namely a few stations with high level configurations and any stations with lower level of configurations. They have obvious superiority and inferiority, which should be considered according to the different conditions of each area. In the network construction, the new base station construction and base station capacity expansion are two methods to increase the capacity. Different capacity expansion strategies, like adding 900M/1800M base station, sector capacity expansion, microcell and indoor coverage and so on, are applied for the areas of different traffic density. After defining the total capacity, decide the number of the base station (cell) and the base station configuration according to the frequency re-use pattern, integrate the coverage requirements (appearing as the antenna interface EIRP requirements), and finally select the suitable base station type and the combination of the Combiner/divider unit, antenna and the feeder line. (2) Cell Splitting The cell splitting is an effective way of network capacity expansion. It includes the performance of splitting a large omnidirectional base station into several sector cells and splitting the sector cells into smaller cells. In another word, it means the planning of different cell radius according to the traffic density of different areas. The cell splitting means to construct more base stations and increase the system construction investment. Its necessary to consider the following factors: Be able to keep the image repetition of the frequency re-use regularity; Make the existing base stations still usable; Reduce or avoid the transition area; Without affecting the consecutive splitting. Since the cell splitting is fairly important, we hereunder make some more description of the common cell splitting measure of 1 into 4. The cell splitting is a way to split the congested cell into smaller cells. Each cell has its own base stations. The antenna should be shortened and the transmitter power should be reduced accordingly. Because the cell splitting increases the re-use time of the channel, the system capacity is increased. The number of channels in a unit area is increased through setting new cells with smaller radius than the original ones and
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fitting these cells (called as microcells) among the original cells. And the system capacity is increased accordingly. Suppose each cell is split by half of its radius, see Picture 1-2:
Figure 1-2 Cell Splitting (1 in 4) Schematic Diagram In order to cover the whole service area with these smaller cells, about 4 times of the original cells are needed draw a circle with the radius R to make it easier to understand. The circle with the radius R covers the area 4 times large as the area covered by the circle with a radius of R/2. The increasing number of the cell increases the cluster number in the coverage area and then the channel number in the coverage area, thus the capacity is increased. The cell splitting allows the system growing through the smaller cells, instead of the larger cells, without affecting the channel distribution strategy necessary for keeping the minimum co-channel re-use genes between the co-channel cells. The Picture 1-2 is an example of cell splitting, the base station is placed on the corner of the cell. Suppose that the traffic in service area of the base station A is saturated (namely the congestion of base station A is over the acceptable value). Therefore new base stations are needed to increase the channel number in the area and reduce the coverage area of each single base station. In the example showed in Picture 1-2, the smaller cells are added on the premise of not changing the frequency re-use plan of the system. The cell splitting just zooms out the geometric shape of the cluster pro rata. Thus, the radius of each new cell is half of that of the original ones. As to the new smaller cells, the transmission power should be reduced. The transmission power of the new cell, whose radius is half of that of the original one, can be given by checking the power Pr received from the edge between the new and
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original cells, and letting them equal. This needs to ensure that the frequency re-use scheme of the new microcell is the same as that of the original cell. As to the Picture 1-2: Pr[at the edge of the old cell] and Pr[at the edge of the new cell] P t2 (R/2)
n
P t1 R
Here, Pt1 and Pt2 represent the base station transmission power of the larger and smaller cells respectively, n represents the path attenuation index. If let n=4, and let all powers received equal, then Pt2=Pt1/16 3
That is to say, in order to cover the original coverage area with the microcells and reach the S/I requirements, the transmission power should be reduced by 12dB. In fact, not all cells split at the same time. Generally, its very difficult for the service providers to find the exact period suitable for the cell splitting. So the cells in different scales exist simultaneously. Under this condition, it needs to maintain the minimum distance between the co-channel cells, therefore the frequency distribution becomes even more complex. At the same time, attention should be paid to the problem of handover so that the high speed and low speed mobile subscribers can enjoy the service simultaneously. As shown in the Picture 1-2, when there are two scales of cells in one area, the formula (3) tells that the original transmission power cannot be simply applied for all of the new cells and the new transmission power also cannot be applied for all of the original ones. If all cells apply the bigger transmission power, some channels used by the smaller cells wont be able to separate from the co-channel cells. On the other hand, if all cells apply the lower transmission power, part of the area of the bigger cell will be excluded from the service area. Accordingly, the channels in the original cell should be divided into two groups, one of which meets the re-use requirement of the smaller cells, and the other one of which the bigger cells. When the bigger cells are used for high speed mobile communication, the time of handover will be reduced. The size of the two channel groups is decided by the splitting progress. At the early stage of the splitting progress, the channels in the low power group are less. However, more channels of the lower power group are needed to meet the increasing demand. The splitting progress will not stop until all channels in the area are used in the lower power group, and then the cell splitting will cover the whole area and the radius of each cell in the system becomes smaller. The antenna is often declined to focus the emission energy toward the ground, instead of on the horizontal direction, in order to limit the radio coverage of the newly formed microcell. The above analysis tells that the coverage area design of the radio network will not only solve the problem of the coverage area, but also meet the subscriber capacity requirement. The problem of the coverage area will be solved through constructing multiple base stations/cells. However, the construction of the base station is limited by the investment and restricts with each other. While the subscriber capacity is decided by the channel configuration, limited by the frequency resource and restricting each other. Therefore a unified planning is necessary.
IV. Station Address Planning

The purpose of the station address planning is to select the best location for the base station. After the field examination, construct the base station in the center of a city with a safe subscriber prediction, then gradually enlarge the number of the base
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station on the map based on the principle of the cell mesh radius. Thus the ideal station address is selected. In the areas of different traffic density, the space between the base stations is different. Generally, in the area of high traffic density, the space between stations should be small, and the microcell and distributed antenna are applied in part of the hot spots to provide the multi-layer coverage and meet the capacity requirement. In a real project, its difficult to select the address. This is firstly because the irregularity of the landform and buildings causes the uneven signal coverage figure. On the other hand, the interference has to be avoided. In other words, not only the coverage but the interference should be considered before positioning the antenna. As to the whole network, you cannot only think of the location of one base station, instead, you should consider of the possibility of many addresses. Since the change of one address will affect the location of other base stations, the address selection of the base station should be based on a certain principle. After the address has been selected, the real station type will be defined according to the traffic distribution and the channel number of the base station.
V. Parameter Design of the Base Station Engineering

Decide the height of antenna hanging position according to the different coverage area types, network structures and average height of the buildings. As to the base station moving, the necessity of height adjustment of the antenna is decided according to the network construction condition, objects required by subscribers to cover and the installation environment. In some mountainous area, because of the landform, the base station has to be constructed on the mountain, it's better to select the directional antenna or the omnidirectional antenna with an electric declination angle, and avoid the blind under tower. The base station antennas are divided into two types, omnidirectional and directional antenna based on the horizontal direction. In the vertical plane, all antennas have directions. Generally the gain of the omnidirectional antenna is 6dBd~9dBd; the gain of the directional antenna is 9dBd~16dBd. The gain of the directional antenna refers to the gain in the maximum transmission direction. Generally, the omnidirectional base station is constructed only in the villages on the plain or some special landform, while the directional antenna is used in the base station of other areas on the whole. In the subscriber density cities, the common base stations (excluding the microcell and indoor distributed antenna system) are installed with the directional antenna at the angle of 65 degree. In order to avoid the antenna interference, the antenna gain doesnt need to be too high. The base station, with a few centralized subscribers and needing a wide coverage, generally applies the directional antenna with high gain. The antenna direction angle and the declination angle (electronic declination or mechanical declination) should be designed reasonably. In order to guarantee the normality of the network structure design and avoid the interference as much as possible, the antennas of each sector in each base station of the local area is recommended to have the same direction, for example designed as 0 /120 /240 or 30 /150 /270 . While the antenna direction needs to be adjusted in the base stations close to the sea, along the river, transport artery and the city-suburb combination, areas with uneven traffic and center of city with many high buildings. Whats need highlighting is that because there are high buildings along many streets in cities in different size, the base station cell antennas nearby cannot be installed with an azimuth angle facing the street in order to avoid the wave-guide effect. The antenna declination angle should be decided according to the special conditions on the premise of reducing the interference to the co-channel cell and covering the whole coverage area without unnecessary blind area; when it declines too much, the ratio emission in front of and behind the antenna must be considered, avoiding the back lobe interfering the cell behind or the side lobe interfering the neighbor sector.
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Generally speaking, design a rather big declination angle for the cells near to the water surface to avoid the interference to the opposite side of the water; the obliquity of 3~6 degree for the dense city center; no declination for the suburb and artery cell in order to widen the coverage area. In addition, the suitable feeder line, combiner and the tower amplification unit should be selected according to the special conditions.
VI. Coverage Prediction

The coverage prediction is to predict the coverage of the network to be constructed, according to the address selected and the type designed, and to see if it can meet the demand of the subscribers. The coverage can be predicted with the help of the ASSET Network Planning Tools to select a map with a suitable accuracy. The coverage area of a base station mainly concerns the following factors: service quality index; transmitter output power; available sensibility of the receiver; the direction and gain of the antenna; frequency band applied; emission environment (landform, city construction and other man-made environment); application of the diversity reception. In case the result of the network coverage prediction cannot meet the requirements, the adjustment should be done. The usual measures include: (1) When there are subscribers outside the cell coverage area, where is not economical to construct a site, broadcast station can be applied to solve the problem. When the signal in the coverage area is weak or there is blind area in it, the microcell can be considered to solve the problem according to the conditions. (2) If the cell coverage areas dont overlap one another enough, it should be considered to increase the height of the antenna position or the number of the base station according to the cell splitting principle. (3) When the cell coverage area cannot hit the co-channel reference index, make adjustment as follow: Adjust the cell channel configuration; Adjust the station address or other design parameters (including the antenna type, height of position, azimuth angle, the declination angle and transmission power). Accordingly the effects between the base stations need considering.
VII. Frequency Planning

The frequency re-use pattern is one of the important factors to be considered in the cell system planning. The frequency re-use refers to the application of the radio channels at the same frequency in the cells of different coverage areas. The cells of frequency re-use should have a certain interval between each other to meet the requirement of the adjacent frequency carrier-to-interference ratio. The re-use degrees of the same frequency are different in the different re-use patterns. Different frequency re-use patterns are applied in areas of different types. In a certain area, on the promise of enough coverage, the number of the base station (cell) is decided by the frequency planning pattern. Generally speaking: (1) In the big and middle-sized cities, different aggressive frequency re-use patterns, like MRP, 13, etc., are applied according to the different equipment functions. At the same time, reserve part of the frequency band for the microcell to construct layered network. Its frequency re-use coefficient is rather small. (2) In the small and middle-sized cities, different aggressive frequency re-use patterns, are applied according to the different equipment functions. Whether its necessary to
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construct the layered network depends on the real condition. Its frequency re-use coefficient is a little bigger than that of the big and middle-sized cities. (3) In the towns and villages, which are rich in the resources, the standard 43 frequency re-use pattern can be applied. The stations, constructed on the mountains for some geographic reasons, can be allocated some independent frequency bands. At the pre-planning stage, the planners should present the application for the frequency resource according to the scale and frequency planning pattern of the radio network.
VIII. LAC Planning

LAC is also an important resource. At the pre-planning stage, the planners should present the initial allocation and resource application of the LAC based on the consideration of network structure and scale.
IX. Cell Data Making

In order to guarantee the good and stable running of the network, its also necessary to configure the relevant data for each base station cell. What has to be highlighted is: the cell attribute parameters, cell handover band selection, channel allocation algorism selection, turn on which handover algorism, and whether to use the functions, like frequency hopping, power control and DTX, should have been decided in the above base station design, coverage prediction and frequency planning. In the GSM system of Huawei, as to the detailed data design and configuration, please read the Data Configuration Criterion of the GSM900, 1800 BSS network planning for reference.
1.2.4 Pre-planning Difficulties

As shown in the above progress, the pre-planning difficulties are reflected in the following aspects: (1) Complex emission environment, severely fluctuate signal, big difference of the multi-approach emission caused by the various man-made buildings, and the difficulties in theoretic prediction of the coverage area. (2) Severe interference. Except for the human noises, all adjacent frequency interference, intermodulation interference and other radio interference should be considered and controlled in the permitted index during the engineering design. (3) Limited frequency resources. Its getting more serious along with the big increasing of the subscriber. (4) There are strict rules for the cell structure and the cell splitting behavior designed for the frequency re-use. The station address planning can hardly be carried out in the real project due to various reasons. (5) The investment control is the technical and economical issue of the network construction, which can be by no means ignored.
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Chapter 2 GSM Air Interface

2.1 GSM System Introduction
GSM system structure is shown as in Figure 2-1.
OSS NMC NSS OMC DPPS PCS SEMC
BTS MS BSS BTS
BSC
MSC/VLR
HLR/AUC EIR PSTN ISDN PDN
OSS: Operation and Maintenance Subsystem BSS: Base Station Subsystem NSS: Network Subsystem NMC: Network Management Center DPPS: Data Post Processing System SEMC: Security Management Center PCS: SIM Card Personalization Center OMC: Operation and Maintenance Center MSC: Mobile Switching Center VLR: Visitor Location Register HLR: Home Location Register AUC: Authentication Center EIR: Equipment Identification Register BSC: Base Station Controller
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BTS: Base Transceiver Station MS: Mobile Station PDN: Public Date Network PSTN: Public Switched Telephon Network ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network
Figure 2-1 GSM System Structure

Figure 2-1 illustrates that a GSM system consists of three subsystems: Operation and Maintenance Subsystem (OSS), Base Station Subsystem (BSS), and Network Subsystem (NSS). BSS is the basic part of the GSM system which deals directly with the radio cellular aspect. Connected to the mobile station via radio interface, it takes charge of transceiving radio signals and managing radio resources. NSS is the core part of the whole GSM system. It has such functions as switching, connection, and management between different GSM subscribers as well as between GSM sbscribers and subscribers of other communications networks.Its major responsibilities include call processing, communication management, mobility management, part of the radio resource management, security management, subscriber data and equipment management, billing record processing, common channel and signaling processing, and local opreation and maintenance.BSS is mainly responsible for transceiving radio signals and managing wirelsss resource. At the same time, it connects to NSS to realize the connection beteen different mobile subscribers as well as between mobile subscribers and subscribers of the fixed network to send system information and subscriber information. Of course this requires the interworking with OSS. The actual GSM network can be divided into several different areas. To be specific, it include the following aspects: Service Area is the area where the service is available for mobile stations. Within this area, subcribers of different communications networks can communicate with a mobile station without knowing its exact position. PLMN Area refers to the whole area covered by the Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN), which is a network independent from other communications networks such as ISDN and PSTN. MSC Area refers to a part of the PLMN network covered by all the cells controlled by one MSC.One MSC area may consist of several location areas. Location Area refers to the area where a mobile station can move freely without location update. One location area may consists of several cells or base station areas. In order to call a mobile station, the calling can be initiated from all the base stations in one location area at the same time. Base Station Area refers to the area of all the cells within the range of one or more BTSs placed in the same area. Cell refers to the radio coverage area labelled by base station identity code or global cell identity code. When the omnidirectional antenna is used, the cell is equivalent to the base station area. In design, a specific cellular area, is a cell.
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Figure 2-2 GSM Area Classification
2.2 Radio Channel Structure

In PLMN, MS connects to the fixed part of the GSM system via radio channel so as to enable subscribers to access communications services. In order to realize the interconnection of MS and BTS, the signal transmission via the wirless channel has to undergo a series of regulations and a set of standards has to be established. This set of regulations for signal transmission via the radio channel is the so-called Air Interface, also named Um interface.
2.2.1 Time Slot and Frame Structure

The Um interface integrates such technologies as Frequency Dividion Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Dividion Multiple Access, and frequency hopping technology. The transmission unit through the Um interface is the Burst composed of about 100 modulated bits. Burst occupies 200kHz frequency band width, and it last 0.577ms(15/26ms). As is shown in Figure 2-3, the time and frequency window it occupies is called slot. The time a slot occupies is called a time slot, while the frequency bandwidth it occupies is called a frequency slot. The frequency slot is equivalent to the radio frequency channel in the GSM norm. The frame is often represented in the form of n consecutively occurred slots. In the GSM system, the value of n is set to be 8, and this kind of frame is called TDMA frame that is each TDMA frame is composed of eight consecutive slots.
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Figure 2-3 The concept of time slot One physical channel is the burst sent in specific and cyclic slots. In the GSM system, the cycle is eight, which is a TDMA frame. It is qualified to say that each radio frequency channel consists of eight physical channels. A physical channel can be identified and differentiated from others according to the number of one of its slots in the TDMA frame, and this number is called time slot number. If a radio frequency channel is not frequency hopping, then its core frequency is constant. Otherwise, its core frequency is changing, and the changing unit is 200kHz. The complete TDMA frame structure is shown as in Figure 2-4, while the Burst structure in Figure 2-5.
Figure 2-4
The TDMA frame structure of the channel
The explanation for the above figure is as follows: A TDMA frame lasts 4.615ms(120/26ms), composed of eight time slots. Several TDMA frames constitute a multiframe, whose structures have two kinds: 26 multiframe and 51 multiframe. The cycle of the 26 multiframe structure is 120ms, and it contains 26 TDMA frames, which are used as service channels and associated control channels. The cycle of the 51 multiframe structure is 3060/13ms, and it contains 51 TDMA frames, which are used as control channels.
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Several multiframes constitute a super frame, which contains 5126 1326 TDMA frames. Each super frame may contain 51 26-multiframes or 26 51-multiframes. The cycle of super frames is 6.12s. Several super frames constitute a hyper frame, which contains 2048 super frames. Its cycle is 12533.76s, that is three hours twenty-eight minutes fifty-three seconds and 760 milliseconds.In each cycle, a hyper frame contains 2715648 TDMA frames, which are numbered from zero to 2715647.
Figure 2-5 Several kinds of Burst structure
2.2.2 Physical Channel

The physical channel is the combination of frequency division and time division. It is composed of the slot flow between BTS and MS.Therefore, any physical channel has to be described from two dimensions: frequency and time.
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I. 1. Frequency domain description

(1) The working frequency band of the GSM system
Uplink (MS BTS): 890 915MHz Downlink (BTS
1710 1785MHz 1805 1880MHz
MS): 935 960MHz
Duplex interval: 45MHz(900M) 95MHz(1800M) Carrier frequency interval: 200kHz (2)Frequency hopping (3)Cell (frequency point) distribution and mobile station (frequency point) distribution
(4) Mobility distribution deviation and frequency hopping serial generating number II. Time domain description
TN----time slot number FN----TDMA frame number
2.2.3 Logic Channel

The logic channel results from the time complexing on the physical channel. Different logic channels are used for different kinds of information transmission between BTS and MS. The explanation for the logic channel defined in the GSM norm is as follows:
I. Traffic Channel(TCH)
TCH carries speech or subscriber data, and the full rate TCH carries the information with the rate of 22.8kbit/s. TCH include the following kinds of traffic channels: Enhanced full rate speech TCH (TCH/EFS) Full rate speech TCH (TCH/FS) 9.6kbit/s full rate data TCH (TCH/F9.6) 4.8kbit/s full rate data TCH (TCH/F4.8) 2.4kbit/s full rate data TCH (TCH/F2.4)
II. Control Channel (CCH)

The control channel mainly carries signaling or synchronous data. It can be divided into four kinds according to the different tasks processed: (1) Broadcasting Channel (BCH) BCH is the one-point-to-many-points unidirectional control channel from BTS to MS, which is used to broadcast all kinds of information to MS. BCH can be divided into three kinds: FCCH: Frequency Correction Channel, which is used to correct the MS frequency;
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SCH: Synchronous Channel, which is used in the MS frame synchronization and BTS identification; BCCH: Broadcasting Control Channel, which is used to broadcast cell informaiton. (2) Common Control Channel (CCCH) CCCH is the one-point-to-many-points bidirectional control channel, which is mainly used to carry signaling information necessary for the access management function, and it can also carry other kinds of signaling. CCCH is commonly used by all MSs of the network. It includes three parts: PCH: Paging channel, which is used by BTS to page MS; RACH: Random Access Channel, which is used by MS to randomly access the uplink channel of the network; AGCH: Access Grant Channel, which is used to assign the special control channel to the connection with the successful access. (3) Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) DCCH is point-to-point bidirectional control channel. Based on the requirement for the communications control process, DCCH is assigned to MS to enable it to conduct point-to-point signaling transmission with BTS. It can be divided into the following kinds: SDCCH/8: Separate Dedicated Control Channel; SACCH/C8: Slow Associated Control Channel associated with SDCCH/8; SACCH/TF: Slow Associated Control Channel associated with TCH/F; FACCH/F: Fast Associated Control Channel/Full Rate; SDCCH/4: Separate Dedicated Control Channel combined with BCCH/CCCH; SACCH/C4: Slow Associated Control Channel associated with SDCCH/4. (4) Cell Broadcasting Channel (CBCH) CBCH is used to broadcast cell short message bit/s only with the downlink direction. It carries cell broadcasting short message service information, and it uses the same physical channel with SDCCH. The summary for the logic channel supported by M900 BTS is shown as in Figure 2-6.
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Figure 2-6 Logic Channel Classification
2.2.4 Allowed Channel Combination Type

The logic channel is projected to the physical channel based on a specific rule. The channel combination types allowed in GSM PHASE 2 Norm are as follows: (1) TCH/F + FACCH/F + SACCH/TF (2) TCH/H (0,1)+ FACCH/H(0,1)+ SACCH/TH(0,1) (3) TCH/H (0,0)+ FACCH/H(0,1)+ SACCH/TH(0,1)+ TCH/H(1,1) (4) FCCH + SCH + BCCH + CCCH (main BCCH) (5) FCCH + SCH + BCCH + CCCH + SDCCH/4(0..3)+ SACCH/C4 (0..3)(Combined BCCH) (6) BCCH + CCCH (Extended BCCH) (7)SDCCH/8(0. .7)+ SACCH/C8 (0. .7)
A Note: 1. If the system supports SMSCB, the SDCCH (1/8) in the combination (5) and (7) used as CBCH 2. The combination (5)(Combined CCCH) can only be adopted when there is no other CCCH in the cell.
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3. CCCH = PCH + RACH + AGCH + NCH.
2.2.5 The Frame Structure of the Logic Channel

Different logic channels have different frame structures. However, the frame structure of logical channels is always cyclic in time, although different logic channels have different cycles. In order to realize high-performance system, the GSM Norm works hard on the frame structure of the logical channel, which results in the complicated frame structure system of the GSM system.
2.2.6 The Use of the Common Control Channel

The following explanation is for the use of the common control channel: Among all the carrier frequencies in a cell, there is only one carrier frequency can support BCCH. Of course, it also supports CCCH.The cell is uniquely labeled by this carrier frequency, which is called C0 in the protocol. C0 carrier frequency must transmit at the constant frequency with the constant power. That is to say, C0 carrier frequency is not allowed for frequency hopping. The frequency used by C0 carrier frequency is called Scaling Frequency. TN0 with and only with C0 can support channel combination (4) and (5), that is main BCCH and combined BCCH. Parameter BS_CC_CHANS and extended BCCH. Parameter BS_CCCH_SDCCH_COMB and combined BCCH. Parameter BS_AG_BLKS_RES. Parameter BS_PA_MFRMS. The CCCH_GROUP and PAGING_GROUP of the MS as well as the paging and discontinuous reception.
2.2.7 The Early Timing of Uplink and Downlink as well as MS In the GSM system, uplinks refer to the links from MS to BTS; while downlinks refer
to those from BTS to MS. As far as MS is concerned, if the requirement for simultaneous transmission and reception can be avoided, it will be great, because there is no need for the MS to protect its transmitter while it is receiving, which can reduce the volume of the MS to a large extent. In order to realize this point, in the GSM system, the TDMA frame of the uplink is always three BPs (about 1730s) behind that of the downlink. Form BTS perspective, this delay is constant, but for MS, things are different. Due to the mobility of MS, there always exists a transmission delay from MS to the BTS in its service cell, and this delay is usually not constant. In order to compensate for the transmission delay to and from BTS, the transmission of MS must take place earlier, and this is called the early timing of MS.The range for the early time is between 0 233s (this limitation comes from protection bit time domain feature of Access Burst). Therefore,
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Chapter 2
GSM Air Interface
from the MS perspective, the accurate deviation between the uplink and downlink is three BPs less the early timing value.
The MS in the special mode must transmit using proper early timing value at any time; otherwise, it will lose the synchronization with BTS. In the GSM system, the method of self-adaptive timing adjustment is employed to ensure that the MS in the special mode always uses proper early timing value.
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GSM Air Interface
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xii
Chapter 3
Radio Propagation Theroy
Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theory

3.1 Basic knowledge of Radio Propagation
When planning and constructing a mobile communication network, we must understand the features of the electric waves to define the frequency band, frequency allocation, radio coverage, communication probability calculation, electromagnetic interference between systems and final parameters of radio devices. It is the keystone for system design, efficient use of frequency spectrum and EMC (Electronic Magnetic Compatibility). It is well known that the radio wave can be transmitted from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna in multiple modes: forward wave or free space wave, earth wave or surface wave, troposphere reflecting wave, and ionosphere wave. As shown in Figure 3-1, as far as electronic propagation is concerned, the simple method between transmitters and receivers is free space propagation. Free space refers to isotropy (identical in axes characters) and uniformity (even texture) in such zone. Other names for free space are forward wave or stadia wave. As shown in Figure 3-1(a), forward wave transmits along straight lines, so that it can be used for communication between satellite and exterior space. In addition, this definition is also used for stadia propagation in land (between two microwave towers), as shown in Figure 3-1(b). The second method is the earth wave or surface wave. Earth wave is the combination of three waves: the forward wave, backward wave and surface wave. The Surface wave transmits along the earth surface. Some energy from the transmitting antenna can directly reach to the receiver; some energy reaches to the receiver after reflecting on the earth surface; some reaches to the receiver through surface wave. Surface wave transmits on the earth surface. Since the earth surface is not ideal for propagation, some of the energy is absorbed by the ground. When energy is absorbed by the ground, it can cause ground current. Such three surface waves are shown in Figure 3-1(c). The third method is that troposphere reflecting wave. It is generated from the troposphere layer, which is a heterogeneous medium, changing with time because of air conditions. Its reflection factors decrease with an increase of height. Such reflection factors with gradual change cause electric wave bending, as shown in Figure 3-1(d). Troposphere method is applied to radio communication with the wavelength less than 10 meters (frequency larger than 30MHz). The fourth method is propagation through ionospheric reflection. When the electric wave is less than 1 meter in length (frequency larger than 300 MHz), the troposphere layer is the reflected body. The radio wave reflected from troposphere layer might have one or more leaps, as shown in Figure 3-1(e). Such propagation is used for long-distance communication. Besides reflection, troposphere layer can generate electric wave scattering because of uneven refractive rate. In addition, meteors in troposphere layer can also scatter electric waves. Like the troposphere layer, ionosphere layer also has the feature of continuous fluctuation, and such fluctuation is rapid fluctuation at random. Cellular system radio propagation is adopted the second method of electric wave propagation. It will be discussed in the following parts.
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Chapter 3
(a)
(b)
Scatterer
Ground wave
(c)
Ionization layer
(d)
(e)
(a) Forward wave transmits along straight line
(b) Stadia communication application
(c) Earth (e) Radio
wave propagation
(d) Troposphere lay scatters radio wave irregularly.
wave transmits through ionosphere reflection
Figure 3-1 Different Propagation Modes There are two reasons for propagation study when designing cellular system: first, it provides necessary tool for calculating signal level covering different cells. In most cases, coverage area is , therefore earth wave propagation can be adopted in such condition. Secondly, it can calculate monkey-chatter interference and cochannel interference. There are three methods for predicatingsignal level radio coverage: the first one is pure theory, which is applied to separate objects, such as mountain and other solid objects. However, it ignores the irregularity of the Earth. The second one is based upon measurement in various environments, including irregular landform and manmade obstacles, especially the higher frequency and lower mobile antenna commonly existing in mobile communication. The third method is the improved model upon the above two methods, which considers the influence of mountains and other obstacles upon the measurement and the refraction law. In the cellular system, there are at least two propagation models: the first one is FCC suggested model; the second one, established by Okumura, considers the actual experience data.
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Chapter 3
3.2 Radio Propagation Environment

3.2.1 Frequency Division Introduction
The Radio frequency from 3Hz to 3000GHz are separated into 12 bands, as shown in Figure the following table. Frequency in different frequency spectrum has different propagation characteristics. As to mobile communication, we only pay attention to UHF spectrum.
Frequency Classification Extremely Low Frequency Voice Frequency Very-low Frequency Low Frequency Medium Frequency High Frequency Very High Frequency Ultra High Frequency Super High Frequency Extremely High Frequency Designation ELF VF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
to 30Hz to 300Hz 300 to 3000Hz 3 to 30KHz 30 to 300KHz 300 to 3000KHz 3 to 30MHz 30 to 300MHz 300 to 3000MHz 3 to 30GHz 30 to 300GHz 300 to 3000GHz
3 30
3.2.2 Fast Fading and Slow Fading

According to the last section, in a typical cellular mobile communication environment, direct path between the receiver and the transmitter is obstructed by buildings or other objects. Thus, communication between the cellular base station and mobile station completes not through direct path but many other paths. In UHF frequency, the main propagation mode for electromagnetic wave from the transmitter to the receiver is scattering, i.e. reflection from the surface of building or refraction from artificial and natural objects, as shown in Figure 3-2.
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Chapter 3
building reflected wave reflected wave
diffracted wave
forward wave
ground
Figure 3-2 Multipath Propagation Model
All the signal components compose a multi standing wave, the signal level of which increases or decreases with corresponding changes of the components. The synthesis signal level fades 20 to 30dB in a few car bodies away, the difference between the maximum and the minimum is about 1/4 wavelength. A great number of propagation paths result in so called multipath phenomenon, whose synthesis amplitude and phase will undergo great fluctuation with the movement of mobile stations. Usually, such phenomenon is called multipath fading or fast fading, as shown in Figure 3-3. Essentially, multipath fading is a fast change. Besides, such propagation character causes time dispersion phenomenon. The distribution of deep fading point in space is approximately half wavelength away (900MHz is 17cm, 1800 or 1900Mhz is 8cm). If the mobile antenna is at the deep fading point at that time (when mobile user in a car stay at the deep fading point because of redlight, we call it Redlight Problem), voice quality is very poor. Therefore, related technologies like hopping should be applied to solve this problem. Studies show that if the mobile cell receives the amplitude, phase and angle of respective component at random, then the azimuth angle of the synthesis signal and the probability density function of amplitude are as follows:
p( ) = p(r) =
r
2
1 2
0
r2 2 2
2
r0
(3-1) (3-2)
e (
Among them, r is the standard deviation. (3-1) and (3-2) represent the azimuth angle is even distribution between 0 to 2, while the probability density function of electric
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Chapter 3
field abides by Rayleigh Distribution. Therefore, multi path is also called Rayleigh fading. As to this fast fading, the base station adopts the methods of time diversity, frequency diversity and space diversity (polarity diversity). Time diversity mainly adopts the methods of symbol interleave, error code checking and correcting. Different code has different anti-fading characteristics. As to the air channel coding of GSM mobile communication, please see related GSM protocol. The basic of frequency diversity theory is the correlation bandwidth, i.e. after more than an interval between two frequencies, their space fading characteristics are considered irrelevant. A large number of test data shows that such irrelevancy can be obtained if the interval between the two frequencies is larger than 200 KHz; frequency diversity mainly adopts spread spectrum. In GSM mobile communication, hopping is simply applied to obtain hopping gain, while in CDMA mobile communication, each channel works in wide band (narrow band CDMA is 1. 25 MHz), which actually, is a spread frequency communication. Space diversity mainly adopts the master diversity antenna receiving method. Signals the base station receiving from the master and diversity channels are respectively combined after equalization through the Maximum Likelihood Sequence Equalizer (MLSE). Such master diversity receiving effect is guaranteed by the irrelevancy received by the master diversity. Irrelevance refers to the signals received respectively by the master antenna and diversity antenna having no fading at the same time. It requires that the spacing between the master and diversity antenna is 10 times more than the radio signal wavelength (the antenna spacing is more than 4 meters in GSM900), or adopting polarity diversity to guarantee the signals received by the master and diversity antenna having different fading characteristics. Mobile station (mobile phone) has no such space diversity function with only one antenna. The equalizing ability to different ranges (time window) of the base station receiver is also a form of space diversity. In CDMA communication, when soft switching is performed, the mobile station and multi base stations communicate at the same time to select the best signal for handover, such is also a form of space diversity. A great number of studies shows that the average signal levels received by the mobile station, except for fast Rayleigh fading in instantaneous value, appear slow changes as changing position, such change is called slow fading, as shown in Figure 3-3. It is caused by the shadow effect, and also called shadow fading. Buildings, forest and topographical relief in the way of radio propagation will cause shadow in electromagnetic field. The medium value of receiving signal level will change when electromagnetic shadow is produced by different obstacles the mobile station encounters. The change is depended upon the obstacle condition and working frequency; changing rate has relations with obstacles and driving speed. By studying this fading law, it shows that its medium value variation abides by Logarithmic Normal Distribution. Additionally, radio refraction coefficient changes as the climate conditions change with times, as well as slow changes in vertical gradient of atmosphere dielectric constant, which results in slow changes in signal level medium value in the same place as time changing. Statistics show that such medium value variation also abides by Logarithmic Normal Distribution. The distribution standard deviation is rt. Variation of signal medium value in a larger range of distribution with time and place all abides by Logarithmic Normal Distribution, so that their synthesis distribution still abides by Logarithmic Normal Distribution. When communicating in land, usually, signal medium value variation as time changing is less than that as place changing, so that such slow fading can be ignored, r=rL. However, in fixed-point communication, slow fading shall be considered.
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Chapter 3
Received power
- 20
Fast fading Slow fading
-40
-60
10
20
30
Distance
( m)
Figure 3-3 Fast fading and slow fading In general, there are two influences in cellular environment: the first one is fast fading; and the second one is slow changes in receiving signal level resulted from directly visible path, i.e. long-term signal level change. That is to say, the channel works in fast fading in accordance with Rayleigh distribution, and superimposes amplitude with signal to meet with slow fading in Logarithmic Normal Distribution.
3.2.3 Propagation Loss

In propagation studies, signal level received by specialized receiver is a major feature. Owing to the interference of propagation path and landform, propagation signal level decreases. Such signal level decrease is called propagation loss. In radio propagation studies, first study the characteristics of the two antennas in free space (homogeneous medium with isotropy, no absorption, zero electric conductivity). Take the ideal omnidirectional antenna as an example. The propagation loss of free space is:
L p = 32.4 + 20 lg(f MHz ) + 20 lg(d km )
(3-3)
Among which, f is frequency, d is distance (kilometers). In the above equation, propagation loss is in inverse proportion to d. When d doubles, free space path loss increases by 6 dB. Meanwhile, when wavelength decreases (increase frequency f), path loss increases. We can compensate these losses by increasing radiation and receiving antenna gain. If the working frequency is already known, (3-3) can be also written as:
L p = L 0 + 10 lg(d km )
Of the equation,
(3-4)
, is called path loss slope. In the actual cellular system, 2 according to measurement result, value ranges from 3 to 5. Having the equation of path loss in free space, the actual propagation can be considered between the two antennas on plain but imperfect surface. Suppose the whole propagation path surface is absolutely plain (without refraction). The antenna height of the mobile station is
represents
), as shown in Figure 3-4.
and
respectively (A represents
, and B
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Chapter 3
A B (a) A B
(b) A B
A'
(a) multireflection ground reflection
(c)
(b) simple reflection (c) mapping method of finding path difference between stadia and
Figure 3-4 Propagation on Plain Surface As compared with the path loss in free space, propagation path loss on plain grounds is:
L p = 10 lg d 20 lg h c 20 lg h m (3-5)
Of which, . This equation shows that if antenna height doubles, 6 dB can be 4 compensated for loss; while the receiving power of the mobile station changes with the fourth power of distance, i.e. if distance doubles, the power received reduced by 12 dB. Various landforms and ground objects differ greatly, so the impact on radio propagation loss in mobile communication also varies. It is impossible to have absolutely plain landform in actual application. Such complex landforms can be divided into two types: quasi smooth landform and irregular landform. Quasi smooth landform refers to the landform with gentle rolling topography, rolling height less than or equal to 20 meters as well as slight difference in average surface height. Okumura defines the rolling height as the difference between 10% and 90% of rolling topography 10 kilometers ahead of the mobile station. CCIR defines it as the difference between over 90% and over 10% of rolling topography 10 to 50 kilometers ahead of the receiver. Other landforms are generally called irregular landform, which can be divided into the following types based upon their conditions: hills, separated mountains, slopping landform and water-and-land mixed landform and so on.
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Chapter 3
When analyzing propagation loss in urban areas and their nearby areas, we can also classify irregular landform by congestion in regions as open area, dense urban area, medium urban area and suburb area. In general, we also analyze diffraction loss when analyzing propagation loss in mountainous area or dense urban areas with close skyscrapers. Diffraction loss is used to measure the height of obstacles and antenna. The obstacle height must be compared with propagation wavelength. As to the same obstacle, the diffraction loss to long wavelength is less than that to short one. When predicating path loss, we can view these obstacles as pointed obstacles, i. e. knife-shaped. Loss can be calculated by the method commonly used in physical optics. Two kinds of obstacles shown in Figure 3-5. Under the first condition, no obstacles appear in stadium path at H. Under the second condition, obstacles appear in radio path. In the first condition, we assume that the height of obstacle is negative number, while positive number in the second condition. Diffraction loss can be calculated through the diffraction constant v, which is known from the following equation. v = H 2/ (1/d 1 + 1/d 2 ) 6) The approximate value of diffraction loss can be calculated from the following equations: F=0 = 20 lg lg(0.5 + 0.62v) = 20 lg lg(0.5e 0.45v ) = 20 lg lg(0.4 0.12 (0.1v + 0.38) 2 ) = 20 lg lg(0.225/v) vm1 0[v<1 1[v[0 2.4 [ v < 1 v < 2.4
(3-
(3-7)
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Chapter 3
(a) Negative height
(b) positive height
Figure 3-5 Radio propagation past the cutting edge
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Chapter 3
3.3 Radio Propagation Model

Propagation model is very important. It is the basic of mobile communication in cell planning. Its value is to guarantee accuracy and to save labor, expense and time. Before planning a cellular system in an area, it is an essential task to select the cellular station address with signal coverage so as to avoid interference. If predictive method is not adopted, then the only one is cut-and-try method, which is carried out through actual measurement. Measure the coverage area of cellular station address to select the best one from all the suggested solutions. It is money-wasting and labor-wasting by adopting this method. We can easily select the best layout solution for cellular station address with accurate predictive method through computer calculation, by comparing and evaluating the performance of all the solutions output from the computer. Therefore, we can say that the accuracy of propagation model not only influences on whether the cell planning is proper, but also on whether the operators can invest rationally to satisfy users needs. With a vast territory, radio propagation environment is various in provinces and cities. For instance, propagation environment and propagation models have great differences between cities in plain area and the ones in hills area. Therefore, to ignore different factors of landforms, physiognomy, buildings and vegetation and consider experience will only result in network problems of coverage and quality or in resource wasting because of too close base stations. A good mobile radio propagation model is flexible to adjust according to different landforms, such as plains, hills and mountains, or different man-made environment, such as open areas, suburb and urban areas, etc. These environmental factors, involved in many variables in propagation model, play an important role. Therefore, it is not easy to form a good mobile radio propagation model. In order to improve models, statistical method is used to measure a large number of data and correct models. Correction for propagation model will be introduced in section 3. 4. Also, a good model should be easy to use. Models should be clear enough not to give users any subjective judgment and explanation, for different predictive value can be deduced from that in the same area. A good model shall have good recognition and acceptability. Using different models might have different structures. Good recognition is very important. Most of models predict path loss in radio propagation path. Therefore, propagation environment plays an important role in radio propagation model. Main factors involved in propagation environment in a specific area are: Natural (mountains, hills, plains and water area); Quantity, height, distribution and material characteristics of man-made buildings; Characteristics of vegetation in the area; Climate conditions; Conditions of natural and man-made electromagnetic noise. In addition, radio propagation model is affected by system working frequency and mobile station movement. In the same area, different working frequency results in different receiving signal fading; stationary mobile station differs high-speed moving mobile station in propagation environment. Generally, it is divided into two types: outdoor propagation model and indoor propagation model. Commonly used models are shown in Table 3-1.
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Chapter 3
Table 3-1 Common Propagation Models Model name Okumura-Hata Cost231-Hata Cost231 Walfish-Ikegami Keenan-Motley Used in ASSET planning Scope of Application Applied to 150-1000 MHz macro cellular predication Applied to 150-2000 MHz macro cellular predication Applied to 900 and 1800 MHz micro cellular predication Applied to 900 and 1800 MHz indoor predication Applied to 900 and 1800 MHz macro cellular predication
Below is the brief introduction of Okumura-Hata model and Cost231-Hata model as well as the propagation model used in ASSET network planning software. Hata model is composed of the average data measured in Japan. Path loss value in general areas can be approximately represented with the following equation:
L p = 69.55 + 26.16 lg f 13.82 lg h b + (44.9 6.55 lg h b ) lg d A Okumurah m

L p = 46.3 + 33.9 lg f 13.82 lg h b + (44.9 6.55 lg h b ) lg d A Cost231h m + C m L
(3-8-1:Okumura-Hata)
(3-8-2:Cost231-Hata)
---Path loss from the base station to the mobile station, unit: dB ---Carrier wave frequency, unit: MHz; ---Antenna height of the base station, unit: m; ---Mobile station antenna height (1-10 m), having average value 1. 5 m, unit: m; ---Distance between mobile stations, unit: km;
f
h h d
--The value is 0dB in medium-size cities or in suburb with medium woods density, C while 3 dB in big cities.
AOkumurahm
MS height correction, value in medium sized cities
(1.1lg f 0.7)hm (1.56lg 0.8) lg lgf
log(11.75h m )) 2 4.97 (with frequency more than log The value in big city is 3.2(log 400MHz); A Cost231hm 1.1 lg f 0.7 h m (1.56 lg f 0.8 );
In suburb area, propagation model can be revised as
Lps = Lp
Urban area
2[lg(f /28)]2 5.4
(3-9)
In open areas, the propagation is revised as
L po = L p
Urban area
4.78(lg f ) 2 + 18.33 lg f 40.94
(3-
10)
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Chapter 3
In the actual radio propagation environment, various relief shall be considered, which is considered in ASSET planning software to improve propagation model. Consider various ground objects and relief having influence on radio propagation in actual environment so as to guarantee the accuracy of prediction result. The model expression is as follows: L p = K 1 + K 2 lg d + K 3 (h m ) + K 4 lg h m + K 5 lg(H eff ) + K 6 lg(H eff ) lg d + K 7
diffn
+ K clutter
In the above expression (the following expressions are applied to macro cell): ---the constant related to frequency; The center of medium-size city: K1=69. 55+(26. 16+1. 56lg(Fc))-0. 8 {Fc=150-1000MHz} K1=46. 3+(33. 9+1. 56)lg(Fc)-0. 8 {Fc=1500-2000MHz} Center of big city K1=69. 55+26. 16lg(Fc) {Fc=150-1000MHz} K1=46. 3+Cm+(33. 9+1. 56)lg(Fc)-0. 8 {Fc=1500-2000MHz} Suburb area: K1=69. 55+(26. 16+1. 56lg(Fc))-0. 8 -2(log(Fc/28))2 - 5. 4{Fc=150-1000MHz} K1=46. 3+(33. 9+1. 56)lg(Fc)-0. 8 -2(log(Fc/28))2 - 5. 4{Fc=1500-2000MHz}
Open area: K1=69. 55+(26. 16+1. 56lg(Fc))-0. 8-4. 78(log(Fc))2+18. 33log(Fc)-40. 94 {Fc=1501000MHz} K1=46. 3+(33. 9+1. 56)lg(Fc)-0. 8-4. 78[log(Fc)]2+18. 33log(Fc)-40. 94 {Fc=15002000MHz} ---Distance fading constant; ---The revision coefficient of mobile station antenna height; ---The revision coefficient of base station height; ---The revision coefficient of diffraction; ---The revision coefficient of ground object in the prediction is: the field density of the prediction point is revised based upon the clutter type of that point, and has nothing to do with the clutter type in the propagation path. And all the losses in the propagation path lie in the medium value loss;
d
---Distance between the base station and the mobile station, unit: km;
---The available height of mobile station and base station antenna, unit: m. h h As to the radio propagation in different areas and cities, K value will have different value owing to different landform and relief as well as different city environment. K
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value and some clutter fading values used in radio propagation analysis in mediumsize cities are shown in Table 3-2.
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Table3-2 K parameter value K parameter name K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 Clutter fading value Inland Water Wetland Open Areas Rangeland Forest Industrial & Commercial Areas Village Parallel_Low_Buildings Suburban Urban Dense urban High Building Parameter value 150/900MHz Urban, 160/1800MHz Urban 146/900MHz Large city, 163/1800MHz Large city 44. 90 -2. 54/900MHz Urban,-2. 88/1800MHz Urban 0/900MHz Large city,-2. 88/1800MHz Large city 0. 00 -13. 82 -6. 55 -0. 8 -3. 00 -3. 00 -2. 00 -1. 00 13. 00 5. 00 -2. 90 -2. 50 -2. 50 0 5 16
Medium value of propagation loss can be calculated according to these K values. However, thanks to the complicated environment, some revision is required. Building loss is to be considered when the cellular mobile communication is used indoors. Building loss refers to the functions of wall structure (steel, glass and bricks, etc), building height, building direction, percentage coverage of the window area. Owing to complicated variables, building loss can be only calculated based upon the surrounding environment. Below are some conclusions we draw: The average penetration loss in urban buildings is more than those in suburb areas and remote areas. Loss in the area with window zone is generally less than that without window zone. Loss in the open area within buildings is less than that in the wall area with corridors. Fading in street wall with aluminum support frame is more than that without aluminum support frame. Loss in the building with isolation only added to the ceiling is less than that in the building with isolation both added to the ceiling and inside walls. There are two frequencies in GSM mobile communication system, i.e. e. 900MHz and 1800MHz. Different frequency results in different propagation characteristics. The longer the wavelength is, the less the diffraction loss is. While the relation between wavelength and penetration loss is worth further study, or is uncertain. In addition, indoor radio components are the superimposition of penetration components and diffraction components, and the diffraction accounts for the majority. Therefore, generally speaking, 1800MHz level difference between indoors and outdoors is larger than 900MHz. However, the problems of complicated propagation environment and the direction of incident wave make it impossible to quantize indoor-and-outdoor level difference. The
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best method is to test indoor-and-outdoor level difference in a specific environment, so as to optimize the plan. The average floor penetration loss refers to the function of the floor height. According to record data, the slope of loss line is -1. 9dB/story. The average penetration loss in the first floor is about 18dB in urban area, and 13dB in suburb area. The measurement of specific floors shows that loss characteristic inside buildings can be treated as a waveguide with fading. For example, when radio propagates along the corridor direction, which is vertical to the outdoor window, the loss can reach to 0. 4dB/m. Tunnel propagation loss shall be considered when calculating radio propagation in tunnels. At this moment, simply regard the tunnel as a wave-guide with loss. The experiment result shows that propagation loss in a specific distance reduces as the frequency increases. When the working frequency band is below 2GHz, the relation between the loss curve and working frequency show exponential fading. As to GSM frequency, it can be approximately considered that loss and distance appear the inverse exponential change of fourth power, i.e. e. if the distance between the two antennas doubles, then the loss increases by 12dB. Besides, the influence of leaves on propagation in UHF frequency shall be considered. Studies show that, in general, the signal loss in summer is about 10 dB more than that in winter, vertically polarized signal loss is more than the horizontally-polarized one, for leaves flourish in summer. Radio battle-sight distance might be very far in wide coverage, such as desert or sea. The earth curvature shall be considered under such conditions. Assume that the earth radium is (unit: m, the equator radium is 6378000m), h m h eff is the height of mobile is the station antenna and the base station antenna respectively, the unit is m, h height of base station antenna, the unit is also m, then the battle-sight range of radio wave is
(unit: m).
d = 2 $ $ h eff + 2 $ $ h m
Per contra, if the expectation coverage range is known (when path loss is not the major factor), the base station height can be calculated.
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3.4 Correction for propagation model

3.4.1 CW Basics
Correction for propagation model is required to obtain the radio propagation model in accordance with local actual environment and to improve the accuracy of coverage predication so as to lay a good foundation for network planning. CW test, say, continuous wave test, is a necessary step for model correction by correcting data obtained from CW test and digital map. The information of latitude and longitude of these test data and incoming level form the data source of model correction. Random process theory is used to analyze mobile communication propagation, which can be expressed as follows: r(x ) = m(x )r 0 (x )
(3-11)
In which, x is distance, r(x) is incoming signal; r0(x) is Rayleigh fading; m(x) is local value, i. e. the mixture of long-term fading and space propagation loss, which can be expressed
as follows: m(x ) =
1 2L x+L xL
r(y )dy
(3-12)
In which, 2L is the average sample interval length, also called intrinsic length. CW test is aimed to obtain the local average value of various locations in an area on whole way, that is, the difference between r (x) and m(x) is as small as possible. Therefore, The influence of Raleigh fading must be removed so as to obtain the local average value. When a group of signal data r (x) is averaged, if the intrinsic length 2L is too short, then the influence of Raleigh fading still exists; if 2L is too long, then the normal fading will be averaged. Therefore, in CW test, to determine 2L has great influence on the degree of approximation between the tested data and the actual local average, as well as on the accuracy of the propagation model prediction corrected through CW test. Li Jianye, a famous communication expert, has proved that, in GSM system, the intrinsic length is 40 wave lengths; the difference between the tested data and the actual local value is less than 1 dB by sampling 50 sampling points (the test equipment and the error of digital map are ignored).
3.4.2 CW Test Method

I. Select station for CW test
Before testing, test stations and quantity need to be determined. According to experiences, at least 5 test stations in big cities with dense population; as to mediumsize and small-size cities, 1 test station is enough, which is mainly depended on the antenna height of test base station and the effective radiant power (EIRP). The principle of station selection is to cover ground objects as many as possible (these ground objects come from digital map) In actual test, proper test stations can be selected according to the following standards: (1) The antenna height is above 20 meters;
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(2) The antenna height is above 5 meters over the nearest obstacle.
Figure 3-6 Diagrammatic representation of station selection standard The obstacle here refers to the highest building at the top of which the antenna is located. The building as a station shall be higher than the average height of the surrounding buildings.
II. CW test preparation

CW test first needs a test base station to transmit RF signal with or without FM modulation, then make a drive test by using CW test equipment. The base station includes transmitting antenna, feeder cable, power amplifier and HF signal source. The test system includes test receiver, GPS receiver, distance measuring instrument, test software as well as portable PC. The sampling rate of the test receiver is as fast as possible. After the equipment of base station is installed in the selected test station, using the power meter to measure the forward power and reflection power of the antenna. Calculate the EIPR of the test base station. The calculation formula is below: EIRP = 10 lg[P_forward (mW) P_reflect(mW)] + Tx_Antenna_Gain + Rx_Antenna_Gain Rx_Feeder_Loss
5m
(3-13)
In which, P_forward is forward transmitting power, P_reflected is reflection power, Tx_Antenna_Gain is the transmitting antenna gain of the test station (dBi), Rx_Antenna_Gain is the antenna gain of the test receiver (dBi), Rx_Feeder_Loss is the feeder cable loss of the test receiver. After normal installation and debugging of the base station equipment, record the EIRP of the base station. Use GPS to measure the latitude and longitude of the station; use triangulation method to measure the height of the building, and use angle instrument to test the slope angle of the antenna. The antenna height is the height of the building plus antenna mast height and half the antenna height. Sweep frequency by using portable test equipment to ensure the normal work of the test base station equipment, without any interference signal in surroundings.
III. CW test
There are three sampling ways of the professional CW test equipment: sampling by time, pulse and distance. General test equipment samples by time only. Test by distance sampling can meet the Theorem of Lees requirement of sampling 36~50 sampling points with 40 wave lengths. The measure accuracy is very high. Speed is
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not strict in distance sampling, but there exists an upper speed limit. The upper speed limit (Vmax) has relation with the maximum sampling speed of CW equipment:
V max = 0.8 /T sample
(3-14)
During the test, test paths with various ground objects are selected as random drive test. When the mobile station is within the distance of 3km away from the test base station, the receiving signals are affected greatly by the building structure around the base station, and the antenna height. The intensity difference between the signal level parallel to the signal propagation direction and that vertical one is around 10dB. Therefore, when testing on the street within 3km in radium of the base station, it is better to sample the same amount of samples in longitudinal and lateral streets to remove their effects. Test paths should not be selected on highways and on the wide and flat streets, but on the narrow streets. Sample as much data as possible in each test base station. Generally, it is better to test in each station over 4 hours. Stop recording when the car stops for redlight. The landform and ground objects are fixed within a period of time, so that in a deterministic base station, the local average value is determined in a deterministic location. The local average value is the data tested through CW test expectation, which is also the closest value to propagation model predication value.
3.4.3 Correction for Propagation Model and Instance

Digital map is needed for model correction. The digital map used in mobile communication contains the geographical information such as relief height and ground usage, which effect radio propagation in mobile communication. It is the important fundamental data for planning software in model correction, coverage prediction, interference analysis and frequency planning. Propagation models developed for computer aided analysis are different, but based on Okumura basic models, and provide modified parameters. Below is the specific method of model correction based upon the above-mentioned ASSET planning software. It needs to be pointed out that if the model parameters of the city similar to the existing landform and ground objects, they can be directly applied to planning prediction. It is unnecessary to redo CW test and model correction, thus saving labor. Parameters from K1 to K7 in ASSET model are determined by specific propagation environment, K(clutter) is the correction factor depended on different ground objects. Different ground objects determine different K(clutter), these K parameters are gradually fitted from CW test data. When CW test data obtained, K parameters can be acquired in two ways: K parameter testing method and the minimum variance method. Among a great many of K parameters in the standard model, the degree of influence of each K parameter is different. By analyzing the models, we know that K1 and K(clutter) are constant, which has nothing to do with the propagation distance and antenna height; K3 and K4 are the height modifying factor of the mobile station. The mobile station has slight changes in height (about 1. 5m), so that K3 and K4 can be eventually classified as micro-adjustment in the final stage, while the adjustment of K2, K5 and K6 are determined by specific test data and test path.
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3.5 Doppler Effect and its Impact on Handover

In GSM system, the relation of frequency change caused by Doppler effect is given through the following formula: (1) the base station is the frequency source f, the frequency freceived by the mobile phone is f=f(1V/c)
(3-15)
In the formula, v is the travel speed of MS, c is the radio signal propagation speed (3E8 m/sec)
Select + when MS moves towards the base station and select - when it is away
from the base station. (2) MS is the frequency source f, and the frequency freceived by the base station is f=f/(1U/c)
(3-16)
In the formula, u is the travel speed of MS, c is the radio signal propagation speed (3E8 m/sec) Select - when MS moves towards the base station and select + when it is away from the base station. Below are several special conditions discussed: (1) MS moves towards BTS at the speed of v, as shown in Figure 3-7.
f1 f3 f2 V(km/h)
Figure 3-7 MS moves towards BTS The signal frequency of BTS is f1. Through FCH channel of BCCH channel, BTS can control MS to synchronize the frequency with BTS. MS receives the signal frequency f2 because of the Doppler Effect, and transmits f2 to the base station. f3 is the frequency received by BTS because of the Doppler Effect. Below is the formulas based on the above-mentioned: f2=f1(1+v/c) f3=f2/(1-v/c) f3=f1(1+v/c)/(1-v/c)=f1(c+v)/(c-v)
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Chapter 3
The relative frequency change is (f3-f1)/f1=2v/(c-v)
(3-17)
(1) MS moves away from BTS at the speed of v, as shown in Figure 3-8.
f3 f1 f2 V(km/h)
Figure 3-8 MS moves away from BTS The signal frequency of BTS is f1. Through FCH channel of BCH channel, BTS can control MS to synchronize the frequency with BTS. MS receives the signal frequency f2 because of the Doppler Effect, and transmits f2 to the base station. Frequency f3 received by BTS because of the Doppler Effect, below are the formulas based upon the above-mentioned formula: f2=f1(1-v/c) f3=f2/(1+v/c) f3=f1(1-v/c)/(1+v/c)=f1(c-v)/(c+v) The relative frequency change is (f3-f1)/f1=-2v/(c+v) (3-18)
The travel speed of MS is slow as compared with signal propagation speed; therefore relative frequency change is almost the same in these two conditions except for the opposite direction. Frequency increases in the first condition, while decreases in the second one. The relation between the relative frequency and MS speed can be illustrated in Figure 3-9.
Figure 3-9 Graph of relation between the relative frequency and MS speed
The graph shows that when MS speed is 100km/h, the relative frequency change is 0. 19ppm. As to 900M frequency, the deviation is 171Hz, while 342Hz as to 1800M.
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(3) MS moves between the two base stations at the speed of v, as shown in Figure 310. When handover is performed, the deviation is the superimposition of the above two conditions. MS obtains the monitoring information of the BCCH channel of the neighboring cells through BA table, controls MS to adjust its frequency and a certain number of kHz to monitor the neighboring cell level. Thus, it might appear Doppler frequency changes, which make MS unable to receive the signals of the neighboring cells correctly. Take the Figure 3-10 as an example, MS monitors BTS1 level, the signal f2 received by MS might appear between the two MS adjustment frequencies. So that MS cannot correctly monitor BTS1 signal level. On the other hand, RXlev information reported from SACCH shall be transmitted at least once every 30s. Such long time information report will also result in abnormally monitoring the neighboring cells level, which causes unsuccessful handover. The frequency change caused by the Doppler Effect will effect the signal frequency f1(c+v)/(c-v) received by the base station, which will receive data by f1 sampling clock. Receiving data error might be another reason for effecting handover.
f3' f1' f2' V(km/h) BTS1 MS BTS2 f2 f3 f1
Figure 3-10 MS moves between the two base stations
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Chapter 3
3.6 Fresnel Zone

There are direct wave and reflected wave in the propagation path from the transmitter to the receiver, and the electric direction of the reflected wave is just opposite to the original with the phase difference of 180 degree; if the antenna height is relatively low and the distance is relatively far, the difference between the direct way path and the reflected wave path is small, then the reflected wave will cause destruction. In addition, the path difference between the direct wave and the reflected wave is phase difference is
4 hthr d ,
2h t h r d , the
h t ,h r
refer to the height of the transmitter and the
receiver above the ground respectively, d is the horizontal distance from the transmitter to the receiver, as shown in Figure 3-11.
Figure 3-11 Graphs of Direct incidence and reflection Ignore part of the signals from the transmitting point to the receiver through ground wave propagation (signals in ultra-high frequency and very-high frequency band can be ignored), then the square of the ratio of the total receiving field density an the free space density (unit: V/m) is:
E rec
2 l 4 sin( 2
) = 4 sin 2
2 hthr d
(3-19)
is
The formula shows that n is a natural number, when
2n 1
, it can
generate 6dB signal power gain; while when is , the two signals can be offset. 2 The change from this point is caused or caused together by the change of antenna height and propagation distance. is less than 4h t h r , is more than , then The simulation result shows that when the gain obtained swings as the mobile d station moves towards the base station; when
d from the base station. away
is more than 4h t h r ,
is less than
, the gain wont swing as the mobile station is
In the actual propagation environment, the first Fresnel zone definition contains some ellipsoids of reflection points, on these reflection points, the path difference between the reflected wave and direct way is half a wavelength, say, less than , as shown
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in Figure 3-12. The first Fresnel zone is the main propagation zone, when obstacles dont block the first Fresnel zone, the diffraction loss is least. As to a point in the path
d in length, its radium of the first Fresnel zone (the distance to the transmitter is d t , and d r is the distance to the receiver) is:
with
h 0 (m) =
dtdr d
= 548
d tkm d rkm d km f MHz
(3-20)
Figure 3-12
The radium of the first Fresnel zone
Take an example to illustrate that: in typical cities, a point in the path with the coverage range is 2km; suppose that the distance from this point to the transmitting antenna is 100m, as to the frequency of 900MHz, this points first Fresnel zone is
h 0 l 5m.
On the definition basis of the first Fresnel zone, define the nth Fresnel zone as the reflection-point set, in which its propagation is half wavelength more than the n-1th; the phrase difference between the two reflection paths is 180 degree. The radium of the nth Fresnel zone is:
h n (m) =
n dtdr d
= 548
nd tkm d rkm d km f MHz
(3-21)
If the direct path jumps over the wavy terrains and ground buildings, then the reflected wave will have positive effect on direct wave; otherwise it might become the obstructive multi-path interference. The obstructive effect grows as the frequency increases. Therefore, the height of antenna shall be built as high as possible above the ground. This conclusion will be applied to the below-mentioned antenna project designing. As a matter of fact, according to experience, if 55% of the first Fresnel zone, used for stadia microwave link designing remain unobstructed, then the conditions of other Fresnel zones wont affect the diffraction loss.
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Chapter 3
3.7 ASSET Software Introduction

Below is the brief introduction about the above-mentioned ASSET planning software. ASSET software is the network planning software designed by Aircom company. By using ASSET software, we can configure the system hardware parameters, network capacity, frequency allocation and complete the network design (such as coverage prediction, traffic analysis, neighboring cell allocation, frequency plan, interference analysis and microwave propagation and so on) and simulate the network operation effect to guide the project construction. Before using the ASSET software, we need to prepare and know the following information: Digitalized map with proper ratio of accuracy. The accuracy of the digitalized map includes 20m, 50m, 100, 5m. 20m accuracy is applied to urban area and suburb area, 50m or 100m accuracy can be applied to rural area, while 5m accuracy is generally used for micro cellular planning; Network and base station information mainly includes the configuration of MSC and BSC, latitude and longitude of the base station, antenna type, feeder system parameters; Design consideration includes the purpose of this planning, network hierarchy, frequency range and frequency reuse mode, cell frequency hierarchy, configuration of network functional parameters. ASSET network planning is carried out on the basis of digital map. Digital map is a map for record and storage in digital form; digital map is convenient to store, transmit and update, which can be transformed into paper map by processing in computer, or displayed on the computer screen by visual processing. Owing to different storage structure, digital map can be divided into vector digital map and grid digital map (such as scanning map). In order to cover prediction, we usually use vector digital map. Map data usually is composed of three data types: digital elevation model (DEM), digital object model (DOM) and linear vector model (LDM). Construction vector data is also applied to micro cellular prediction. Digital ground elevation model and ground object disaggregated model has related to prediction. Digital ground elevation model is used to describe the basic relief of this area and directly participate in the calculation of radio propagation model; ground object disaggregated data is used to describe planar ground coverage, such as forest, lakes, open area, industrial area, downtown, high building area and so on, and used to calculate radio propagation path loss; LDM is used to describe the relation between the plane distribution and the space of linear ground objects, including highway, streets, rivers and so on. DEM data and DOM data adopts the grid data format, each grid represents a sampling point; while LDM adopts vector data. Before officially beginning planning, the following work needs to be done: (1) Define the parameters related to propagation model and feeder system, and input antenna database (2) Define layer, determine the frequency reuse mode (3) Add network element with multi methods (MSC, BSC, BTS and cell layer) (4) Improve various parameters in the database
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Thus, we can make use of ASSET software to complete the entire planning process.
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Chapter 4
About Antenna Feeder
Chapter 4 About Antenna & Feeder cable

4.1 Basics of Antenna
In a radio communiction system, the antenna system serves as an interface with the exterior media. Antenna radiation and receive radio wave: in transmission, the antenna works to convert high frequency current into electromagnetic wave; while receiving, it converts electromagnetic wave into high frequency current. Antenna can be divided into the following types in light of their work frequency band: untra-long wave, long wave, medium wave, short wave, ultrashort wave and mircowave; it is divided into the following types in terms of direction: omni-antenna and directional antena; it is divided into the following types in terms of its structual features: linear antenna and dish antenna. The model, gain, directoinal diagram, driving antenna power, simple or complicated antenna configuration and atenna polarization etc will affect system performance.
4.1.1 Antenna gain

Gain is one of the most important parameters for the antenna system. The definition of antenna gain is related to ominidirectional antenna or half-wave dipole antenna. The ominidirectional radiator is one that assumes radiating equal power in all the directions. The antenna gain in a direction is the ratio of thepower density to that of ideal point source or half-wave dipole in the maxium radiation direction (dB refers to the difference). See Figure 4-1 for the diagram.
Ideal isolated wave source
Theoretical half wave dipole
directional antenna
dBd dBi
Figure 4-1 Gain Comparison dBi indicates that antenna gain is the reference value of directional antenna relative to the ominidirectional radiator, while dBd is the reference value relative to half-wave dipole antenna. The relation between these two is expressed as follows: dB i = dB d + 2.15.
4-1
Chapter 4
4.1.2 Directional Diagram

The directional diagram describes the dirstribution of antenna radiation electromagenetic field according to angular coordinate within a fixed range. The directional diagram expressed in radiation filed strength is called field strength directional diagram; expressed in power indensity, it is called phase directional directional diagram. The antenna directional diagram is a space solid figure. But the one in common application is a directional diagram inside two principal planes perpendicular to each other, known as plane directional diagram. For linear antenna, as the ground has great effect, it adopts vertical plane and horizontal plane as its principal plan. The plan antenna adopts E plane and H plane as the two principal planes. The maxium of normalization direction diagram is 1. The radiation lobe required in the maximum radiation direction in the directional diagram is called antenna major lobe, also known as antenna beam. The lobes other than the major lobe are called secondary lobe or side lobe or parasite lobe. The side lobe in the direction opposite to the major lobe is called back lobe as shown in Figure 4-2(a): diagram of omni-antenna horizontal lobe and vertical lobe, where the antenna is in the shape of a column; 4-2(b): diagram of horizontal lobe and vertical lobe for directional antenna, where its antenna in the shape of a board.
Figure 4-2(a) Diagram of omni-antenna lobe
4-2
Chapter 4
Figure 4-2(b) Diagram of directoinal antenna lobe The parameters commonly used for antenna diectional diagram include the following: Zero power lobe width refers to the included angle between the two zero radiation directions on both sides of maximum major lobe; Half power point lobe width refers to the included angle after the maximum electric field falls by 0.707 (the gain falls by 3dB); Secondary lobe level refers to the ratio of maximum secondary lobe to the maximum major lobe; Front-to-back ratio; Electric angle of downtilt.
4.1.3 Polarization
Polarization is one radiation feature describing the space direction of electromagnetic wave field strength vector. The electromagnetic wave with the space direction of electric field vector unchanged at any time is called straight line polarized wave. Normally, antenna polarization refers to the polarization of electric wave radiated by the antenna in the maximum radiation direction (for transmitting antenna) or the polarization of incident plane wave (for receiving antenna) in the maximum receiving power (polarization match) direction. Take transmitting antenna for example, if the electric filed direction of the antenna radiation wave is within the radiation plane (made up of incident ray and the normal line of reflection plane), as the incident plane is aways perpendicular to the tangent plane of the reflection plane, this is known as vertical polarization; when the electric direction of antenna radiation wave is perpendicular to the incident plane (made up of incident ray and the normal line of reflection plane), it is parallel to the tangent plane of the reflection plane, thus it is called horizontal polarization, as shown in Figure 4-3:
vertical polarization incidental plane
incidental wave
reflection plane horizontal plane incidental plane incidental wave
incidental plane
Figure 4-3 Polarization Diagram As the horizontal polarized wave is perpendicular to the incident plane, this is also known as quadrature polarized wave; as the electric field vector of vertical polarized wave is parallel to the incident plane, it is called horizontal polarized wave. The electric
4-3
Chapter 4
field vector forms a plane together with the transmitting direction, known as polarized plane. The space dirction of electric field vector is not aways the same. The locus of electric field vector end points is a circle, known as circular polarized wave; if the locus is a ellipse, it is called ellipse polarized wave. Both the circular polarized wave and ellipse polarized wave feature rotating phase. Both circular polarized wave or ellipse polarized wave is composed of two linear polarized waves perpendicualr to each other. If the two waves are of the same size, they will make up circluar polarized wave; if not, they will form ellipse polarized wave. Antenna may possibly radiate energy it does not need via polarization not preset. The energy of this kind is called cross polarized radiation component. For linear ploarized antenna, the cross polarization and preset polarization is perpendicular in direction. For circular polarization antenna, the cross polarization and the preset polarization are opposite in rotating direction, so cross polarization is called quadrature polarization.
4.1.4 Other technical indicators of antenna

I. Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)
For VSWR in the base station antenna of mobile communication cellular system, its maximum value should be less than or equal to 1.5:1. If indicates the antenna input impedance and is the antennas standard characteristic impedance, then the reflection coefficient is: =
Z A Z 0 Z A +Z 0
, where is 50 ohm. The return loss may also be used to indicate the match characteristic of the port, R.L.(dB) = 20 lg , if VSWR=1.5:1, R.L.=13.98dB.
1
, VSWR =
1+
When antenna input impedance is not consistent with its characteristic impedance, the reflection wave and incident wave will overlap on the feeder cable to form standing wave. The ratio of maximum and minimum value of their neighboring voltages is the voltage standing wave ratio. If this ratio is too high, it will shorten the communication distance, and the reflection power will return to the power amplifier of the transmitter, so that the power tube will get damaged easily.
II. Front-to-back ratio (F/B)

The difference between antenna maximum beam and back 180~_30 side lobe , in positive value. Normally, the antenna front-to-back ratio ranges between 18 45dB. For populous downtown area, the antenna with greater front-to-back ratio shall be used, such as 40dB, so as to reduce the indoor disturbance of the back lobe against high-rise buildings.
III. Port isolation

For a multi-port antenna, such as bipolarization antenna and dual-band bipolarizatin antenna, the isolation between the ports used for both receiving and transmitting shall be more than 30dB.
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Chapter 4
IV. Power capacity

It refers to average power capacity. Antenna contains other coupling equipment such as match, balance and phase ship, so the power it can bear is limited. In consideration of the actaul maximum input power of the base station antenna (single carrier wave power is 20W), if one atenna port is input a maximum of six carrier waves, then the input power of antenna is 120W. As a result, the antenna shall have a single port power capacity of more than 200W (when the environmental temmperature is 65 ).
V. Zero point filling

Base station antenna is designed as shaped beam. In order to make the ratiation level within the service area more even, the first zero point of the lower secondary lobe needs to be filled without nay obvious zero depth. Normally, when the zero depth is greater than -20dB relative to the main beam, it indicates that the antenna is filled with zero point. The base station in parent zone has no such requirement in this respect. In particular, high gain antenna requires zero point filling technology to improve the nearby coverage and avoid signal fluctuation arising from unequal coverage in an effective way.
VI. Upper secondary lobe suppressioin

For cellular system, in order to improve the capacity of frequency multiplexing and reduce co-channel interference against its neighboring area, in shaping beams, the base station antenna should reduce the secondary lobes aimed at the interference area so as to raise D/U value. In this case, the first upper secondary lobe should be less than -18dB. There is no such requirement for parent zone base station antenna.
VII. Antenna input interface

In order to improve the reliability of passive intermodulation and RF connection, the input interface for antenna adopts 7/16DIN-Female. Before used, the antenna port should have a cover so as not to generate oxide or keep from foreign substance.
VIII. Passive intermodulation (PIM)

In order to improve non-linear interference noise, PIM of the antenna should be less than -103dBm (2x10W).
IX. Antenna size and weight

In order for the storage, transport and safety of antenna, besides meeting various electric indicators, the antenna should be as small as possible in size and as light as possible in weight.
X. Wind loading
Base station antenna is normally installed on top of high buildings and iron towers, especially in coastal areas, where the wind is very strong all year round, thus it is requested that antenna be able to work properly against the wind at a speed of 36m/s, and get undamaged when the wind blows at a speed of 55m/s.
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Chapter 4
XI. Work temperature and humidity

Base station antenna should work properly within the environmental temperature range of -40 +65 . Base station antenna should work properly within the environmental relative humidity ranging between 0 100%.
XII. Lightning protection

all the RF input ports of a base station antenna are required to be directlly grounded via DC.
XIII. Three proof capacity

The base station antenna must possess the capacity of three proof, that is, proof against moisture, proof against salt atmosphere and proof against mildew. The omniantenna in a base station must permit of reverse installation and meet the above three proof requirements at the same time.
4.1.5 Antenna diversity

I. Diversity characteristic
Signal fading in mobile radio environment will give rise to serious problems. With the movement of mobile station, rayleigh fading will vary rapidly with the signal instantaneous value, while the logarithm normal fading varies with the signal average (median value). These two values are the major factors attributed to unstable receiving signal in mobile communication, which make the receiving signal deteriorate greatly. Although this situation can be improved by increasing signal transmitting power, antenna size and height etc, such methods cost much in modile communication, and sometimes are obviously far from realistic; however, using the diversity method, that is, receive the signals hardly related to each other which carry the same message in serveral tributaries, then output the signals from various tributaries after consolidation; in this way will the probability of heavy fading at the receive terminal be reduced to a large extent. Normally, diversity technology is used at the receiving station address in that the receiving equipment is passive, which will produce no interference. The diversity is of two types: one is obivious diversity and the other is implied diversity. By implied diversity, it is meant to imply the diversity function in the signal to be transmitted using signal design technologies, such as RAKE receiving technology, channel interweaving, antifading error correction coding technology. Only obvious diversity is discussed hereunder. This diversity may be divided into two types: base station obvious diversity and general obvious diversity. In the base station obvious diversity, several base stations separated by space fully or partly cover the same area. As there are multiple signals available, the effect of fading is reduced by a large degree. Due to different transmitting paths of electric wave and different shadow effects of land forms and ground objects, the multiple slow fading signals transmitted via independent fading paths are unrelated to one another. It is unlikely that the signals undergo heavy fading at the same time; therefore, if using diversity combination and selecting tributary with the best SNR from the signals of various tributaries, that is, choose the best base station and mobile station to establish communication so as to eliminate the shadow effects and other geographic effects. Therefore, base station obvoius diversity is also called multiple base station diversity. General obvious diversity is used for suppressing rayleigh fading. The traditional ways for this purpose are space diversity, frequency diversity, ploarization diversity, angle diversitym, time diversity and field component diversity etc.
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Chapter 4
It can be seen that the above diversity only improves the quality of uplink signals, while the limit of mobile station in terms of volume, price and battery capacity etc makes it possible to implement speace diversity of multiple antenna. To improve the transmitting quality of downlink signals, whether it is possible to use the principle of reciprocity for linear system to implement the diversity technology for receiving end of mobile station larged limited in volumn shifted equally to the transmitting end. And this is so-called transmitting diversity technology. Such technology is with a problem: principle of reciprocity can not be applied unless the mobile communication channels are simplified into an approximate linear time variation system. Moreover, the implementation of principle of reciprocity for receiving and transmitting of this system also requires that the transmitting and receiving are done within the same frequency band with the same fading characteristics. But in fact, most mobile communication systems resort to FDD work mode, where the interval between receiving and transmitting is far greater than the related bandwidth. To reduce the effect of deterioration on transmitting diversity out of FDD work mode, we usually adopt closed loop control to send diversity. The transmitting diversity technology is applied widely in 3G.
II. Diversity and synthesis

The diversity characteristics depend on the relevant coefficients between the quantity of diversity tributary and the receiving diversity.If each coefficient relevant to each tributary is identical, then various diversity plans are able to implement the same related persformances.We must also consider how to synthesize the multiple signals received by the diversity, because proper synthetic technique will bring forth desirable performance.For example, use Q multiple diversity with Q signals as S 1 (t ), S 2 (t ), ...S q (t ) before synthesis. Considering that the synthesis can be performed between each diversity antenna and the receiver, at the frequency output terminal and at the here should be fundamental frequency output terminal after demodulation, () understood as high frequency signal, medium frequency signal S fundamental signal or . The in general form. The so-called synthesis is nothing but how to sum up S() signals after synthetized can be expressed as follows:
S(t ) = k 1 S 1 (t ) + k 2 S 2 (t ) + ... + k q S q (t )
where k 1 , k 2 , ..., k q refers to weight coefficient. To select different weight coefficients will produce different synthesis method. There are four synthetic techniques in common use: maximum ratio compound (MRC), equal gain compound (EGC), selective compound (SEC) and switch compound (SWC).These compound techniques are an important part of antenna technology. As it goes beyond this textbook, its details will not be mentioned herein. Mobile communication usually adopts space diversity and polarization diversity with the diversity gain of around , 5dB. These two methods are discussed as follows.
III. Space diversity

Space diversity is performed using the random change of field indensity with the space changes.In mobile communication, any slight space change may result in great change in filed indensity. The longer the space interval, the greater difference the muli-path transmission will have and the less relativity of the filed indensity received. In this situation, as it is very unlikely that heavy fading occurs at the same time, the diversity will reduce the fading effect to its minimum.For this purpose, it is required to determine necessary space intervals. Normally, the diversity antenna is designed in accordance with the parameter . The relation between
h
and the actual antenna
height h and antenna interval D is: . For antenna placed in horizontal interval, is normally 10.For example, the antenna is 30 meters in height, the antenna interval of
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Chapter 4
3 meters will get better diversity gain. In addition, the vertical antenna interval is greater than the horizontal antenna interval.Up to date, the space diversity antenna commonly seen in the project is made up of two sets (receive/transmit, receive) or three sets (receive, transmita and receive).
IV. Polarization diversity

The polarization of electromagnetic wave is described hereinbefore. Currently, more and more projects have applied dual polarization antenna. Antenna is poluarized in two manners: horizontal poloarization and vertical polarization, while one frequency carries signals of the said different polarization manners. In theory, as coupling effect is not used for medium, mutual interference will not occur. But coupling effect will occur in mobile communication environment. This means that after the signals are transmitted via mobile radio medium, the energy of vertical polarized wave will leak to the horizontal polarized wave and vice versa.Fortunately, compared with the main enery flow, the enery leakage only involves a very small amount. Favorable diversity gains can be obtained through ploarization diversity.The greatest advantage of polarization diversity antenna only requires the installation of one set of antenna, thus reducing the installation cost.
V. Comparison between space diversity and polarization

The greatest advantage of polarization diversity is to save antenna installation space. The space diversity requires two pieces of receiving antenna at certain intervals, while polarization requires only one such antenna. This antenna contains two different types of polarization dipole. General space diversity is able to obtain a link gain of 3.5dB. As the path loss of horizontal polarizaton antenna is greater than that of vertical polarization antenna (the horizontal polarized wave has more chance of deploarization than the vertical polarized wave), for one dual poluaration antenna, its gain improvement degree is 1.5 dB less than the space diversity. However, dual polarization diversity is able to provide low relativity indoors or in a car compared with the space diversity. As a result, it will gain 1.5 dB in improvement more than the space diversity. In comparison, the advantage of dual polarization receiving antenna is saving space for antenna installation. As transmitting antenna, if the base station shares it for transmitting and receiving antenna in the way of dual polarization, the dual polarization antenna using vertical and horizontal quadrature polarized dipole compared with the dual polarization antenna using 45 quadrature polarized dipole (suppose the other conditions are the same), in an ideal free space (a mobile phone receiving antenna is vertically polarized), the signals received by the mobile phone from the antenna is 3dB more than that of the latter. But in practical application environment, as multi-path transmission exits, when various multi-path signals at the receiving points are averaged, the above difference will basically disappear. The accuracy of this conclusion is verified in various tests. However, the said difference may possibly exist in a vast plain, but how much difference remains to be proved in test. There might be a difference of 1 2dB. To sum up, there is no much difference between the said two polarization methods in practical application. 45 quadrate polarization antenna is commonly seen on the present market.
4.1.6 Three-sector base station antenna selection derivation

First of all, lets make clear a concept concering the cell base station radius as shown in Figure 4-4. This is a standard three-sector celluar layout. From the diagram, we can see that the interval between the two three-sector base stations is R+r, while R=2r. However, we usually use R to estimate the cell coverage radius, for this direction is that of the major
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lobe of directional antenna; but r is often used to indicate the cell radius in cellluar layout. In a celluar cell, for the area whose included angle with the major lobe direction of the cell antenna, this cell is requried to cover a range of r=R/2. If calcualted from path loss, it will be around 10dB less than that in the direction of major lobe (deduction is as follows), that is, the effective radiated power in this direction as required may be about 10dB less than that in the direction of major lobe.
Figure 4-4 Three-sector Celluar Layout According to this feature, this layout may adopt directional antenna with a horizontal lobe (Azimuth beamwidth) of 60 65 degrees, because their diagram of horizontal lobe gain has this feature, too.
If R indicates the cell radius, then the cell area is S=0.6495 R R. However, people sometimes call r as the cell radius. At this point the cell area is S=2.5981 r r. Therefore, while discussing a problem of this kind, we need to make clear what to be
used as the cell radius.
Figure 4-5 Presentation of R and r
Lets deduce the theoretic basis for the difference of 10dB between R direction and r direction in terms of path loss. As shown in Figure 4-5, in this standard cell of 120 degrees, the distance covered in r direction is half that in R direction, i.e. r=R/2. To
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keep balanced coverage, the field intensity on the edge of this cell should be basically equal, that is, RxlvelB=RxlevelC. Suppose EIRP transmitted from Cell A is EIRPR in R direction and is EIRPr in r direction. We choose urban HATA model for the path loss and the path loss from Point A to Point B is expressed in Equation (1): EIRPR-RXLEVB=69.55+21.66lgf-13.82lgh1+(44.9-6.55lgh1)lgR The path loss from Point A to Point C is expressed in Equation (2): EIRPr-RXLEVc=69.55+21.66lgf-13.82lgh1+(44.9-6.55lgh1)lgr (2) (1)
The two equations subtract each other and the following equation will appear after coordination: EIRPR-EIRPr=(44.9-6.55lgh1)(lgR-lgr)=(44.9-6.55lgh1) Put R=2r in the result and you will get the following: EIRPR-EIRPr=0.3(44.9-6.55lgh1) Through computer simulation, as the height h1of base station increases from 5m to 100m, and (EIRPR-EIRPr) decreases from 12 to 9.5, it may be roughly treated as 10dB as shown in Figure 4-6. lg(R/r)
Series 1
Figure 4-6 Diagram of relation between the height of base station and value of EIRPR-EIRPr
4.2 Antenna new technology

4.2.1 Shaped beam technology
In the cellular mobile system, it is always a complicated problem to reduce interference of the same channel. Shaped beam technology has improved the reuse of spatial frequency spectrum.There are two types of shaped beam. One is the radial direction diagram on the shaped plane, i.e. shaped plane; the other is radial direction diagram on the shaped vertical plane. In the cellular system, while replacing the omnidirectional beam with the fan-shaped beam, the cellular interference distance will increase, so that base station antenn will radiate level as low as possible to another cell using the same frequency, while the base station antenna will radiate level as high as possible to its service area radiation.
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When the antenna at a fixed height illuminates a limited horizontal plane, the antenna vertical directional diagram indicates that the existance of side lobe zero point may possibly lead to blind zone within the area to be covered. Using the cosecant square shaped beam power directional diagram of the vertical plane may eliminate the zero points below the major lobe, so that the area to be covered has equal receiving signal level. This is also known as zero point filling technology. In addition, the global celluar system around is basically using a processing technology known as beam downtilt.The said technology mainly aims to decline the major beam so as to compress the FR level towards the directio and increase the carrier-to-interference ratio.In this case, although the carrier wave level on the edge of area falls, the interference level drops more than the carrier level, so the total carrierto-interference ratio increases. Strictly speaking, beam downtilt is not really the shaped beam technology, but they are for the same purpose.To date, there are two ways to decline the beam.One is electric adjustment downtilt to adjust the beam downtilt by changing the excitation coefficient of antenna array; and the other is mechanical adjustment to change the downtilt angle of the antennal. Corresponding to different methods for beam downtilt, antenna is divided into electric adjustment antenna and mechanical antenna. After electric adjustment antenna adopts the methods combining mechanic and electronics to decline by 15 , the directional diagram of the antenna will not change greatly with the coverage distance shortened obviously in the direction of major lobe. The overall antenna directional diagram is within the local base station sector. To increase the downtilt degree will reduce the sector coverage, but will not produce interference. We simply need such a directional diagram. Electric adjustment antenna is of two types: one is the preset fixed electric downtilt angle antenna, and the other is antenna to make adjustment of electric downtilt angle one the site according to practical needs. The latter is described as follows. When the mechanical antenna declines by 15 , the form of antenna directional diagram changes greatly from the shape of juicy pear (grown in Hebei Province) to the shape of spindle. Although the coverage distance in the major lobe direction is obviously shortened, the overall antenna directional diagram is not within the sector of base station and the sector in the neighboring base station will also receive the signals from the said base station, thus resulting in interference. This is attributed to the following reasons: the electric antenna is installed perpendicular to the ground (mechanical downtilt of 0 5 is optional). Once the antenna is installed, in the course of adjusting antenna downtilt angel, the antenna itself will not move. Through electric signal the antenna dipole phase is adjusted, thus changing the breadth of horizontal and vertical component as well as the component field intensity, so as to change antenna coverage distance. At the same time the filed intensity in each direction of the antenna increases or decreases, so as to ensure the antenna directional diagram will not change greatly after the change of downtilt angle. After the mechanical antenna is installed perpendicular to the ground, while adjusting the downtilt angel of antenna, the antenna itself will move too. It is necessary to change the antenna downtilt angle by adjusting the position of the rear rack of antenna, and changing the downtilt angle. Although the coverage distance in the major lobe direction of the antenna undergoes no obvious change, the vertical component and horizontal component of the antenna will remain unchanged in terms of breadth. Therefore, the antenna directional diagram will be transformed seriously. As a result, the advantage of electric antenna is: in the event of great downtilt angle, the coverage distance is obviously shorten in the major lobe direction with antenna directional diagram changing not so much, so as to bring down the call loss and reduce the interference. In addition, in the event of network optimization, management and maintenance, to adjust the antenna downtilt angle, you do not have to shut down while using electric antenna. In this way, you may use special test equipment for mobile communication to monitor the adjustment of antenna downtilt angle, so as to ensure the antenna downtilt angle is at its best value.
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The step degree of downtilt angle for electric antenna is 0.1 , while the step degree for mechanical antenna is 1 . Therefore, electric antenna is highly precise and yields good result. When electric antenna is installed, while adjusting antenna downtilt angle, the maintenance personnel do not have to clime to the place where the antenna is installed but adjust the downtilt angle on the ground. They may also perform remote monitoring adjustment on the base station antenna on top of high mountains and in remote areas. While adjusting the downtilt angle of mechanical antenna, it is required to shut down the entire system. And monitoring cannot be conducted when the antenna downtilt angle is being adjusted. The downtilt angle of mechanical antenna is a theoretical value through calculation by computer simulation analysis software, and it will differ form the actual best downtilt angle to some extent. Besides, it takes much trouble to adjust the downtilt angle for mechanical antenna. Normally, the maintenance personnel shall have to clime to the place where the antenna is installed at night before making adjustment. Furthermore, it is rather difficult to adjust some antennas after they have been installed, such as mountaintop or special buildings. In addition, the index for Level 3 normal intermodulation of electric antenna is -150dBc, while such index for mechanical antenna is -120dBc. Thus, the difference of the two is 30dBc. However, the Level 3 intermodulation index is very important to eliminate adjacent frequency interference and scattering interference. In particular, in the area of high traffic intensity with small distance between base stations but much carrier frequency, it is requested that the index for Level 3 intermodulation should reach around -150dBc. Otherwise, large interference will occur. Currently, China Mobile Communication Network is suffering much call loss and large interference in the areas with high traffic intensity. One of the important reasons is that the downtilt degree of mechanical antenna is too large, so antenna directional diagram gets distorted seriously. To solve the problem of insufficient capacity in areas with much traffic, it is necessary to shorten the station distance and increase the antenna downtilt angle. But while using mechanical antenna, when the downtilt angle is more than 10 , the antenna directional diagram will be distorted quite seriously. Therefore, it is very different to solve the problem of high call loss and large interference in areas with high user intensity through mechanical antenna. It is recommended that the mechanical antenna be replaced by electric antenna in traffic-intensive areas. The replaced antennas may be installed in the rural areas and suburbs where the traffic intensity is relatively low.
4.2.2 Intelligent Antenna

With the rapid development of global telecommunication services, the radio mobile communicaiton technology as the major means of individual communication in the future attracts much attention among the general public. It has become major factors for people to consider how to eliminate co-channel interference (CCI), multi-address interference (MAI) and multi-pathm fading in improving the performance of radio mobile communication system. The intelligent antenna uses digital signal processing technology and adopts advanced switched beam technology as well as adaptive spatial digital processing technology, to produce space directional beam so that the antenna major beam is aimed at the direction where the user signals arrive with its side lobes aimed at the direction where the interference signal will arrive, so as to attain the objective of making most of mobile user signals and of deleting or suppressing the interference signals. Compared with other deepening and maturing technologies for eliminating interferences, the applied research on intelligent antenna technology is just in the ascendant and reveals huge potentials. The greatest disadvantages of system radio base station is it wastes radio signal energy. Normally, only a small amount of signal energy can reach the destination. In addition, when the base station is receiving signals, it receives not only useful signals
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but also interference noice from other signals. It is not the case with intelligent antenna. It is able to receive the signals from a specified user and transfer the signal enegy to the said user in a more effective way. Different from traditional TDMA, FDMA or CDMA, intelligent antenna introduces the fourth dimension multiple access: SDMA. With the same time slot, frequency or address code, the user is still able to differentiate them in light of the space transmitting paths of the signals. Intelligent antenna is equal to a time space filter, which works to notably reduce the interference of user signals with each other under the control of parellel antenna beams directed to different users. To be specific, intelligent antenna will improve the performance of future mobile communication system in the following aspects: (1) Enlarge system coverage; (2) Reduce interference and raise system capacity; (3) Improve utilization rate of high frequency spectrum; (4) Raise the sensitivity of base station; (5) Reduce transmitting power of base station, so as to lower system cost and reduce interference between signals and environmental pollution of electromagnetism. Intelligent antenna is of two major types: multi-beam intelligent antenna and adaptive array antenna, known as multi-beam antenna and adaptive antenna; the latter is the main type of intelligent antenna. Multi-antenna uses multiple parallel beams to cover the entire user area with each beam pointing to a fixed place. The beamwidth varies with the number of array elements. With the users moving in the cell, the base station will choose different beams accordingly, so as to make the signals received the strongest. As user signals are not necessarily at the center of fixed beams, when the user is at the edge of beam with the interference signal at the heart of beam, the receiving effect will be the worst. Therefore, multi-beam antenna cannot achieve best reception of signals. It is generally used as receiving antenna. However, compared with adaptive array antenna, multibeam antenna has such advantages as simple structure and no need for judging the direction where the user signal reaches. Normally, adaptive antenna adopts an array element structure of 6 16 antennas with a interval of 1/2 wavelength between array elements. If such interval is too large, the correlativity of received signals to each other will be reduced; if such interval is too small, there will arise unnecessary grid slobes. Thus, the interval is generally half wave length. Adaptive array antenna system adopts digital signal processing technology to identify the direction where the user signals reach and then form major beam of the antenna in this direction. Adaptive array antenna provides different space channels tantamount to the cables for wire transmission in light of different user signals, so as to ward off the effect of interference on the system. The general structure of intelligent antenna is shown in Figure 4-7(a):
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Figure 4-7(a) Structure of Intelligent Antenna (b) Diagram of TDD Radio Base Station with Intelligent Antenna Antenna array may take such shapes as straight line, circle or two-dimention plane. The core of antenna system is the digital signal processing unit, which enables antenna array to produce directional beams pointing to the mobile subscribers according to certain standards and automatically adjust the weight coefficient so as to achieve space filtering as required. Intelligent antenna is required to solve the following two key problems: identify the signal direction and achieve digital shaping (matrix). The representative algorithm for signal direction AOA (Angle of Arrival) is Music, ESPRIT, and maximum likelihood algorithms etc. The aim of adaptive beam shaping is to obtain best weight coefficient through adaptive algorithm. What algorith to take requires considering adaptive rules, the most common of which are SINR, MMSE, minimum mean square and maximum likelihood etc. It has been proved that the best weight coefficients using the above four rules will result in equal steady state solution, or Wiener-Kolmogorov solution. Adaptive algorithms in common use include the following: (1) Direct sampling covariance matrix inversion algorithm (DMI); (2) various minimum mean square algorithms (LMS); recursion least square algorithm (RLS); (4) constant model algorithm (CMA) etc. These adaptive algorithm has their own advantages and disadvantages. Proper algorithm should be selected in practical application in light of practical conditions. Hereunder is the detailed description of matrix expression of shaped beams. As shown in Firgure 4-7(b), it describes a block diagram of CDMA base station with intelligent antenna, working in TDD mode. From the figure, we can see that compared with the traditional base station without intelligent antenna, it has FR part composed of an antenna array and a group of receive-and-transmit units on its hardware, while the hardware for baseband signal processing is basically the same. What should be pointed out is that this group of radio receive-and-transmit units will use the same local vibration source, so as to ensure this group is working in a corelative way. As shown in Figure 4-7(b), each FR receive-and-sent unit has ADC and DAC, which convert the baseband analog signals received into digital signals, and convert the digital signals to be transmitted into analog baseband signals, so as to perform the conversion between analog signals and digital signals. All the signals received and
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transmitted are connected by a group of high-speed digital buses and baseband digital signal processor. From Figure 4-7(b), lets first study the signals from multiple user terminals. These upsteam signals have such effects as multi-address interference, fading, multi-path transmission and doppler frequency shift, and have other interferences and noises. Use Si(n) for the output of Receiver i as shown in the figure at n time point. Through deamplification and the corresponding digital siganl processing, you may get the data received from each code channel. If we use Xji( ) to indicate the array elements of Symbol of Code channel j received at Antenna i , then after beam shaping (composition) on the baseband, the total data received from the intelligent antenna should be:
W refers to uplink beam shaping matrix, whose matrix element is Wij(
).
Next, the intelligent antenna will shape its downlink beams. Use Yj( ) to indicate Symbol tranmitted to this user from code channel j. The signals transmitted from antenna array element i via the downlink beam shaping of intelligent antenna (adjust the amplitude and phase of the signals transmitted from each transmitter in the base station) can be expressed as:
where U is downsteam beam shaping matrix for element uji(
).
Obviously, to get the best receiption, we must find out a good algorithm for uplink beam shaping, or a method for obtaining W matrix; in order for the user to get the best signals, it is necessary to find out a good algorithm for downlink beam shaping, or a method for obtaining U matrix. It must be pointed out that the only thing already known is the geometric structure and the signals received by various receivers of the antenna array in finding this beam shaping matrix. In this respect, the researchers have done a lot of work, and there are several algorithms available, mainly limited to the processing capacity of baseband processor and the requirements on real-time work. Intelligent antenna technology will bring much good to radio communicaiton, especially in improving CDMA system performance and reducing its cost. However, consideration must be given to the problems arising from the application of intelligent antenna to CDMA system. At the same time, the following problems should be solved in respect of standard, produce and network design:
I. Ominidirectional beam and shaped beam

Intelligent antennas major functions are performed through adaptive transmission and shaping the received beam. Furthermore, the shaping of beams received and
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transmitted is done on the basis of geometric structure, system requirements and the user signals received with respect to the base station antenna. Under mobile communication system, the intelligent antenna uses shaped beams on the uplink signal of each user, which serves to improve the system performance directly. However, when the user is not transmitting but only receiving signals and moving within the area covered by the base station (idle status), it is impossible fo the base station to know exactly where the user is. In this case, the base station will use omnidirectional beams for transmission (such physical channels in the system as Pilot, synchronization, broadcast and paging). For the base station with omnidirectional coverage as shown in Figure 4-8, different beams are transmitted from different code channels. That is to say, the base station must provide omnidirectional and directional shaped beams. In this sense, an omnidirectional channel requirs much higher transmitting power (the maximum power possible is 101gN dB higher than the dedicated channel,where N is the quantity of antenna array elements. This must be taken into account in system design.
Figure 4-8 Diagram of Coverage Requirements on Different Channels
II. Shared downlink channel and discontinuous transmission

The mobile communication system providing IP data services is designed with uplink and downlink channels shared by multiple users and discontinuous transmission technology is used in the base station and at the user terminal. In a base station using intelligent antenna, as the users move, it is impossible for the base station to locate the useres; therefore, in general, only omnidirectional downlink beam should be used. In addition, one more access process may be added to transmit signals to each user in a fixed direction. These two methods each have their advantages and may be possibly used.
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III. Alignment of intelligent antenna

While using intelligent antenna, it is required to provide technology of automatic and real time alignm of intelligent antenna. While using intelligent antenna in TDD system, use the uplink beam shaping coefficient directly to shape downlink beam in accordance with the principle of reciprocity in electromagnetic field theory; but for actual radio base station, it is impossible that the radio transceiver on each channel is totally the same; moreover, its performance may vary with such factors as period, work level and environmental conditions. Without real-time automatic alignment, the downlink beam shaping will be affected seriously. It will not only fail to gain the advantages of intelligent antenna but also cannot even communicate at all.
IV. Frame structure and relevant physical layer technology

There is no special requirement on physical layer technology for a mobile communication system in using intelligent antenna. Moreover, basic technologies for the physical layer as modulation demodulation, spread spectrum, channel coding, error correction and data multiple connection, will definitely be totally the same. However, to use intelligent antenna may allow you to design the physical layer in a more effective way. For example, in the TD-SCDMA-recommended system, synchronous CDMA technology is used to simplify the tranceiver; specified uplink and downlink Pilot time slots are used in the design of time slots at the physical layer, so as to reduce the interference arising from cell search and random access etc., thus the functions of intelligent antenna are brought into full play.
V. Combination of antenna with other anti-interference technologies

Presently, there must be a comprise between the algorithm complication and real time implementation of the intelligent antenna. Thus, the practical intelligent antenna algorithm still can neither solve the problem of multi-path interference arising from time delay over the width of one code nor overcome channel deterioration as a result of doppler effect out of high-speed movements. Under the serious environment of multipath high-speed movements, it is required to combine the intelligent antenna with other anti-interference digital signal processing technologies, so as to achieve the best results.These digital signal processing technologies include joint detection, interference cancellation and Rake receiption etc. Currently, the combination of intelligent antenna with joint detection or interference cancellation already has practical algorithm, while the algorithm for its combination with Rake receiver is still under research.
VI. Problem of beam shaping speed

It must be noted that due to the mobility of user terminal, mobile communication is a time variant channel. Intelligetn antenna uses received signals to shape the uplink and downlink beams, so it is requested that TDD cycle should not be too long. For example, when the user terminal moves at a speed of 100km/h, its doppler frequency shif approaches 200Hz and the change of user terminal location within 10ms will reach 28cm. At 2GHz frequency band, it already exceeds one wavelength, resulting in huge error in shaping downlink beams. Therefore, TDD cycle is expected to be reduced at least by half, so that the interval between transmitting and receiving is within the range of 2-3ms in order to ensure the intelligent antenna works in a proper way. If this system terminal is required to mover faster, TDD uplink and downlink conversion cycle should be shortened further.
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VII. Consideration of equipment complication

Apparently, the performances of intelligent antenna will increase with the increase in the number of antenna array elements. However, to increase the number of antenna array elements will add to the complication of the system. Such complication will ascend by geometrical progression in respect of the quantity of baseband digital signals to be processed. Nowadays, CDMA system trends towards broad band and the code rate already stands quite high, so the complication of baseband processing requires more and more in respect of microelectronic technique. In this way, this determines it impossible to have a large number of antenna elements.According to the current level, the number of elements should range between 6 and 16. In addition, as the mobile communication environment is particular, other new problems occur to intelligent antenna: serious multi-path problem and message sources generally outnumber antenna array elements. The characteristic of multiple sources and paths requires the research and development of intelligent antenna to gain momentus in the following aspects: have a full understanding of the mobile communication environment, especially the space dimension characteristic, which requires not only new models created for mobile communication environment but more test results. On the basis of understanding the particularity of mobile communication environment, develop new algorithms in seamless connection with the mobile communication system and other radio technologies; research on the interworking of intelligent antenna with other technologies, such as power control, multipl user detection, synchronous technologies and RAKE receiption with the objective of eliminating, balancing and utilizing interference in a better way so as to improve system performance. Currently, intelligent antenna technology is considered internationally as a major development trend of mobile communication technology later than the third generation. It has become possible to apply intelligent antenna to WCDMA TDD system. As a matter of fact, intelligent antenna is one of the key technologies for TD-SCDMA system.
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4.3 Antenna Downtilt Planning

In cellular communication, coverage theory, frequency multiplexing theory and BSS functional algorithm are all based on the same precondtion, i.e. regular cellular layout. The factors affecting cellular layout in radio network planning are mainly reflected through the design of project parameters, ranging from the macro layout of multiple base stations in radio network to the location of a single base station, antenna height, lobe width, direction, downtilt and EIRP etc, thus forming a specific celluar network. Normally, the performance indexes of the antenna itself are selected according to the characteristics of radio network such as the intensity of base stations and macro coverage goal; once the location of base station is determined in combination of networking requirements and external ojective conditions, it seldom changes thereafter; while the antenna height, direction, downtilt and coverage goal should be finalized in accordance with the parameters specified previously and the specific coverage goal of a single cell. Hereunder is the analysis of the relationship between such elements of the anntenna as its height, direction, downtilt and coverage goal (cell radius is R), and the recommended value of the antenna downtilt under certain condition will be given.As radio signals are transmitted closed related to the environment (such as loss in the area with dense high buildings, the reflection of mountains, water surface or huge glass walls, which will have effect on the transmission of electric waves), it is not necessarily adaptable to all the transmission environments. However, if careful consideration is given to the regularity of cellular structure as well as the range to be covered by the cell and coverage goal, it may help lay a solid foundation for the quality of radio network.
4.3.1 Antenna Downtilt Design

In designing antenna downtilts, consideration must given to the following factors: antenna height, azimuth angle, gains, vertical half power angle and the cell range expected to be covered. As is known all, when the antenna gain is determined, the horizontal half power angle of the antenna is in inverse ratio against its vertical half power angle with their relationship expressed as follows: G =32600/( )
Where Ga is antenna gain (a multiplying factor, which should be converted into dB value), is vertical half power angle and is horizontal half power angle. It must be noted that this formula only yields a theoretical value. As a result of such reasons as manufacturing technique, the actual antenna index will be different, especially the width of vertical lobe. Therefore, before specific application, it is prefered to look up antenna technical manual. From the above formula, we know thaqt when antenna gain is relatively small, the vertical half power angle and the horizontal half power angle of antenna are normally large, and vice versa. In order to better control trans-regional coverage, it is appropriate to select the antenna with higher gains in network planning within a region of intensive base stations, but antenna with high gains will easily result in unfavorable coverage in the vicinity. In serious cases, zero point filling technology must taken into account.
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For the base stations distributed in downtown areas, when the antenna has no downtilt or the angle is very small, the service range of each cell is subject to the height, azimuth angle, gain, transmitting power and land forms and ground objects with regard to the antenna. In this case, the coverage radius may be calculated through Okumura-Hata or COST231 formula; when the antenna downtilt is relatively large, as the above formula fails to consider the downtilt, thus it is impossible to work out the coverage radius (if there is an accurate transmission model and digital map, ASSET may be figured out). At this point, direction estimation can be done in accordance with the size of vertical half power angle and the downtilt of the antenna on the basis of triangle geomety formula as follows: Suppose the radius to be covered is D(m) with antenna height as H(m), downtilt as and the vertical half power angle as , then the relation between the antenna major lobe beams and the ground as shown in Figure 4-9.
Figure 4-9 Relation between Antenna Major Lobe Beams and the Ground It can be seen that when antenna downtilt is 0 degree, antenna beam major lobes or major energy radiate horizontally; when antenna declines by degrees, the extension line in the direction of major lobes will ultimately intersect a point on the ground (Point A). As antenna is of certain beam width vertically, much energy will be radiated in the direction from Point A to Point B. According to technical performance of the antenna, within the scope of half power angle, antenna gain will come down slowly; beyond the half power angle, antenna gain (especially the upper lobe) will fall sharply. Therefore, while considering the size of antenna downtilt, the scope ranging from the extension line of the half power angle to the intersection point on the ground (Point B) may be regarded as the actual coverage area of this antenna. According to the above analysis and the theories for triangle geometry, it can be deduced that the relationship between antenna height, downtilt, and coverage distance is as follows:
= arctan(H/D)+ /2
The above formula may be used to estimate the coverage distance after the downtilt has been adjusted. The actual result of practical application on the optimism site reveals that this formula is of great guiding significance. However, the application of this formula is limited by the following conditions: the downtilt must be greater than half of the half power angle; the distance D must be less than the distance worked out according to the formula in absence of a downtilt. For vertical beam width in the above formula, pleaes refer to the specific antenna technical index or work out the rough value. In a situation where the vertical beam width is 17 degrees and the base station antenna is 40 meters high, the relationship between the coverage distance and antenna downtilt is shown in Figure 4-10. When the vertical beam width is 6.5 degrees
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and the base station antenna is 40 meters high, the relationship the coverage distance and antenna downtilt is shown in Figure 4-11.
coverage distance-declination angle
distance (meter )
declination angle (degree)
Figure 4-10 Relation between Coverage Distance and Downtilt (vertical beam width as 17 degrees, and antenna height as 40 meters)
coverage distance-declination angle
distance (meter )
declination angle (degree)
Figure 4-11 Relation between Coverage Distance and Downtilt (vertical beam width as 65 degrees, and antenna height as 40 meters) Seen from the above two figures, when the antenna height and downtilt are specified, the relation between the coverage distance and the vertical beam width of the antenna is as follows: The smaller the vertical beam width, the coverage distance will be shorter. As a result, to control trans-regional coverage in a better way, we should choose an antenna of small vertical beam width with zero point filling function while selecting antennas in the planning stage. In this way, it will prevent trans-regional interference and improve the coverage in the vicinity and indoor coverage. However,
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when the vertical beam width grows smaller, the horizontal lobe or gain will get larger, thus causing new trans-regional interference or excessive cross coverage between neighboring cells. As a result, antennas of medium gain are usually chosen in urban areas. For example, GSM900 selects antenna of 65 degrees and 15dBi. At this time, the width of vertical lobe ranges between 11-15 degrees. It must be noted that the adjustment of downtilt may serve to control the coverage area in addition to improve the indoors coverage in the vicinity of the base station, but the coverage far from the base station will get worse.
4.3.2 Practical Application

In order for practical application considering the necessary overlap of some areas between adjacent cells. The distance D from the base station in downtown area to the coverage desitination may be simplified as the designed cell radius (diameter as R); the antenna height H refers to the relative height of the base station and the coverage designation, and this article only treats of the areas similar to plains.Antenna downtilt is divided into mechanical downtilt and electric downtilt, both of which have equal effect on the coverage. As electric downtilt is more expensive and requires customization, we usually adopts mechanical desclination. It is generally believed that it is a scientific approach to keep the mechanical downtilt of the antenna below 10 degrees; in the event of more than 10 degrees, the lobes are easily distorted, thus causing unexpected interference against other cells; another conclusion is that the downtilt of mechanical downtilt should not exceed the half power beam width within the vertical plane of the said antenna. Otherwise, coverage is distorted. Therefore, in terms of the goal of maximum rationaliztion, we wish to adopt electric antenna in populous downtown areas for networking. As the anntenna capable of onsite adjustment of electric downtilt angle is rather expensive, we normally use antenna with preset factory 6 7 degrees of electric downtilt (or the average downtilt angle within the coverage area). Combine mechanical downtilt in network capacity enlargement and optimization, so as to set large downtilt angle of 15 20 degrees. According to what is discussed above and in combination with A anntenna in most common use and the commonly seen antenna height antenna (25 50 meters), the value recommended for antenna downtilt angle under the cell radius of 250, 500, 800 and 1000 meters. The same is true of other circumstances.
Antenna model 65 degrees, a gain of 15 dBi 65 degrees, a gain of 15 dBi 65 degrees, a gain of 15 dBi 65 degrees, a gain of 15 dBi 65 degrees, a gain of 15 dBi 65 degrees, a gain of 15 dBi 65 degrees, a gain of 15 dBi 65 degrees, a gain of 15 dBi 65 degrees, a gain of 15 dBi 65 degrees, a gain of 15 dBi 65 degrees, a gain of 15 dBi Vertical half power angle of antenna 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 Cell radius R(m) 200 250 250 250 250 500 500 500 500 800 1000 Antenna height 50 50 40 30 25 50 40 30 25 30 30 Downtilt angle 20 17 15 13 12 12 11 10 9 8 2
From this we can see that when the cell radius is too small, antenna mechanical downtilt cannot ensure control of coverage area. At this time, we cannot but reduce the antenna height; if it is difficult to reduce the height, it is necessary to adopt the combination of electric downtilt and mechanical downtilt. In application, for a base station with its antenna of 40-50 meters in height, the minimum cell radius is 250 meters. Normally, the ideal height for macro cellular antenna in downtown areas is
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25 30 meters and the antenna in suburbs or directed to the suburbs is 40 meters in height.
50
The above method for calculating downtilt angle is mainly applicable to the dense base station networking with an interval of less than 1200 meters (i.e. R=800m) between stations. When the base station is over 800 meters away from the coverage destination, the most concern is still the coverage of a large area. It is not necessary to consider the effect of vertical half power angle in working out the antenna downtilt angle. At this time, the angle of downtilt is normally 1 4 degrees; under special circumstances, for example, if the base station has been installed in a higher position, its angle of downtilt may also be large. However, the surroundings around the base station are quite complex. The downtilt angle must also take the reflection from the neighboring mountains, water surface and tall glass walls into consideration in that such reflection will easily cause unexpected adjacent frequency interference with other base stations and even its own time dispersion effect; consideration should also be given to shadow effect caused by the buidling roof, dense architectural complex and slope on electric waves. However, in practical networking, the surrounding geographical environment around the base station will be combined to use the obstruction of tall building or mountain to control the coverage area. It is required to consider the downtilt angle at this time. Networking in populous downtown area should also consider the street effect and unexpected trans-regional coverage arising from the antenna major lobe right directed to the street. In general, the major lobe should avoid being directed to a straight street. When a cell needs to cover an area higher than the antenna, it is possible to adopt inverse directional antenna or negative angle of downtilt. The antenna is required to proof against water. If the base station is placed too high and thus necessitating the coverage of valleys far lower than the base station ( more than 50 60 meters or depression angle more than 5 degrees) and only omni-antenna can be used, it is necessary to consider using omni-antenna characterized by electric downtilt angle (3 degrees or 5 degrees etc.), wide vertical lobe (low gain), zero point filling or improvement on the gain of lower secondary lobe in order to improve the coverage near the base station and avoid possible signal fluctuation caused by blind under tower and unequal coverage. We must also give consideration to the direction after the antenna back lobe declines on the major lobe of the antenna, because the front-to-back ratio for general antenna nowadays only stands at 20dB. The back lobes with strong signals will easily cause much interference against high buildings. Therefore, it is recommended to adopt electric downtilt while selecting antenna in populous urban areas, and take note of the effect of upper secondary lobes. Normally, the vertical power angle of omni-antenna is symetric vertically along the plane, and thus the inverse and upright installation will have equal effect; in practial project, the vertical directional diagram of specific omni-antenna should still be taken into consideration to check if the electric downtilt angle is already available. In this case, careful consideration should be given to inverse installation.
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4.4 Antenna Selection

In mobile communication network, it is a very important part to select an antenna. We should make a choice in light of practical conditions such as the requirement on coverage, traffic, interference and network service quality of the network. A proper antenna will enlarge the coverage, reduce interference and improve service quality. As the selection of antenna is closely related to coverage requirement, the environment for using antennas can be divided into 4 types in light of the land form or the distribution of traffic: urban area, suburb, rual area and highroad.
4.4.1 Current Problems of Using Antenna

Little consideration is given to the relation between the actual land form and the antenna directional diagram with antenna selected simply in consideration of the distribution of covered traffic. For example, in selecting omni-antenna, the entire network uses a single type of omni-antenna, which leads to blind under tower as a result of narrow vertical plane beam when the antenna is placed high. Oblivious to the limit on the use of antenna, many places decline the antenna in a very large angle in order to reduce interference without regard to antenna directional diagram, thus distorting the directional diagram and causing problems with coverage. Actually, simulation indicates there should be different limits on downtilt angle in light of antennas with different gains. Too much attention is focused on the high gain performance of the antenna without regard to the disadvantages of such performance. As a result, almost the gains of all the antennas used in the entire network stand quite high. The weak points of high-gain antenna are as follows: large size, heavy, high secondary lobe, deep zero lobe and narrow vertical beams. Without regard to the difference between dual polarization antenna and vertical polarization antenna in terms of use, consideration is only given to selecting dual polarization antenna from the angle of engineering installation.
4.4.2 Application Principle for Base Station Antenna in Urban Areas

In urban areas, as the base stations are densely distributes, it is requeste that a single base station covers a small area in hopes of reducing trans-regional coverage, reducing the itnerference between base stations and improving frequency multiplexing rate. In principle, the antenna should meet the following requirements:
I. Selection of antenna horizonal half power beam width

As there are a large number of base stations distributed in urban areas, overlapping coverage and frequency interference will arise as a serious problem. To reduce the overlapping area of adjacent sectors, and reduce the interference between base stations, the beam widht of antenna horizonal half power should be small. Normally, we select an antenna whose horizonal half power beam width is 65 . Normally, those antennas with beam width over 90 will not be chosen._
II. Selection of antenna gain

As the base station in urban areas normally requies no large coverage distance, it is recommended to select the antennas with medium gains. Thus, the vertical beam of
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antenna can be made wider, so as to enhance the coverage effect within the area to be covered. At the same time, the size and weight of antenna can become smaller instrumental to the installation and reducing cost. According to the current antenna models, it is recommended to select a gain of 15dBi (900MHz) or 15-18dBi (1800MHz) for antennas in urban areas. For a base station on the outskirt of a city, if the coverage distance is required to be long, antenns with higher gains such as 17dBi 18dBi can be selected. In principle, while designing base station coverage in urban areas, we should select an antenna with fixed electric downtilt angle, whose size is subject to practical conditions (6-9 preferred). Inside a city, in order to raise the frequency multiplexing rate, reduce trans-regional interference and improve D/U value (the ratio of useful signal level to useless signal level), it is allowed to select an antenna with its first upper secondary lobe suppressed and the first lower zero point filled (shaping technology). However, the antenna of this kind usually has no fixed angle of downtilt. As it is different to select a site for an urban base station, the installation space for antenna is limited. Generally, it is recommended to select dual poluarization antenna. Under indentical or similar electric indicators, it is better to select an antenna of small size.
4.4.3 Application Principle for Suburb Base Station Antenna

In the suburbs, things are largely different. We may estimate what type of antenn is required according to the coverage area as required. Generally, we may comply with the following basic principles: We may select an antenna with its horizonal half power beam width as 65 or 90 in light of practical conditions. When there are few base stations around, it is imperative to give priority to the antenna with its horizonal half power beam width of 90 . If a lot of base stations are around, refer to the slection antennas in uran areas for the the principle for antenna selection. With a view to smooth upgrading in the furture, in general, it is not recommended to adopt an omni-antenna in this case. Whether to adopt an angle of downtilt is subject to practical conditions. Even if a downtilt angle is used, it is generally very small.
4.4.4 Application principle for base station antennas in rural areas

As rural areas require small amount of traffic but large coverage, the application of antennas should follow the principles hereunder. If the base station is required to cover its neighboring areas without obvious directions, and the traffic around the base station is scattered, it is recommended in this case to adopt the omnidirectional coverage of base station. It should be noted that the large coverage herein does not mean long coverage distance but large coverage area without apprarent directions.At the same time, we should also pay attention to the following fact: as omni-directional base station has small gains, the coverage distance is not as long as the directional base station. If the equipment buyer requires farther base station coverage distance, it is required to use three directional antennas to attain this objective. Normally, we should use a
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directional antenna with horizonal half beam width of either 90 or 120 . Another thing requiring attention is that vertical polarization antenna has more diversity effect and stronger capacity against slow fading than dual polarization antenna. As required for large coverage in rural areas, if conditions permit, we may substitute two pieces of vertical polarization antenna for dual polarization antenna. For high stations in mountaineous areas (the relative height of antenna is over 50 meters), we should generally select antennas with zero point filling function to solve the problem with blind under tower in short range. While solving this problem via an angle of downtilt, we should note the reduction of coverage area.
4.4.5 Application principle for antennas to cover highroads

To covcer highroad areas, the principle for selecting antenna is as follows: For a base station designed to cover the areas along railways and highroads, narrow beam directional antenna can be used to this effect. To cover highroads and scattered villages around them, we may consider using an omni-antenna. To cover expressways, 8-shaped antenna may be used for this purpose.In this way, the number of base stations may fall, so as to achieve the coverage of expressways. To cover an expressway and the towns along the highroad, the antenna with horizonal half power beam width of 210 may be used. It is recommended to give priority to 8shaped antenna and 210 antenna to cover highroads. The directional diagram of the said two antennas is shown as follows.
210 directional diagram
town
highroad
base station
mountain
Figure 4-12 (a)
210-degree Antenna
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8-shaped directional diagram
Highroad
Base station
Mountain
Figure 4-12 (b) 8-shaped antenna 4.4.6 Other factors in antenna application
The basic principles for selecting antennas in different places are described as above. In fact, capacity expansion in the future and basic performances should also be taken into consideration in selecting antennas. Here is a simple example: If 210 antenna is selected for an expressway, the quantity of carrier frequency should increase to meet the demand on capacity expansion provided that the said area sees a traffic rise in the future. Due to different CF configurations of base station, with the increase of carrier frequency, insertion loss will increase. In this case, capacity expansion will inevitably lead to the drop in coverage distance. Unless cavity combiner is used, these problems should be anticipated when antenna type is selected. In addition, in selecting antennas, consideration should be given to the distribution of traffic and surrounding station types, especially in rural areas, where few types of stations exist, this must be considered more carefully. In rural areas, if the traffic is distributed equally around the base station, we may consider using omni-antenna. At the same time, we should take into account of an omni-antenna with zero point filling. If the traffic is only distributed on one side of the base station, and there is almost no traffic on the other side, we may consider 210 antenna. If traffic exists only on a narrow and long highroad, we may consider directional antenna of narrow beams or 8-shaped antenna. In addition, as the azimuth angle of antenna requires regular adjustment during the network optimization period, it is recommended to select an antenna with its azimuth adjusted electrically after the antenna with electrically adjustable azimuth is mature upon argumentation.
4.4.7 Notes on special antennas

Zero point filled antenna serve to solve the problem of blind under tower without any effect in other respects. It is recommended that antennas with zero point filling are used for all the omni-antennas so as to avoid the problem of blind under tower.
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With regard to 8-shaped and 210 antennas, it is recommended to give top priority to them in respect of expressway coverage. If a base station installed on top of a mountain is required to cover the areas at the foot of the mountain, it is recommended to select an antenna with wide vertical half power beam for the coverage, such as omni-antenna with a gain of 8.5dBi or a directional antenna of 14dBi with vertical beam width of around 20 .
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4.4.8 Reference for antenna selection

Land form Statoin type Directional station Recommendation for antenna selection Normally, select antennas with low or medium gains and fixed electric angle of downtilt, subject to the density of base stations; if an antenna with electrically adjustable azimuth is available, it should also be selected. Normally, select antennas with high gains, permitting of electrically adjustable azimuth or mechanical downtilt angle.In addition, if some areas are not well covered in some directions, antennas with its horizonal half power beam width of 90 degrees may be selected. Generally, select an antenna of 90 degrees or of 120 degrees. It is perferred to use vertical single polarization antenna. First there must be zero point filled antenna without regard to angle of downtilt. First consider 8-shaped antenna and then consider 0.5/0.5 configuration using power splitter; it is preferred to have zero point filling. First consider 210-degree antenna, then consider the combination of directional antenna+ omni-antenna First consider antenna with zero point filling function, then consider antenna of lower gain before adding a downtilt angle. First consider antenna with low gain and vertical beam width before adding a downtilt angle. Remark While installing an antenna, make sure that the mechanical downtilt angle is no more than 10 degrees. If mechanical downtilt angle is to be installed, the angle should not be too large.
Urban area
Suburb
Directional station
Plains & rural areas
Directional station Omnidirectional station
Generally no downtilt angle is added. Generally no downtilt angle is added. Generally no downtilt angle is added. Generally no downtilt angle is added. Generally no downtilt angle is added. Generally no downtilt angle is added.
Exressways
Directional station Directional station + omnidirectional station
Mountainous areas
Omnidirectional station Directional station
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4.5 Combining and distribution unit

The combining and distribution unit is mainly to achieve transceiver duplexing, transmitting signal combiner, filtering and receiving signal filtering, low noise amplification and distribution, and provide tower amplification with feeding circuit, and share the same antenna unit with multiple signals transmitted and received.
4.5.1 Principle for combining and distribution unit

The combining and distribution unit has the following functions of detection and alarm: (1) Standing wave dection: to monitor the status of antenna feeder; When it detects that the standing wave exceeds the preset threshold (1.5:1 or 2.5:1), it will give corresponding alarm signals and indication. (2) Low noise amplifier fault alarm: as the fault signal is taken from the feeding current of low noise amplifier, when the current exceeds a certain range or there is no current, alarm signal will occur. (3) Tower amplification alarm: when tower amplification works with the fault signals taken from its feeding current, when the current exceeds a certain range or there is no current, alarm signal will occur. (4) Control function: to exercise the control of the power attenuation over the master and slave receiving channel (dynamic state 15dB, step 1dB); perform function of switching on and off feeding current; select different tower amplification feeding current at the same time. Take Huawei equipment for example, it has three kinds of modules that can provide combining and distribution unit: CDU, SCU and EDU. Schematic diagram of CDU is shown in Figure 4-13.
Figure 4-13 CDU Schematic Diagram
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SCU schematic diagram is shown in Figure 4-14.
Combiner
TX1 TX2 TX3 TX4
Combiner
Combiner
TX-DUP
Figure 4-14 SCU Schematic Diagram
EDU schematic diagram is shown in Figure 4-15.
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Figure 4-15 EDU Schematic Diagram
Different combining and distribution units have different losses, which are configured and used in light of different station types. The following indexes are specified: for each combination (two combined into one), in theory, insertion loss is 3dB and duplexer insertion loss is 1dB or so.
4.5.2 Combining and distribution unit configuration

This section takes Huawei equipment to explain the configuration of various combining and distribution units:
FC number for each cell 7 8TRX Regular configuration plan 2CDU 2SCU Large coverage configuration plan Remark Large station is mostly located in the urban area, which is basically applicable to large coverage. In applying large coverage configuration plans, it is necessary to combine Huaweis concentric circle
5 6TRX
CDU+CDU+SCU
CDU+CDU+SCU
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technology 3 4TRX 1 2TRX CDU+SCU CDU Dual CDU EDU or dual CDU EDU is only applicable to the situation where each sector has no less than 2 CF. Changes are required in capacity expansion.
What should be noted is that large coverage plan as mentioned above is a recommendation on the precondition of not increasing antennas and feeders in each cell. In practical network application, we may flexibly select different configurations (antennal feeder + amplifier {40W 60W 80W etc})in light of the coverage and capacity demands for different stations if the conditions for uplink and downlink balance are met; and in combination with Huawei Companys BSC software algorithm (such as concentric circle control technology applicable to when each CF coverage is not the same in the same cell), so as to attain the best coverage effects.
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4.6 Outdoor antenna feeder system

Outdoor antenna feeder system includes antenna, tower amplifier, feeder cable, jumper and lightning arrester, as shown in Figure 4-16. Antenna has been described above and the following is devoted to tower amplifier and feeder cable.
Figure 4-16 Composition of outdoor antenna feeder system
4.6.1 Tower amplifier

In terms of technial principle, tower amplifier is to reduce the noise coefficient of the base station receiving system, so as to improve the sensitivity of base station receiving system. Tower amplifier makes different contributions to uplink, distinguished from each other in light of the performance of low noise amplifier of the tower amplifier itself, but it is not the right way only to focus on its gains. Generally, the uplink and downlink balance with tower amplification increased should be modified and calculated in accordance with the method for testing its actual sensitivity. Tower amplifiers of sub band or all band should be seleted in light of different frequency bands. The principle for triplex tower amplifier is shown in Figure 4-17. This tower amplifier shares signal transmission and reception (only one feeder tube is required) and has bypass functioons (automatic bypass in the event of fault, when it receives a gain of about.
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Figure 4-17 Digram of Duplex Tower Amplifier
4.6.2 Feeder cable

It is very important to select feeder cables in the overall system design. As the line is exposed outdoors, the cable needs to stand up to the water wash. Foam is pressed into the cable as isloation medium and air can be also taken as isolation medium.When bent, the air-insulative cable can easily result in short circuit; therefore, it is seldom adopted.
I. Use of feeder cable

There are two types feeder cable in common use, that is, 7/8" feeder cable and 5/4" feeder cable. They are used as follows: (1) GSM900 feeder cable: 7/8" feeder cable is used for a length of less than 80m, while 5/4" feeder cable for a length of more than 80m. (2) GSM1800 feeder cable 7/8" feeder cable is used for a length of less than 50m; while 5/4" feeder cable for a length of more than 50m.
II. Technical indexes for the insertion loss of several feeder cables
Feeder cable type 890MHz SYFY-50-22(7/8 inch) LDF5-50A (7/8 inch) LDF6-50 (5/4 inch) M1474A (7/8 inch) HFC22D-A (7/8 inch) FSJ4-50B(1/2 inch) 4.03 4.03 2.98 100 meter attenuation (dB) 1,000M Hz 4.3 3.17 4.3 4.47 11.9 1,700M Hz 5.87 5.87 4.31 2,000MHz 6.46 6.46 4.77 6.6 6.7 17.7 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 Standing wave (Any length)
11.2
16.1
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III. Installtin of feeder cable

The feeder cable used for installation should be the shortest of all and easy for installation and maintenance. The curvature of feeder cable should comply with the requiremetn of manufacturers on feeder cable.Whether the antenna is installed on the tower, roof and any other place, the external conductor of its feeder cable should be grounded well before it goes into the equipment room.
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4.7 Distributed antenna system

With the development of mobile communication, the subscribers have higher and higher demand on service quality. People expect to communicate anywhere at any time. However, as some places (complicated areas with multiple blocks such as inside a large building, tunnel and metro) are not reachable if only covered by outdoor base station antenna and there will arise some blind spots unreachable by signals, thus causing communication interruption. In some areas, as the signals from different base stations are all quite strong, the mobile station has to switch frequently, thus causing communication interruption. Someone calls this pingpong effect. To resolve the above problems, distributed antenna system comes into existence. Besides, we may also transfer the capacity of a cell with excessive communication capacity to another area, so as to solve the problem with the distribution of system capacity.
4.7.1 Principle for composition of distributed antenna system

Figure 4-18 is the schematic diagram of the composition of a distributed antenna system. In terms of function, it is equal to one single poluarization antenna connected to a base station.
Figure 4-18 Diagram of the Composition of a Distributed Antenna System
The downlink signals from the base station go to the distributed antenna system via the interface. These signals form multiple tributaries via the power splitter, each of which can be divided into smaller tributaries via the power splitter. The end of each tributary is connected with a small antenna. Each small antenna covers a certain area. When the signal is not strong enough, it will be amplified by bi-directional amplifier with certain gains; on the contrary, the uplink signals in each tributary area, via small antenna, power splitter and bi-directional amplifier, will reach the base station through interface. In the above system, the transmission and distributiojn of signlas can be performed through coaxial cable and FR power splitter or through optical link. In addition, it can also be a mixture of coaxial cable, power splitter and raditation antenna: disclosure cable.
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4.7.2 Types of distributed antenna system

I. Coaxial feeding distributed antenna system
Figure 4-19 Coaxial Feeding Distributed Antenna System
II. Disclosure cable

In some narrow and long coverage areas, it is a better way of coverage in using disclosure cable. A terminal load is required at cable terminal.
Figure 4-20 Disclosure cable Compared with coaxial feeding, the cost for the equipment and fees for installation for disclosure cable are quite expensive.
III. 3. Fiber feeding distributed antenna system For applications with large coverage and long transmission distance, optical fiber can be used to replace coaxial feeding.
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Figure 4-21 Fiber distributed antenna system Figure 4-21 is the diagram of fiber distributed antenna system. The manufactures may differ from each other in practice.Compared with coaxial feeding, fiber feeding for short haul system is more expensive but the feeding loss is small. Its disadvantage is that it requires local power and automatic detection equipment.
IV. Summary
Distributed antenna type Coaxial feeding Disclosure cable Fiber feeding Advantages Flexible design Low cost High reliability Flexible design Low loss Easy for installation Disadvantages Large loss High cost High cost Poor design flexibility The equipment at overage terminal requires power
4.7.3 Indexes for component key technologies

I. Two-in-one combiner (mixed conducting bridge of 3dB)
The technical indexes of combiner are shown in the following table:
Work frequency band Port imbalance Insertion loss Port standing wave Power capacity GSM900 890 960MHz 0.25dB 3.6dB 1.5dB 300W GSM1800 1710 1880MHz
II. Equal power divider

Equal power divider works to distribute the energy of base station equally into several tributaries, thus forming common components for coverage distribution. To simply the project design, the system only adopts two types of equal power dividers, whose indexes are as follows:
Description Work frequency band 4-39 1 to 2 800 2000MHz 1 to 4
Chapter 4
Power distribution ratio Insertion loss Port standing wave Connector type
1:1 3.5dB 1.5dB N_Female
1:1:1:1 6.5dB
The insertion loss as defined in the above table includes the distribution loss.
III. Power coupler

The coupler here is bi-directional coupler, also known as unequal power divider. In project design, couplers with different coupling degrees can be selected in light of practical needs, to distribute the signals of the base station equally to each antenna in order to ensure equal coverage and avoid waste of energy. With a view to reducing the types of system components so as to bring down the cost, this system only selects the following three types of couplers with different coupling degrees:
Description Work frequency band Coupling degree Insertion loss Port standign wave Connector type 7dB coupler 7dB 1.2dB 800 10dB coupler 2000MHz 10dB 0.5dB 1.5 N_Female 15dB coupler 15dB 0.3dB
As we stipulate that this system is a small-sized one for simple indoor coverage, the above three types of couplers can basically meet the requirement for project design. In the system design of distributed antenna, we should try to avoid the existence of more than two power dividion components (or coupler) along the path from the base station to each antenna, so as to ensure power balance of uplink signals.
IV. Indoor antenna

In general, the distributed antenna system uses antenna of small gains and does not specifically require the half power width of beams. This is attributed to the characteristics of indoor coverage. The following three kinds of antenna is nice to the look and enjoys desirable performance, which basically meets the requirement for indoor coverage. For places with a small area to be covered by a single antenna, it is recommended to use dual frequency omnidirectional antenna. If a long and narrow area is to be covered, it is however recommended to adopt a directional antenna.
Dual frequency band omni-antenna 890 960, 1710 1880MHz 2 360 900M directional antenna 890 960MHz 1800M directional antenna 1710 1880MHz 8 90
Work frequency band Gain (2dBi) Horizontal beam width Form of polarization Power capacity Standing wave Connector type
<2
7 90 Vertical 300W <1.5 N_Female
<1.5
V. Coaxial connector
As the length of the feeder cable for indoor distribution system is not specified, it is necessary to specify the length in light of practical needs and make connectors. The system selects two types of coaxial connectors.
Type N type N type
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Description Type of calbe configured Impedance Standing wave
Coaxial connector-N type connector-50/right angle/male-nut installation-configured with SYV-507-1 SYV-50-7-1 50 1.2
Coaxial connector -N type connector 50/straight/femaleconfigured with 7/8"LDF550A cable 7/8"
VI. Disclosure cable

In such narrow and long coverage areas as tunnel and metro, it is a better way to use disclosure cable. Disclosure cable is common cable with holes in its shell, so that the electromagnetic wave may leak from the holes to cover a certain area. In this case, each hole is equal to a small antenna.
Description Characteristic impedance Attenuation constant Coupling loss Cable structure specification Type of supporting connetor Fire-proof performance 50 900MHz 0.051dB/m 1800MHz 0.076dB/m 900MHz 72dB 1800MHz 84dB; ( the loss 2 meters away from the coupling hole with an error of 10dB) 7/8" 14040121 Able to prevent flaming and proof against ultraviolet
VII. Ordinary feeder cable

In the project design of antenna system, feeder cable should be used to connect all the components. Two types of feeder cable in the list are selected. One is SYV cable easy to be bent with a large loss but low cost; the other is 7/8 inch feeder tube with little loss but high cost, which does not get bent easily. The former is applicable to the tributary connection from the power divider to antenna, and the latter is applicable to trunk connectioon from one power divider to another power divider.
Performance impedance Attenuation constant Type of N connection configured Bending properties SYV-50-7-1 50 900MHz: 0.22dB/m 1800MHz: 0.31dB/m 14040184 Good LDF5-50A-7/8" 50 1000MHz: 0.0446dB/m 2000MHz: 0.0659dB/m 14040121 Poor
VIII. Load
While using disclosure cable, its end may either use a small antenna as load or use the load directly for match. The load index as defined in the list is:
Work frequency band Characteristic impedance Port standing wave ratio Connector type Power capacity 0 2GHz 50 <1.15 N_Male 300W
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Design of Radio Network
Chapter 5 Design of Radio Network

The most important of all in designing a radio network concerns the design of network layout. Such work involves the following in detail: (1) Decide the way of frequency multiplexing in light of frequency bandwidth; (2) Estimate the number of base stations required for the network based on experience; (3) Determine the theoretic position of the base station; (4) Estimate network capacity; (5) Assume parameters relevant to the base station (hierarchical structure of the network, transmitting power, antenna type, height to be hung, direction and angle of declination etc.); On the basis of determining the basic layout of base station, plan the frequency and adjacent areas, and then complete the related cell data, so as to accomplish the entire planning process.
5.1
Design of Base Station Address

In planning a radio network, the design of base station address should generally meet the following requirements: (1) The address should serve to meet the objective of rational cell structure; make a comprehensive analysis using an electronic map and a paper map of the urban area (information about ground objects and surface relief preferred). Standby station address is required in the course of selecting a base station. For this purpose, it is required to consider the overall network structure, and make a choice in such major respects as coverage, anti-interference and traffic balance. In practice, the operator is possibly required to consult with the proprietors as to the station to be chosen. In general, the station address should be arranged within a range of 1/4 radius of cellular base station (r for minimum width). It is allowed to choose several standby station addresses within this range. During the stage where the network is established and there are few base stations, the station should be generally located at the center of an area where most of the subscribers live. In designing a station address, top priority should be given to ensuring good communication in special areas such as the place of governmental agencies, airport, railway station, news center and major hotels and avoid overlapping coverage in these areas; for other areas requiring coverage, station addresses should be designed in accordance with standard cellular structure, while address selection for suburbs, highroads and rural areas with a large area to be covered is free of limit on cellular meshes; (2) Without affecting the layout of base stations, existing telecommunications buildings and post offices should be chosen as the station address, so that their facilities such as equipment room, power supply and iron tower can be fully utilized; (3) Point the major lobe of antenna to the areas with dense traffic so as to enhance the signal intensity in this area and thus improve the communication quality; deviate the direction of antennas major lobe from co-frequency cells, so as to control interference in an effective way. In urban areas, it is recommended that the overlapping coverage of
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antenna in adjacent sectors should not exceed 10% in depth; the overlapping depth of cover between the coverage areas in suburbs and towns with the directional included angle of
the sectors no less than 90. Attention should also be paid to the correspondence between the carrier wave number and the cell in designing. A larger number of carrier wave should be configured for a cell of high density. In designing an azimuth angle, it should be determined not only based on the distribution of traffic around each base station but also from the perspective of the overall network. In general, it is recommended to adopt, if possible, the same azimuth for each urban base station, in order not to make it complicated to plan the network when the cell breaks apart in the future; to avoid trans-regional coverage, the major antenna lobe in populous downtown area should be kept from facing a straight street. In places such as outskirts and trunk roads, the antenna bearing should be adjusted in light of the objects to be covered. (4) Generally, high mountains in urban areas or suburbs(over 200 300 meters higher than the urban areas in altitude above sea level ) are not regarded as station addresses in order to prevent co-frequency interference and avoid areas with weak signals within their respective coverage areas, and to ease the difficulty in engineering construction and make it easy for maintenance; (5) New base stations should be installed in places, where traffic is convenient, electric supply is available, the environment is safe without occupying much fertile land; such places should not be near high-power radio transmitting station or other interference sources, whose intensity should not exceed the indexes for the shield of base station equipment against useless radiation; (6) The designed station address should be kept far away from the forest so as to avoid the fading of receiving signals; (7) The designed station address must ensure the transmission link between it and the base station controller is connected well; (8) Attention must be paid to the effect of time dispersion in choosing an address from mountainous areas, limnological regions with steep banks or many lakes, hills, cities and an environment with high buildings. The address for a base station should be a place near reflecting objects or put the directional antenna back on to the reflecting objects when the base station is far away;
Note: Time dispersion mainly refers to the problem of cofrequency interference arising from the time difference between master signals arriving at the receiver and other multipath signals in terms of time for transmission in space (transmission distance); according to GSM protocol, the receiver equalizer must be equipped with a time window of 16 ms (equivalent to 4.8 Km). Multipath signals with a time window less than 16 ms are harmless and even instrumental; but those with a time window of over 16 ms are regarded as the cofrequency interference signals against the master signals. In this case, it is required to consider whether the level difference between them meets C/I value, that is, master signals are over 12dB greater than the multi-path signals. The time window of Huawei receivers is more than 20ms. (9) While choosing an address form urban high buildings, the height of building may be wisely used to classify the network structure; the antennas for major base stations should be a litter taller than the average height of buildings. In general, the base station antenna in populous urban areas should be as high as 25 30 meters but it is 40 50 meters in the suburbs (or pointing to suburb cells);
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(10) In choosing an address for highroads or mountain coverage, we should make the most of land features, such an open area as the turn of a highroad.
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5.2 Design of Parameters for Base Station Project

When an address is selected, it is required to determine the engineering parameters for each base station, including: the latitude and longitude of the place of a base station antenna, hanging height, antenna direction, gain, azimuth, angle of declination, feeder line type and transmitting power of each base station cell. This work should be done on the basis of field survey. We must know well the generation situation about the project before the survey and collect various data relative to the project, including various project documents, background information, information about existing network and local map. In addition, a contract configuration list, latest network planning and exploration survey of base stations should be prepared. Such instruments as digital camera, GPS, compass, ruler and laptop should be prepared. Make sure that such instruments are usable before setting out. Attention must be paid to the following during the survey: while using GPS to position the latitude and longitude of a base station, do not allow other persons to stay around GPS, in an effort to make the positioning accuracy less than 30 m; make a detailed record of the surroundings around the base station, such as the distribution of buildings, whether there is powerful interference equipment and shared address equipment. On the one side, specify the antenna parameters and on the other side, this record is to avoid oblivion in the case of numerous base stations; in using a compass, substances made of iron should be avoided in order to magnetization, which will cause overlarge difference in measurement. Survey is an important part to specify the base station layout ultimately. A field survey for base station involves optical measurement, spectrum measurement and address survey. Optical measurement is to check if there is a barrier around the base station, which may reflect the electric waves, such as high buildings. Spectrum survey aims to know if the electromagnetic environment around the base station and the antenna at present and in the near future is in good condition. Address survey is focused on the conditions for installing antenna and equipment, power supply and natural environment. The focus of the following description is on the installation and design of antenna.
5.2.1 Environment for Antenna Installation

Installation environment involves the environment near the antenna and the environment around the base station. For the environment near the antenna, the interval between antennas and the effect of an iron tower and building floors on the antenna are the main concern. For the environment around the base station, attention is mainly focused on the effect of buildings less than 500 meters high on transmission. To install a directional antenna on a wall, the antenna transmitting direction is preferably perpendicular to the wall. If its azimuth angle must be adjusted, the included angle between the antenna transmitting direction and the wall is required to exceed 75. In this case, as long as the front-to-back ratio of antenna is more than 20dB, the effect of signals reflected from the wall in its negative direction on those in the radiating direction will be rather meager, as shown in Figure 5-1.
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no more than 15 antennas direction vertical direction
Figure 5-1 Included Angle Between the Antenna and the Wall in Installation
To get a most desirable coverage, the headroom around the antenna is required to be 50 100m. For 900M GSM, the radius of first fresnel zone within this range is about 5m, which means that the base of the base station antenna should be 5 meters higher than its environment. By making a wise use of the height of the buildings around it, we are able to attain the base station coverage as we have expected.
The requirement on the headroom around the antenna is shown in Figure 5-2.
antenna 5 (a) antenna <50-100m <50-100m <5m (b)

Figure 5-2 Headroom Requirement for Antenna
In installing antennas for a base station, we should also make sure if the antennas will produce a large shadow in its coverage area. The huge barriers near the base station such as high buildings and mountains often cause shadows. Thus, we should try to avoid these barriers in installing the antennas. When a directional antenna is installed on top of a building, attention must be paid to keeping the edges of the building from holding up beam radiation. The antenna should be installed close to the building edges, so as to reduce or eliminate shadows. As the building roofs are diversified and complex, when the antenna is to be installed away from the building edges, the antenna should be placed higher than the roof. At this moment, consideration must be given to the bearing of the roof and the antenna under stress against the wind in terms of engineering. Without regard to the effect of the antennas declination angle, the following two tables give the recommended height of the antenna from the roof in the case of GSM900 and GSM1800. GSM900
Distance from the antenna to the building edge D(m) 0 1 1 10 10 30 >30 Height from antenna base to building roof H(m) 0.5 2 3 3.5
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GSM1800
Distance from the antenna to the building edge D(m) 0 2 2 10 >10 Height from antenna base to building roof H(m) 0.5 1 2
5.2.2 Antenna Separation in GSM System

To avoid inter-modulation interference, there must be space between the receiver and transmitter of the base station: Tx-Rx: 30dB; Tx-Tx: 30dB. This is also applicable to the shared-address system for GSM900 and GSM1800. The antenna separation is subject to the antenna radiation directional diagram, spatial distance and gain with no regard to the attenuation caused by voltage standing wave ratio. It is worked out as follows: For vertical arrangement layout, v=28+40lg(k/) (dB) For horizontal arrangement layout, Lv=22+20lg(d/)-(G1+G2)-(S1+S2) (dB) Where Lv refers to required separation, is the length of carrier wave, k is vertical separation, d is horizontal separation, G1, G2 are respectively the gains of the transmitting antenna and receiving antenna in their maximum radiation direction (dBi), and S1, S2 are respectively the secondary lobe level of the transmitting antenna and receiving antenna in the direction of 90 (dBp, negative value relative to master beam). Normally, 65 fan-shaped beam antenna S is about -18dBp, 90fan-shaped beam antenna S is -9dBp, and 120 fan-shaped beam antenna S is -7dBp, subject to the special antenna directional diagram. In the event of omni-antenna, S is 0.
The antenna mount for GSM900 and GSM1800 systems should meet the following
requirements: Directional antenna In the same system, the horizontal interval between the two antennas in the same sector is equal to or more than 4m; the horizontal interval between the two antennas in the same sector is equal to or more than 0.5m; Between the two systems, when the two antennas of the same sector are in the same direction, the horizontal interval between the antennas is equal to or more than 1m; The vertical interval of antenna is equal to or more than 0.5 meters; the distance from the antenna base to the enclosing wall on the roof is equal or more than 0.5 meters; The included angle between the line connecting the lower antenna edge with the antenna face pointing to the roof and the horizontal direction is more than 150; The included angle between the connecting line of two antenna mounts and the antenna direction should fall within the following range:
Antenna horizontal plane lobe width 60-70 Included angle between the connecting line of two antenna >40 45 mounts and the antenna direction 90 >55 120 >70
Omni-antenna antenna horizontal interval 10 meters or antenna vertical interval 0.5 meter; the distance from the lower antenna edge to the enclosing wall on the building roof 0.5 meter.
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5.2.3 Antenna Separation Form GSM and CDMA Base Station

The analysis of CDMA and GSM system interference should be based on the relation between the frequency of two systems and their characteristics in transmitting and receiving so as to study the interference in detail. The interference mainly involves the following three aspects: scattering interference, block interference and intermodulation interference. Of these three different interferences, scattering interference plays a major part and has the most effect. Thus it is the key concern in network design. As there is less inter-modulation interference and block interference than the scattering interference, it is not discussed herein. Take the scattering interference of CDMA2000 1X against GSM900 for explanation. Currently, the frequency bands of China Unicoms CDMA2000 1X and the present
GSM900 are as follows: BTS transmission (MHz) GSM900 CDMA 935-960 870-880 890-915 825-835 BTS receiving (MHz)
As the two are too close to each other, interference against each other will easily occur. Mostly, the transmission from CDMA2000 1X will interfere with GSM900, which receives disclosure signal beyond the CDMA band and fall within the channels of GSM receiver, thus raising the noise level of GSM receiver only to worsen GSM uplink, reduce the coverage of the base station, and worsen the network quality. If there is no enough separation between two base stations or the send filter interfering the base station fails to provide enough outband attenuation, then the signals falling into the band width of the interfered base station might be very strong, and thus increase the noise threshold of the receiver. The degree in system performance fall depends on the intensity of interference signals, which in turn remain subject to the performance of the sending unit of interfering base station, the performance of receiving unit of interfered base station, frequency band interval and antenna separation.
The diagram of an interference model is shown as follows:
Figure 5-3 Diagram of Interference Model

Seen from Figure 5-3, the signals output from the amplifier of interference source base station are first filtered by the send filter, then attenuate accordingly due to the separation between two base stations, and finally they are received by the receiver of the interfered base station. The power of scattering interference arriving at the antenna terminal of the interfered base station can be expressed in the following formula:
Ib
PTXAMP
Pattenuation
I isolation
10 lg
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WB int erf ered WB int erf ering
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where, Ib refers to the interference level (dBm)received at the receiving terminal of the interfered base station, PTX-AMP is the power (dBm) output from the interference source amplifier, Pattenuation is the outband suppressed attenuation of the send filter, Iisolation refers to the separation (dB) between base station antennas, WBinterfered is the signal bandwidth of interfered base station, and WBinterfering refers to the measurable bandwidth of interference signals, also understood as the defined bandwidth of the scattering radiation. In figuring out the interference level of the interfered base station, the difference and conversion between the two should be taken into consideration. Regulate the above formula, and we will get: I isolation PTXAMP Pattenuation Ib 10 lg
WB int erf ered WB int erf ering
If the CDMA2000 1X transmitting frequency band is the last one at high end, that is 878.49MHz. CDMA2000 1X amplification output with the scattering falling within 890-915MHz 13dBm/100kHz. The specific measures for realization is to filter and combine each transmitting frequency band using a band-limiting filter with a bandwidth of only 1.23MHz. The band-limiting filter of this kind has great outband attenuation, and attenuates at 890MHz up to 56dB and at 909MHz up to 80dB. All things considered, the worst of all is that the high end of CDMA system interferes with the frequency at the lowest end of GSM system. Then, Iisolation = (-13dBm/100kHz)- 56 - Ib 10lg (200kHz/100kHz)
Ib is the maximum interference level (dBm) received by interference base station allowed at its receiving antenna terminal. To ensure that the sensitivity is not affected, the external interference level is required to be lower than the bottom receiver noise by 10dB. In this case, the affected sensitivity amounts to around 0.5 dB. The bottom noise of GSM receiver is: noise noise coefficient. Suppose the receiver noise coefficient is 8, the density bandwidth bottom noise is expressed in logarithm as follows: 174 noise coefficient scattering interference is: -113-10 -123dBm/200kHz This requires the scattering interference or intermodulation of other systems falling on GSM receiver should be less than this value. Only in this way will it cause serious interference against GSM system. Thus, we can get the following: Iisolation = (-13dBm/100kHz)- 56 - Ib 10lg (200kHz/100kHz) = 57 lg(200000)=-174+53+8 113dBm. Then the possible maximum
= -13 - 56 - (-123dBm/200kHz) + 10lg (200kHz/100kHz) dBm/200kHz
In other words, whether CDMA antenna and GSM900 antenna share a station address, there should be a separation of 57dB between them.
There are many ways to reduce the interference: make the spatial distance between the antennas enough; filter outband channel noises of receiver with the receiver placed on different equipment, such as receiver, multiplexer and separator.
I. On equipment interference
As stipulated in IA/EIA-97 protocol, the scattering interference of CDMA antenna interface falling with the receiving frequency band of GSM900 should be less than -13 dBm/100kHz, that is, CDMA system will cause serious interference against GSM900. On this basis, we consider the problem of interferences between the two and sharedaddress construction in the initial design. To be specific, at each transmitting frequency band, use a band-limiting filter with a bandwidth of 1.23MHz for filtering and
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combination. This band limiting will attenuate greatly outside the band, so as to reduce the requirement for spatial distance.
II. Requirment of antenna separation

To minimize the above interferences, it is required to keep a proper separation between the antennas of two systems. To quote the formula as defined in Section 5.2.2: For vertical arrangement layout, Lv=28+40lg(k/)(dB) For horizontal arrangement layout, Lv=22+20lg(d/)-(G1+G2)-(S1+S2)(dB) Here are several circumstances to explain the requirement on the separation between CDMA and GSM900 antennas: 1) CDMA and GSM900 antennas do not share a station address with antennas installed horizontally opposite each other (or shared-address omni-antenna). Suppose the effective gains between the two antennas in the maximum radiation direction are 10dBi respectively (feeder line loss considered) with interference signals of 890MHz. According to the foregoing analysis, the separation between CDMA2000 1X equipment and GSM should be at least 57dB. According to the above formula, we can get the following: 57=22 20lg(Dh/) (10+10) 180m
The horizontal interval between the two base station antennas d

Effective antenna gain in the direction of radiation (dBi) 10 15 Separation requirement (dB) 57 57
Antenna interval requirement (m) 180 569
2) CDMA and GSM900 antennas share a station address (antennas placed on the same platform and separated horizontally), directional antenna. Suppose GSM900 and CDMA20001X antennas are placed horizontally and both adopt 65 degree antennas; Suppose the antenna gains of GSM and CDMA20001x in the direction of radiation are both 15dBi. 65antenna plane side lobe is about -18dB in the direction of 90 degrees and then the effective gains in the said direction are 15-18 -3dBi. 57=22 20lg(Dh/) (15+15) + ((-18)+ (-18))
According to the above formula, we conclude that the horizontal interval between the antennas is d 9m.
Effective antenna gain in the direction of radiation (dBi) 10 15 Separation requirement (dB) 57 57 Antenna interval requirement (m) 3 9
3) CDMA and GSM900 antenna share a station address (antennas are scattered on different platforms of the iron tower and vertically separated), omni-antenna and directional antenna. 57=28+40lg(k/) From the above formula, we come to an conclusion that the vertical interval between the antennas is d 1.7m.
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What is described above is a way of deduction. In practical networking, we will have to install antennas of other type at shared address, which requires us to figure it out on our own in combination with the equipment indexes. The indexes of importance are as follows: scattering radiation, calculation of interference power of the interference signals against the interfered equipment and calculation of antenna separation.
5.2.4 Antenna Installation Interval

Diversity technology is one of the most effective measures to withstand attenuation. If the two antennas on the plane are 10 wavelengths away from each other, attenuation will be reduced. Although the receiving diversity requires two or more ports, it obviously reduces attenuation, thus reducing the power of a mobile station and improving the transmission quality, which serves as an advantage to the entire system. In the event of space diversity, the distance between the two receiving antennas is 12 18; 1=0.32m (900MHz); 1=0.16m (1800MHz). In general, the horizontal interval between diversity antennas stands at 0.11 times that of the effective height of the antenna. The higher the antenna is installed, its horizontal interval of diversity antenna will be greater. But when antenna interval is 6m, it is very difficult to install an antenna to the tower. In addition, for diversity reception, vertical separation is required to stand at 5 6 times that of the same diversity gain. Generally, in actual project, we do not adopt vertical diversity but vertical separation, especially for omni-antenna. When the effective installation height of diversity antenna is less than 30m, and diversity antenna interval is less than 3m, the two pairs of antenna are within each others near field, thus distorting the antenna directional diagram. In order to keep the fluctuation of directional diagram caused by the effect of the two antennas upon each other below 2dB, the diversity distance should be more than 3 meters in the event of any antenna effective height. In addition, attention should be paid to the following in the event of space diversity: to cover a highroad, we generally make the connecting line (diversity plane) of two receiving antennas perpendicular to the highroad.
Note:
space diversity distance(4--6m for GSM) actual installed distance
Figure 5-4 Diagram of Antenna Space Diversity Distance The following table shows the requirement for GSM antenna interval (suppose there is no barrier between the antennas; in practical project, for example, the iron tower holds up between all omni-antennas, the horizontal interval can be reduced obviously):
Omni-antenna:
Separation requirement: TX-TX, TX-RX: 30dB Vertical interval Horizontal interval (recommended) Remark
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Design of Radio Network Antenna from tower 2m Antenna from tower2m Antenna from tower2m Antenna from tower2m Antenna from tower2m
GSM900: TX-TX, TX-RX GSM1800: TX-TX, TX-RX GSM900+GSM1800: TX-TX, TX-RX GSM900: RX-RX GSM1800: RX-RX
0.5m 0.25m 0.5m Diversity requirement: -----------
Gain=10dBi: 10m Gain=10dBi: 5m Gain=10dBi: 1m
4m(recommended 6m) 2m(recommended 3m)
Directional antenna:
Required separation between TX-TX, TX-RX: 30dB Antenna of the same sector Vertical interval Horizontal interval GSM900: TX-TX, TX-RX 0.5m 4m Remark No effect of the iron tower structure in antenna forwarding direction No effect of the iron tower structure in antenna forwarding direction Remark
GSM1800: TX-TX, TX-RX
0.25m
2m Horizontal interval 0.5m 0.5m
Adjacent sector antenna (placed on the same Vertical interval platform) GSM900: TX-TX/TX-RX -----GSM1800: TX-TX/TX-RX ----Diversity requirement GSM900: RX-RX ------
4m (recommended 6m) 2m (recommended 3m)
GSM1800: RX-RX
------
No effect of the iron tower structure in antenna forwarding direction No effect of the iron tower structure in antenna forwarding direction
GSM900 and GSM1800 are installed in flexible forms, but whatever the form, GSM900 antenna and GSM1800 antenna shall meet the aforementioned requirements for their respective interval.
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5.3 Link Budget

After the project parameters for the base station are specified, it is necessary to work out a link budget in order to further estimate its coverage. At this moment, it is required to consider the sensitivity of the base station equipment selected. In mobile communication system, the radio link is divided into uplink and downlink. An excellent system should implement power budgeting in design, so as to strike a balance between the uplink signals and downlink signals within the coverage area. Otherwise, if the uplink signal coverage is greater than the downlink signal coverage, and the downlink signals on the edge of cell are relatively weaker, such signals will easily be engulfed by the strong signals from other cells; if the downlink signal coverage is greater than the uplink signal coverage, the mobile station will be forced to wait under this coverage, but the uplink signals are too weak and thus the voice quality is not good enough. Of course, balance is not necessarily absolute equality. From the survey report on Abis interface, we can judge clearly whether there is a balance between the uplink and downlink signals. Normally, when the level difference between the uplink and downlink signals reaches the sensitivity difference between base station receiver and mobile phone receiver, it is deemed that a balance is reached. However, as the fading of uplink and downlink channels is not totally the same, and as a result of such factors as the difference in receiver noise deterioration performance, this difference will generally fluctuate within a range of 2-3dB.
5.3.1 Link Budget Model
Figure 5-5 Link Estimation Model To figure out uplink and downlink balance, it is necessary to take into account of a very important component. The active parts of the bases station receiving system and the thermal movement in RF conductor will cause heat noises, which reduce the signalto-noise ratio (S/N) of system reception, so that it restricts the base station sensitivity from rising and reduces the communication quality. The principle for tower amplifier is to add a low noise amplifier at the front end of base station receiving system, i.e. close to the receiving antenna, so as to improve the receiving performance of the base station.
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In terms of technical principle, the tower amplification is to reduce the noise coefficient of base station receiving system so as to improve the service quality inside the service area. In this way, it functions to improve the receiving performance of the base station. The contributions made by the power amplifier to the uplink shall be distinguished in light of the performance of its own low noise amplifier rather than only based on the gains. Normally, the uplink and downlink balance with amplifier added should be modified and worked out according to the test method for its practical sensitivity.
I. No tower amplifier
Without a tower amplifier, the input interface of the multiplexer on top of the cabinet should be taken as the reference point for sensitivity. For a downlink signal link, the power of base station transmitter is Poutb, the combiner loss is Lcb, feeder line loss is Lfb, base station antenna gain is Gab, the loss of space transmission is Ld, the mobile station antenna gain is Gam, the receiving level of the mobile station is Pinm, its fading margin is Mf and the noise deterioration at the side of mobile station is Pmn. Then it follows: Pinm+Mf=Poutb-Lcb-Lfb+Gab-Ld+Gam-Pmn (1)
For uplink signal link, the output power of the mobile station transmitter is Poutm, base station diversity receives a gain of Gdb, the receiving level of the base station is Pinb and noise deterioration at the side of mobile station is Pbn. In accordance with the principle of reciprocity, the gain received and sent by the antenna is equal. Then it follows: Pinb+Mf=Poutm+Gam-Ld+Gab+Gdb-Lfb-Pbn Normally, Pmn (2)
Pbn, after consolidation, the following equation appears
Poutb=Poutm+Gdb+(Pinm-Pinb)+Lcb
( 3)
II. With tower amplifier

The tower amplifier input interface is taken as the reference point for sensitivity if there is a tower amplifier. It is not necessary to consider the loss of uplink feeder line, thus Equation (3) will change to Equation (4): Poutb=Poutm+Gdb+(Pinm-Pinb)+Lcb+Lfb (4)
5.3.2 Reference point for base station sensitivity

I. Definition of sensitivity
Receiver sensitivity refers to the minimum signal level needed to be input from the receiver input terminal under the circumstances where the receiver meets certain bit error rate. To measure receiver sensitivity aims to check the performance of receiver analog RF circuit, intermediate frequency circuit, and modulation and decoder circuit. Performances to measure receiver error bit rate are the three parameters including FER, RBER and BER. When the function of bit error detection in the receiver indicates a frame is at fault, this frame will be defined as deleted. FER is defined as the ratio of the deleted frames to the frames received. For full rate voice channel, this is normally caused when 3-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) detects errors or bad frame indication (BFI) arising from other processing functions occurs. For signaling channel,
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this is usually caused when the Fire code (FIRE) or other group codes detect errors. No definition of FER is available for data services. RBER is defined as the bit error rate of those not announced as deleted frames. That is the ratio of number of bit errors in the fame detected as good to the total number of bits transmitted in good frames. Bit error rate (BER) is defined as the ratio of bit errors received to all the data bits transmitted. As channel bit error rate is random, we normally measure the receiver bit error rate by statistical measurement. That is, conduct several sample measurements on each channel. When the number of sample measurements is definite, and the bit error rate gained from every measurement falls within a certain range of test errors, it is deemed that bit error rate of this channel has met the requirement on bit error rate as stipulated. The limit value of sampled number and test bit error should meet the following requirements: (1) For each independent sample test, the times through a bad unit should be kept as low as possible (probability lower than0.2%); (2) For each independent sample test, there is a high possibility of passing through a bad unit probability higher than 99.7%}; (3) The measurement involves the statistical characteristic of height; (4) The time for test should be reduced to the minimum. As a result, we can measure the receiver sensitivity by measuring if the receiver bit error rate meets the requirements as stipulated while inputting sensitivity level to the receiver. In light of different transmission conditions, the requirements for reference sensitivity level under two conditions are stipulated with respect to receiver sensitivity: static reference sensitivity level and multi-path reference sensitivity level. Lets talk about the requirements and measurement for these two kinds sensitivity level in GSM system as follows. Static reference sensitivity level Static reference sensitivity level of a receiver is the signal level added by a standard test signal to the receiver input terminal. At this point, of the data produced after receiver demodulation and channel decoding, its FER, RBER or BER is better than or equal to the value stipulated under static transmission condition for a specified type of channel (such as FACCH, SDCCH, RACH and TCH). Multi-path reference sensitivity level Multi-path reference sensitivity level of a receiver is the signal level of a standard test signal at the receiver input terminal. At this point, of the data produced after receiver demodulation and channel decoding, its FER, RBER or BER is better than or equal to the value stipulated under multi-path transmission condition for the specified type of channel (such as FACCH, SDCCH, RACH and TCH). Typical multi-path transmission conditions include TU50 (at a urban car speed of 50km/h), RA250 (at a speed of 250km/h in rural areas) and HT100 (at a speed of 100km/h in hill environment) etc. Besides, attention should be paid to the following differences in defining the sensitivity: without diversity sensitivity, with diversity sensitivity; the difference in bit error and error frame indicator under the status of frequency hopping and no frequency hopping.
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II. Sensitivity test point in the event of tower amplifier
Figure 5-6 Sensitivity Test on Base Station with Tower Amplifier
Fi
III. Sensitivity test point without tower amplifier
Figure 5-7 Sensitivity test of base station without tower amplifier
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5.4
Design of Coverage Area

In practical project planning, the effective coverage of base station is subject to the following factors: effective transmitting power of base station, the work frequency band (900MHz and 1800MHz) used, the type and position of antenna, power budget, radio transmission environment and the coverage indexes required by the equipment buyer. Lets combine the requirement on service quality index for mobile communication network (for example), and through examples, give the coverage of base station theoretically under various coverage requirements.
Application environment Minimum receiving power (dBm) Other indexes Mobile phone sensitivity -102 dBm, fast fading protection 3dB, slow fading protection (indoors) 7dB (slow normal divergency, indoor 7dB, outdoors 8dB, reachability of 90% within the coverage area), penetration loss of 18dB, interference noise of 2dB, environmental noise fading protection 2dB. Mobile phone sensitivity -102 dBm, fast fading protection 3dB, slow fading protection 5dB, penetration loss of 10dB, interference noise of 2dB, environmental noise protection 2dB. Mobile phone sensitivity -102 dBm, fast fading protection 3dB, slow fading protection 5dB, interference noise of 2dB, environmental noise protection 2dB.
Received by mobile phone, inside the building Received by mobile phone, in a small sleeper car or inside the room on the first floor of an ordinary building Outdoors
-70
-80
-90
Suppose: GSM900 and GSM1800 base station antennas are both 30 meters high; The sensitivity of GSM900 2W (33dBm) mobile station is -102dBm, and -100dBm for 1800 1W (30dBm) mobile station; The mobile station antenna is as high as 1.5 meters with a gain of 0dB; When M900 uses CDU, its sensitivity is -110dBm; and M1800 sensitivity is -108dBm; CDU insertion loss is 5.5dB, SCU insertion loss is 6.8dB; 65-degree directional antenna gain is 13dBd (M900) and 16dBd (M1800); The feeder line is as long as 50m, 4.03dBm/100 meters (900MHz), and 5.87dB/100 meters (1800MHz); Select Okumura transmission model; Ordinary urban environment. The calculation results are as follows: (1) M900 outdoors coverage radius in urban areas Mobile phone minimum receiving level is Pmr min = 90dBm. Coverage radius should be the maximum transmitting power of TRX. The maximum transmitting power of M900 W (46dBm). TRX amounts to 40 The effective radiation power of base station antenna is:
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EIRP = Pbt L com L bf + Ga b = 46 5.5 2.01 + 13 + 2.15 = 53.65dBm

Where L com is combiner loss, L bf is feeder line loss and Ga b is the gain of base station antenna, and maximum transmission loss possible is:
L p = EIRP Pmr min = 53.65 (90 ) = 143.65dB
According to Okumura transmission model as described above:

L p = 69.55 + 26.16 lg f 13.82 lg h b + (44.90 6.55 lg h b ) lg d A h m
where h b refers to the height of base station antenna, phone antenna, and f =900MHz.
h m is the height of mobile
A h m = (1.1 lg f 0.7 )h m (1.56 lg f 0.8 ) = 0.01dB

Substitute the above equation with each known member, and the result is d = 2.8km. (2) M900 inside a building in urban area Mobile phone minimum receiving level Pmr min = 70dBm.
L p = EIRP Pmr min = 53.65 (70 ) = 123.65dB

d = 0.75km This indicates the base station can cover an area of 2.8km in radius, but for the users on the first floor of a building 750m away from the base station, the reception quality falls short of the requirement. (3) M900 coverage radius in the suburbs mobile phone minimum receiving level Pmr min = 90dBm
L p = EIRP Pmr min = 53.65 (90 ) = 143.65dB

Okumura transmission model for urban areas should be modified as follows:
L p = 69.55 + 26.16 lg f 13.82 lg h b + (44.90 6.55 lg h b ) lg d A h m 2[lg(f/28 )] 2 5.4
So d = 5.4km
It is obvious that in terms of the same configuration of base station, the coverage radius base station in the suburb is better than that in the urban area. (4) M1800 outdoor coverage radius in the urban area mobile phone minimum receiving level Pmr min = 90dBm. As the maximum transmitting power of M1800 TRX amounts to 40W(46dBm), the coverage radius should be the maximum transmitting power of TRX.
EIRP = Pbt L com L bf + Ga b = 46 5.5 2.93 + 16 + 2.15 = 55.73dBm L p = EIRP Pmr min = 145.73dB
For 1800MHz, Okumura transmission model is:

L p = 46.3 + 33.9 lg f 13.82 lg h b + (44.90 6.55 lg h b ) lg d A hm
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Besides, f = 1800 MHz, A h m = (1.1 lg f 0.7 )h m (1.56 lg f 0.8 ) = 0.04dB

Substitute the above expression with each known member, and the result will be d = 1.7km. (5) M1800 inside the room of an urban building mobile phone minimum receiving level Pmr min = 70dBm.
L p = EIRP Pmr min = 55.73 (70 ) = 125.73dB

d = 0.46km. This indicates the base station is able to cover an area of 1.7km in radius, but for the users on the first floor of a building 500m away from the base station, the reception quality falls short of the requirement. The said results are summarized in the following table:
Mobile phone minimum receiving power (dBm) -70 -90 -90 -90 -70
Application environment M900 Inside the room of a building Outdoors in urban areas In the suburbs Outdoors in urban areas Inside the room of a building
TRX transmitting power (W) 40 40 40 40 40
Coverage radius (km) 0.75 2.80 5.40 1.70 0.46
M1800
From the table, it is clear that the coverage of M1800 is less than that of M900 and the coverage of an urban base station is less than that in the suburb.
5.5
Capacity Distribution
5.5.1 Voice channel distribution

The capacity of base station refers to the number of channels to be configured for a base station or a cell. It involves the number of radio voice channels and number of control channels. According to the range of base station or cell and user density distribution, figure out the total number of users, and then according to the index for radio channel call loss and traffic, refer to Erl B table and work out the number of voice channels to be configured. (1) According to the bandwidth and multiplexing mode currently used for GSM network within the planned area, we can get the maximum CF number to be configured with a base station; (2) Each CF has 8 channels; minus the number of control channels, we will get the maximum number of voice channels to be configured with each base station; (3) According to the number of voice number and call loss index (generally 2% for dense traffic area and 5% for other areas), refer to Erl B table, and get the maximum traffic a base station is able to load (Erl number); (4) Divide this Erl number by the average user traffic when busy, and you will get the maximum number of users a base station is able to satisfy;
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(5) Using the data for user density, we may find out the coverage area of this base station; (6) When a region with different user density are specified, we can work out the number of base stations to be configured through the area of the region with this user density and the actual coverage area of the base station as known above; (7) For important places, it is necessary to consider the backup of base station and the realization of CF mutual aid function; at least two base stations are needed for an important county and at least two CF for an important sector; (8) For areas with possible bursting traffic (competition venues and seasonal tourist resorts etc.), the resources for equipment (carrier frequency, microcell etc.) and frequency resources should be reserved in advance; (9) Such dynamic factors as roaming ratio, user mobility factor, new service development (GPRS, WAP and SMS etc.), industry competition, rate change, one-way toll and economic growth should be taken into account; (10) To configure a base station, it is necessary to consider ABIS interface transmission, such as the use of ABIS interface at 15:1 and 12:1 and cascading etc., and save transmission while meeting the capacity; (11) Actively adopt cellular system plus distributed antennas to meet the urban coverage and capacity; use economical micro base stations to provide coverage for rural areas and high roads and use HDSL for transmission in these areas; (12) Reserve in advance some CF, micro cells and micro base stations to cover newly developed areas and for the selection in the optimization period; (13) In some special areas, base stations made up of omni-directional/directional mixed cells can be used to give full reign to their respective edges in coverage and capacity. In this case, attention should be paid to the separation between the omniantenna and directional antenna. Installation in light of layers is preferred; in terms of traffic control, algorithm in light of layers can be used for control; (14) For some highroads requiring little traffic but large coverage, we may resort to 0.5+0.5 cell networking mode with single CF micro base station + power divider + two sets of directional antennas. Erl traffic model is used to work out the traffic density a network is capable of bearing. Call loss may be 2% or 5% in light of practical conditions. Erl B table is shown as follows:
CF number for each cell 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TCH number 6 14 21 29 36 44 52 59 67 75 2% 2.27 8.2 14.03 21.03 27.33 34.68 42.1 48.7 56.25 63.9 Traffic (Erl) 5% 2.96 9.73 16.18 23.82 30.65 38.55 46.53 53.55 61.63 69.73
From the above table, we can see that the larger the number of cell CF, the large the call loss rate. The larger traffic each TCH is able to bear, the higher utilization rate of TCH channel is. Channel utilization rate is an important indicator for assessing the quality of planning and design. If the number of users in a base station is too small, the construction unit will generally consider delaying the construction of this base station.
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As a result of the limit on cell coverage and usable frequency bandwidth, it is necessary to plan the cell capacity in a rational way in an effort to improve the channel utilization rate under the precondition of ensuring sound voice quality. In considering the share of traffic between these two in constructing a dual frequency network, wider frequency bandwidth can be used to realize high utilization rate of the channel. It is discovered in practical application that when the actual traffic via each line of a base station cell reaches 85% 90% of TCH traffic (call loss 2%) given in Erl B table, the probability of congestion in this base station cell will obviously rise. As a result, we generally take 85% of the traffic as defined in Erl B table as the reference for the traffic density a computer network is able to bear. These data estimated for traffic capacity needs to be counted and completed gradually in the course of network construction.
I. Example:
The capacity of local network requires expansion. In accordance with service development and in combination of population growth and network popularization, users will reach 100,000 in 2 years; considering roaming factor (according to traffic statistics and development trend) 10%, mobile factor (It mainly refers to the users moves within the local network instead of roaming) 10%, dynamic factor 15% (with bursting traffic considered), then we know that the network capacity as required is 10* (1+10%+10%+15%)=135,000; however, in consideration of congestion, we generally use 85% of the traffic as given in Erl B table as the reference for the traffic density that the computer is able to bear; as a result, the designed network capacity is 13.5/(85%)=158,800, i.e. 160,000.
5.5.2 Configuration of control channel

I. SDCCH distribution
In GSM system, most of the time during the general call creation process and position update process, the mobile station works on SDCCH channel. The following table is the configuration principles recommended for SDCCH.
TRX number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 General configuration (SDCCH/8 + SDCCH/4) SDCCH/4 SDCCH/8 SDCCH/8 + SDCCH/4 SDCCH/8 + SDCCH/4 2*SDCCH/8 2*SDCCH/8 2*SDCCH/8+SDCCH/4 3*SDCCH/8 Configuration of the edge of location area SDCCH/4 SDCCH/8 SDCCH/8 + SDCCH/4 2*SDCCH/8 2*SDCCH/8 2*SDCCH/8+SDCCH/4 3*SDCCH/8 3*SDCCH/8 General configuration (use Immediate ass. on TCH) SDCCH/4 SDCCH/4 SDCCH/8 SDCCH/8 SDCCH/4 + SDCCH/8 2*SDCCH/8 2*SDCCH/8 SDCCH/4 + 2 * SDCCH/8
It is very difficult to sum up a traffic model for SDCCH channel. In particular, it even becomes almost impossible to do so after the large-scale application of layered network and short messages. Fortunately, the equipment of some manufactures at the present supports SDCCH dynamic allocation. SDCCH channel dynamic allocation enables the dynamic adjustment of SDCCH capacity, so as to reduce the congestion of SDCCH channel congestion, reduce the effect of SDCCH channel initial configuration on system performance and increase the system capacity. This function mainly involves the following aspects: dynamic allocation from SDCCH to TCH channel and restoration from SDCCH to TCH channel. Use dynamic allocation algorithm, and determine whether to perform dynamic configuration according to the input parameters: at a point when the cells SDCCH chancel is busy and the number of idle TCH channels exceeds a certain value, then the idle TCH channels will be
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converted to SDCCH channels according to corresponding setting. After a while, when the cells SDCCH channel stays idle, BSC will restore SDCCH channel dynamically allocated to TCH channel.
II. CCCH allocation

Public control channels mainly include AGCH, PCH and RACH intended to send access grant (i.e. immediate assignment) and paging message. All service channels of each cell share CCCH channel. CCCH channel may either share the same physical channel (one time slot) with SDCCH or solely use a physical channel. The related CCCH channel parameters include the following: [CCCH configuration], [number of access grant reserved channels], [frame number coding between identical paging]. [CCCH configuration] serves to designate the type of CCCH channel configuration, i.e. Whether to share a physical channel with SDCCH channel. In the case of 1 or 2 TRX in the cell, it is recommended that CCCH channel occupy one physical channel and share it with SDCCH; in the case of 3 or 4 TRX, it is recommended that CCCH channel occupy one physical channel and does not share it with SDCCH channel; in the case of more than 4 TRX, it is recommended to work out the capacity of paging channel in CCCH and perform specific configuration. [number of access grant reserved channels]decides the ratio occupied by paging channel and access grant channel on CCCH. The two parameters of [number of access grant reserved channels] and [CCCH configuration] determine the capacity of access grant channels. The value of [number of access grant reserved channel} in principle is: on the precondition of ensuring the access grant channel is not overloaded, minimize the said parameter as much as possible in order to shorten the time for mobile station to respond to paging, so as to improve the service performance of the system. [frame number coding between identical paging]decides how many paging subchannels the paging group of a cell is divided into. In this way, along with [CCCH channel configuration] and [number of access grant reserved channels] jointly determines the total number of paging sub-channels in a cell. As each subscriber to the mobile station (corresponding to each IMSI) belongs to a paging group, every paging group in each cell corresponds to a paging sub-channel. The mobile station will work out the paging group where it belongs in light of its own IMSI. After that, it works out the position of the paging sub-channels belonging to the said paging group. In practical network, the mobile station only listens in the contents in the paging subchannel it belongs to with no regard to the contents in other paging sub-channels.
5.6
Location Area Design
5.6.1 Definition of location area

Under GSM protocol, the entire mobile communication network is divided into difference service areas in light of different location area codes, and the network calls the entire location area in order to call the mobile user. The functions of a location area are described as follows: call connection with mobile users should be created at the side of network. It is necessary to record the location information about the said mobile user at any time, so that the user may be called when necessary. The basic information about the current location of local registered users (information about MSC/VLR where the user is connected) is kept in the equipment at network side; MSC/VLR, the equipment at network side, keeps the basic information and location information about all the mobile users stationed currently under this MSC (information about specific location area); SIM cards of mobile subscribers store the location
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information of these users (specific information about location area). When a mobile station is in service, after locked to a broadcast channel, compare the location information, that is, compare to check if the location area information stored in SIM card is consistent with that delivered by the broadcast channel. If inconsistent, the mobile station will start up location update. The task of location update is to register new location area in the current MSC/VLR. If MSC/VLR is discovered to have changed, it is then necessary to send signaling to the registration place to modify MSC/VLR information in HLR and delete old MSC/VLR information. When the mobile station is in standby state, it will continuously intercept the location area information of broadcast channels. Once it discovers the location information in SIM card is inconsistent with the location information delivered by the broadcast channel, it will start up location update without delay. When the mobile station is in communication state, it will intercept the location information delivered by an associated channel. When it discovers the location information stored in SIM card is inconsistent with the information delivered from the associated channel, after the communication is over, it will start up location update immediately. To ensure the paging to mobile subscriber is not lost, it is requested that the location information kept in HLR, VLR and SIM card is consistent with each other at any time. Location area is a basic unit underlying GSM system, that is, the paging message will be delivered on the basis of location area with the paging messages of one mobile user in the location area delivered to all the cells. One location area may include one or multiple BSC but it belongs to a single MSC, as shown in Figure 5-8.
PLMN MSC
CELL CELL
MSC
LA
CELL CELL CELL CELL
LA
CELL CELL
CELL CELL
LA
CELL CELL
CELL CELL
LA
CELL CELL
Figure 5-8 Division of service areas
5.6.2 Division of location areas

To specify the location of a mobile station, the coverage of each GSM PLMN will be divided into many location areas. The size of location area (i.e. coverage of one location area code LAC) is a very key factor in the system. The following is the principles for location area planning: (1) Location area cannot be divided into over large or over small areas. If LAC covers a too small area, the mobile station will undergo an increase in location update processes, thus increasing the signaling flow in the system; on the contrary, if the location area covers a too large range, then the same paging message in the network paging mobile station will be delivered in many cells, thus leading to the overload of PCH channel, and increasing the signaling flow at Abis interface. The calculation of location areas is related to the paging strategies of different manufacturers. Refer to calculation of location area as described in the next section for details. Generally, it is recommended that the number of TRX in each location area
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is around 300. In the initial stage where the network is first constructed, as there is no much traffic, the number of TRX one LAC is able to accommodate may be greater than this value; however, it is very necessary to monitor PCH load and traffic growth in the long run. Of course, to add a slave BCCH channel may increase PCH capacity effectively at a sacrifice of one voice channel. (2) Perform LAC area division in light of the geographic distribution and action of mobile subscribers, so as to reach the goal that there is fewer location updates on the edge of the location area. In the event of discontinuous coverage between the suburb and the urban area, it is likely that mobile phone fails to perform location update when the update time is due at the cyclic position. After the protection time (generally set in MSC) the system will consider IMSI undergoes hidden separation. If this goes to the urban area, the LAC in the urban area is consistent with that in the suburb, and then some mobile phones will not perform normal location update immediately. Thus there arise some signals, which are not in the service areas. As a result, in allocation of location arrears, the location areas used for ordinary suburbs (counties) are different from those in urban areas. For this reason, the location areas are distributed in the way of a concentric circle (the urban area in the inner circle may be divided into several location areas due to capacity factor. Inside the circle, the division may adopt the method in light of sections or another inner and external ring or mixed way), so as to avoid the above phenomena. Practice has proved that the LAC division in this way may not only decrease users not in the service area but also improve the completion rate and call successful rate, as shown in Figure 5-9:
Figure 5-9 Diagram of LAC Division

In addition, in big cities with high traffic, if there are more than two location areas, such geographic factors as mountains and rivers in the urban areas can be used as the boundary of location areas, so as to reduce the overlapping depth of different cells under the two location areas. In the event of no such geographic environment, streets should not be taken as the boundary for dividing location areas, and the boundary shall not put in a place with high traffic (such as shopping malls). Generally, it is required that the boundary of location area should not be parallel or perpendicular to
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the streets but in oblique crossing. In the areas where the urban area meets the suburb, the boundary of a location area should be located at the place of base station on the outskirts, instead of at the place where the city proper adjoins the suburb with dense traffic, so as to avoid the users in this area updating their locations very frequently. A dual-frequency network requires more in respect of location area division. Here is some experience in the construction of a dual-frequency network with regard to the division of location area: (1) If M1800 and M900 use a MSC separately, their location areas will surely differ. It is required to make the mobile station stay in M1800 cell, which absorbs traffic by setting parameters, so as to reduce the switch and repeated selection between the two frequency bands. At the same time, the load brought to the system arising from location update should be taken into full account in designing signaling channels. (2) If M1800 and M900 share in one MSC, in the initial period of network construction, as long as the system capacity permits, it is recommended to use the same location area; if it is necessary to divide it into two or more location areas due to limited paging capacity, there are two ways of design: divided in light of geographic locations and frequency bands. Refer to Figure 5-10 and Figure 5-11 for details.
Figure 5-10 Divide Location Areas in Light of Frequency Band
900 Cell
900 Cell
900 Cell
900 Cell
1800 Cell
1800 1800 Cell
1800 Cell
1800 Cell
1800 Cell
LA1
LA2
Divide location areas in light of geographic locations
Figure 5-11 Divide Location Areas in Light of Geographic Locations
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To divide location areas in light of frequency band requires setting parameters in consideration of frequent update due to the switch and repeated selection between two frequency bands, so that the mobile station will remain in M1800 cell, which absorbs traffic, so as to reduce the switch and repeated selection between the two frequency bands. At the same time, the load brought to the system arising from location update should be taken into full account in designing signaling channels. To divide location areas in light of geographic locations may serve to solve the problem of frequent location update arising from dual frequency switch and repeated selection, but it is necessary to modify the office data of the previous M900 network. At the same time, on the boundary of a location area, there exist the location updates caused by the switch and repeated selection at the same frequency band and dual frequency band, thus there is much signaling flow, it is required to design the location area boundary carefully.
5.6.3 Calculation of location areas

I. For non-combination BCCH
(1) Purpose Work out the number of users or CF number one location area accommodates. (2) Prerequisite (a) All the cells are configured with a non-combination BCCH (b) Number of reserved access grant blocks is A Note: Paging block is 9-A 1 frame=4.615ms, 1multiframe=51frame=0.2354s, that is, there are 1/0.2354=4.25 frames within 1 second; the number of paging blocks is: 4.25(9-A) (c) The number of paging messages in each paging block is B: Note: Paging times each paging block is able to deliver; Ratio of TMSI to IMSI in paging X(Y/(Y+1))1 paging sub-block +X(1/(Y+1))2 paging sub-block = 4 X=4(Y+1)/(Y+2)
Message sub-block number of each paging (d) Paging resending ratio is C (e) Time length of average call is D (unit: second)
(f) Caller: called: received point-to-point short message = E: E: F Note: Each paging block consists of 23 bytes, which can send: 2 IMSI pages; 2 TMSI and 1 IMSI page;
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4 TMSI pages Call times corresponding to each page (caller or called) is: (2*E)/(E+F) (g) Traffic of each user when busy G (unit: Erl) (h) In consideration of the distribution of paging commands, we think when it exceeds 30%, the paging channel will undergo congestion. (i) Each TRX has 7.2 TCH on the average, and the maximum of traffic of each TRX on the average within 1 hour is 7.2 (3) Formula Traffic in each location area: 4.25(9-A)B30%2ED/[(E+F)C] Number of users in each location area: possible traffic in each location area/G CF number in each location area: possible traffic in each location area/7.2 Note: If some CF does not aim to improve traffic but to meet its coverage, the number of CF it can support can be improved; If short messages burst suddenly, then the paging amount will increase with supported users on the decline, which may require flow control protection; Traffic models in different areas and different periods are different, so each parameter should be submitted with different value. (4) Example If the number of reserved access grant blocks is 2, then 1 multiframe has (9-2)=7 paging block and 4.257=29.7 paging blocks can be sent within 1 second. Suppose IMSI and TMSI paging occupies half, then each paging block is able to send 8/3 pages. Then a maximum of 29.78/3 = 79.2 pages may be delivered within 1 second. That is, 79.2360030%=85536 pages can be delivered within 1 hour. Suppose MSC paging resend ratio is 1.1, i.e. it supports 85536/1.1 = 77760 pages. Suppose the duration of each call is 60S, then the traffic for 1 call is 60/3600=0.017ERL. Suppose caller: called: short message (received) = 5:5:1, Then 0.017ERL corresponds to 6/10 page, and it may support 57024 calls. 77760/0.60.017=2203.2ERL If the traffic for each user when busy is 0.03, it may support 2203.2/0.03=73440 users, And supports CF of 2203.2/7.2=306TRX.
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II. For combined BCCH, supported number of CF will decrease. III. For multiple BCCH, the number of supported CF will increase.
With a view to different traffic density, it is recommended to combine BCCH cells, BCCH cells and multiple BCCH cells to make up a location area separately. Generally speaking, it is necessary to consult with the operators in respect of the planning for location areas for specification. Domestically, Numbering Rules and Post & Telecommunications 900-1800 Technical System should be the reference for principles for CGI and CI coding.
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5.7 Design of Indoor Coverage System

Currently, the indoor coverage mainly depends on the extension of existing outdoor coverage, such as the mode of direct station, outdoor high-power base station and highly installed antenna. However, these solutions will lead to the following problems: As wall penetration involves a large loss and indoor coverage renders bad effect, there will be a large number of blind spots impossible for communication. Direct station mode requires much on source level and both the intermodulation interference and co-frequency interference are serious in bad communication quality at high rate of call drops. Capacity problem fails to be solved fundamentally. The network capacity is limited at a low call successful rate. It affects the planning of frequency for the entire network. It is difficult to increase the network capacity. Serious detached island effect As a result of quality and capacity, the development of value-added services for group users is restricted (such as GPRS data service) To improve the service level, it is urgently needed to solve the problem of indoor coverage. In the design intended for a solution to indoor coverage, we need to consider the following problems: Try to avoid the effect of newly-built indoor system on the existing network, so as to distinguish indoor from outdoor How to provide sufficient indoor network capacity Support new services and new functions Here is an analysis in terms of design of indoor antenna system, capacity design and frequency plan.
5.7.1 Design of indoor antenna system

I. RF design
(1) Link budget For indoor coverage, the formula for link budget is as follows:
Pant = MS sens + RFm arg + IFm arg + BL + LNFm arg + L path G ant
P a n t = antenna input interface power
MS sens = 104dBm
equipment receiving sensitivity
RFm arg =
rayleigh fading margin
IFm arg = access margin (dependent on environment) LNFm arg =

design access, generally 5dB
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B L= human body loss 900MHz 5dB 1800/1900MHz 3dB G ant = antenna gain
L path =Path loss

Where path loss Lpath is: Lpath 32.5+20logd (km)+20logf (MHz)+ In the formula: Free space loss Lp 32.5+20logd (km)+20logf (MHz)
: Loss of other objects, floor and impediments; here are values of some typical penetration loss: Partition wall block: 5~20dB Floor block: 20dB 2~15dB
Block of furniture and other impediments: Thick glass: 6~10dB
The penetration loss of train carriages: 15~30dB Penetration loss of lifts: 30dB or so Loss of signals from fixed signal source at the track curve of tunnels: 10~40dB /km Loss of oblong tunnels: 10~15dB/km The loss of column tunnel is 35~40dB/km, and thus tunnels usually use disclosure cables for coverage During the course of link budgeting, it is necessary to take the following key factors into account: in an indoor multi-antenna system, the link budget for test points is usually based on the link with minimum path loss; in the same coverage area, it is ensured if possible that the effective radiation power (EIRP) of each antenna interface is consistent with its error kept within 10dB; the level of designed level is quite high, and thus it is not necessary to use antenna diversity to improve the density of uplink signals; to reduce uplink interferences, it is necessary to configure the maximum transmitting power for mobile phone and meanwhile enable the function of dynamic power control of the mobile phone; in link budgeting, it is necessary to preserve some margins in preparation for design error correction and the extension of antenna system in the future; in estimating and designing interference margins, the margins will differ in light of the distance away from the external walls of the building. The closer to the external wall, the designed interference margins will be larger. (2) Service quality design (degree of being interfered) The degrees of being interfered in respect of an indoor cell are described as follows:
The building where the indoor cell is located is at the same height as the surrounding buildings; Frequency multiplexing 12 The outdoor system covers the area where indoor cells are located not effectively; The indoor system possesses dedicated frequency involving little cell frequency multiplexing.
Little interference
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Design of Radio Network General interference Degree in interference
The use of environment and frequency between the two The building where indoor cells are located is a high-rise compared with the surrounding buildings Frequency multiplexing 9
The actual interference level will vary with the change of network layout and the fresh planning of frequency; the actual interference level can be obtained through field test. (3) Service quality design (interference design margin) The higher the interference degree is, there are more interference design margins (IFmarg) within the said area, and the higher the level that mobile phone needs to receive, as shown in the following table. What needs to be noted is, in adopting indoor dual-frequency system, the mobile phone will receive the designed level according to the indexes as defined in 1800 system.
Actual level interference degree Major interference degree Medium interference degree Minor interference degree Receiving level the mobile phone requires (dBm) -65 -75 -85
II. Antenna system design

The concept for the design of indoor distributed system is as follows: first survey the type, structure, indoor structure, interference environment and service targets (general public/business group users) with respect to the building, and then analyze the path loss; set antennas in light of different areas (type, number and place for installation). Hereunder are the antenna design guidelines for some typical areas: (1) Guideline for the antenna wiring in a single cell When a single cell achieves the building coverage, each antenna should be configured to ensure the equal distribution of signals within the coverage area of the cell. Generally, it is recommended to install the antennas in a zigzag way, as shown in Figure 5-12.
Figure 5-12 Guideline for Antenna Wiring in a Single Cell (2) Antenna Wiring Guideline for Multiple Cells When multiple cells achieve the building indoor coverage, it is necessary to note that there must be some interval between co-frequency multiplexing cells. Each antenna
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should be configured likewise to ensure the equal distribution of signals within the coverage area of the cell. If it involves compact frequency multiplexing, to ensure sound service quality, it is generally recommended to install the antennas between different layers in the same position, as shown in Figure 5-13.
Figure 5-13 Guideline for Antenna Wiring in Multiple Cells (3) Antenna layout in a closed environment When the exterior wall of the building is relatively thick, then the signals attenuate greatly with little disclosure and little interference from outdoor co-frequency, thus the frequencies between floors can be planned with ease, as shown in Figure 5-14.
Figure 5-14 Antenna Layout in Closed Environment

(4) Antenna layout in a half-open environment If the exterior wall of the building is built of a structure of glass window/wall, there will be little signal attenuation. If the inside of the building is an open meeting environment, it will suffer large interference from outdoor co-frequency, thus necessitating dedicated frequency for planning; or multi-antenna system with low output power is adopted for this purpose, where the cell edge is confined to inside the building, as shown in Figure 5-15.
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Figure 5-15 Antenna Layout in Half-open Environment

(5) Antenna layout for building of frame structure When the building has many interior walls and these walls are thick, thus requiring that the antennas are installed in the corridor, the output power of the antenna is generally large so as to ensure sound coverage. In this case, some signals will leak through the corridor windows. It requires dedicated frequency for planning. The interval between the co-frequency cells of different floors is larger than that in other environments, as shown in Figure 5-16.
Figure 5-16
Antenna Layout for Buildings of Frame Structure
(6) Antenna layout for office buildings For such areas as offices of indoor business groups that require high service quality, multiple directional antennas and omni-antennas are generally adopted for indoor coverage. Rational design of effective cell radiation power will easily serve to control the cell coverage, and thus having little interference against the outside, as shown in Figure 5-17.
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Figure 5-17
Antenna Layout for Office Buildings
(7) Antenna Layout for Parking Lots Such areas as parking lots, which require some coverage but have no special need of capacity, the receiving level of mobile phone is not required to be high (around 90dBm). The key coverage areas are the lifts with large passage of people, automatic moving stairs and entrance to parking lots, as shown in Figure 5-18.
Figure 5-18 Antenna Layout for Parking Lot

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(8) Supermarket Such areas as supermarkets have some requirements in terms of both coverage and capacity, and the antenna system in these places may be set in light of the actual building structure, as shown in Figure 5-19.
Figure 5-19
Antenna Layout for Supermarkets
III. Survey
Finalize the installation and wiring of antenna through survey, involving the following aspects: Area of coverage in detail, requirement of signal coverage quality, different from place to place; The distribution of existing signals in coverage area; understand the blind spots, hot spots and signal point of impingement; Composition of buildings in the coverage area; block against signals; Access position and mode of signals; Examine the positions where equipment can be installed. The topological structure, wiring diagram of the final output system, list of materials In particular, it should be stressed that omni-antennas are generally installed at the center of the ceiling, while the small directional antennas are installed, hung on the exterior wall with its near side radiating indoors, so as to minimize its effect on outdoor system, and meet the C/I requirement on outdoor system.
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Chapter 5
If possible, coverage test may be conducted, as shown in Figure 5-20; in accordance with the test result, adjust the initial antenna design to meet the coverage requirement; or plan the frequency anew to meet the requirement on voice quality. Normally, if the radiation power of antenna interface is 10dBm, a small indoor omni-antenna of 2dBi should be used. In this case, within the range of 30m of the antenna, if there are no dense partition walls, the coverage level may reach -70dBm.
Figure 5-20 Diagram of Coverage Test
IV. Reduce switch from inside to outside through traffic control

The measures are as follows: in Idle status, set CRO and TO etc., to ensure reasonable reselection relationship in the cells indoors and outdoors; as the indoor high-rise coverage system with desirable indoor coverage may be regarded independent of the outdoor system, it is only required to consider the switch relationship between indoor cell and external cell at the entrance to the building, so as to ease the impact of the switch and external network. At this moment, the priority level of indoor cells may be set higher, so that all the traffic whose level is higher than a certain switch threshold between layers is kept in the indoor cell, while the inter-layer switch threshold and magnetic hysteresis can be specified and adjusted in light of practical conditions about the network (coverage, interference etc).
5.7.2 Capacity Analysis and Design

Before capacity analysis, it is first required to specify the type of indoor service areas, as shown in the following table:
Type of indoor service area Features of the service area It is rather difficult to estimate the traffic, for the average flow by the day and at night will differ in different periods. It is necessary to take the characteristic of unequal capacity distribution and bursting in a comprehensive way. However, GOS and the traffic of each user can be referred to in accordance Example
Public service area
Airport, shopping center and sports field etc.
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Chapter 5 with the outdoor cells. The utilization rate of the previous fixed telephone network stands high, where the traffic is relatively fixed easy for estimation, but the service quality is required to be high. Generally, GOS is 1%, and the traffic of each user is also high, up to 0.1Erl.
Business service area
Office buildings, star commercial hotels
Distributed antenna system
Power divider
Distributed antenna system Distributed antenna system
Power divider
Figure 5-21 (a) Diagram of a Single Cell
(b) Diagram of Vertical Divided Multiple Cells
As shown in Figure 5-21, the current distributed system is organized in two cell ways: single cell and vertical split. The former is applicable to indoor coverage requiring small capacity, while the latter is applicable to areas with dense indoor traffic. Likewise, when the capacity for indoor single cell falls short of requirement, it is also necessary to perform cell split. But this is vertical split way. In the event of vertical cell split, the original single cell is required to split into at least 3 cells so as to ensure frequency multiplexing; co-frequency cell is generally to be separated at an interval of four layers, as shown in Figure 5-22. To avoid frequency interference, indoor cell should be prevented from splitting.
Frequency A
Frequency B
The cell frequency for different floors can be multiplexed, but there is a certain space between them.
Frequency A
Figure 5-22 Vertical Cell Split
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Chapter 5
5.7.3 Frequency Plan

If dedicated frequency is adopted indoors, the frequency planning is relatively simple. Generally speaking, the frequency multiplexing for business service areas and public service areas is basically the same. If the frequency resources permit, dedicated frequency band should be adopted for indoor coverage; if the frequency resources are not enough, stealthy frequency should be used. As a result of quality and capacity factors (such as the development of GPRS high rate data services), if 900M frequency falls short of the requirement, 1800M frequency should be introduced in dual frequency system. If there is no frequency dedicated to indoor system and stealthy frequency is used, make sure not select the adjacent frequency of these frequencies; try to ensure BCCH frequency free of interference, while TCH layer can be planned in the manner of RF jumping to reduce interference; at the same time, with the aid of BTS equipments uplink frequency band scan function to search for uplink usable frequencies, and with the aid of downlink function of roadside equipment to search for downlink usable frequencies. Furthermore, it should also be noted that before the start of layered network structure, the service cell is generally the cell with the strongest signal level, and the adjacent frequency interference is not obvious; when the layered network structure is started, the service cell is not necessarily the cell with the strongest signal level. At this point, attention shall be paid to reducing the adjacent frequency interferences. As the urban environment is complicated, especially the effect of antenna back lobe, the interference from medium and high buildings is generally rather serious. In particular, the frequency plan for indoor coverage system of high buildings should pay attention to this. Normally, the lower floors of a building adopts regular frequency plan, but it is recommended to adopt dedicated frequency band for higher floors with heavy interference. The ultimate frequency is selected on the basis of actual interference environment test.
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Chapter 5
5.8 Design of Cell Data

To ensure the sound and stable running of the network, it is also required to design the cell configuration data related to each base station, including such radio parameters as cell system message parameters, various switches and power control algorithms. What requires special explanation is: the selection of cell switching area, what algorithm to start and whether to use frequency hopping, power control and DTX as well as other functions should have been specified in the design, coverage estimation and frequency planning for the base station.
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Chapter 5
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Table of Contents
xl
Chapter 6 Frequency Plan and Antiinterference Technology
Chapter 6 Frequency Planning and Antiinterference Technology

6.1 Frequency Planning
Today, for the development of the cellular system, its capacity is limited by the given frequency bandwidth. The frequency may satisfy the requirements of the capacity in a certain area only by reusing. However, the frequency reuse, especially the compact frequency reuse pattern, will certainly cause the problem how to reduce the common adjacent frequency interference with which we must be faced: in the equivalent areas, the more incompact the frequency reuse interval is, the less the common adjacent frequency interference is, with less capacity; with more compact frequency reuse, the capacity is promoted to a certain content, but with the promotion of the common adjacent frequency interference. How to obtain the balance between the capacity and the voice quality is the problem that must be settled by the frequency plan, in other word, a good frequency plan may realize the promotion of the network capacity on the basis of maintaining a good voice quality.
6.1.1 Frequency Division and C/I Requirements

The cellular system is generally divided into the GSM900M and DCS1800M systems with the carrier frequency interval of 200 kHz, based on the frequencies. The division of its uplink and downlink frequencies is as follows:
Network type GSM900 DCS1800 Frequency bandwidth (uplink/downlink)(MHz) 890 915/935 960 1710 1785/1805 1880
I. GSM900
It has total 124 frequency bands, the sequence numbers (ARFCN) are 1-124, with 200kHz of protective band on each end. According to the national regulation, the Mobile occupies 890-909/935-954MHz, while Unicom occupies 909-915/954-960MHz. The relation between the frequency and the sequence number (n) is as follows: Base station receiving: f1(n) Base station sending: f2(n) 890. 2 f1(n) (n-1)0. 2 (MHz)
45 (MHz)
II. DCS1800
It has total 374 frequency bands, the sequence numbers (ARFCN) are 512-885. The relation between the frequency and the sequence number (n) is as follows: Base station receiving: f1(n) Base station sending: f2(n) 1710. 2 f1(n) (n-512)0. 2 (MHz)
95 (MHz)
The Mobile occupies 1710MHz-1720MHz, with the corresponding frequency sequence numbers of 512-561; while the Unicom occupies 1745 MHz-1755MHz, with the corresponding sequence numbers of 687-736.
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III. C/I requirements

In the cellular system, since the frequency resource is limited, the replicated use of the frequency is an effective approach for promoting the frequency availability. The replicated use of the frequency would cause the interference with each other, so-called common frequency interference. The closer the interval between both frequencies is, the higher the frequency availability, but with higher interference. Figure 6-1 describes the distribution of the interference. For the convenience of analysis, the cell is indicated by the regular hexagon. In the figure, D is the reuse interval, and [fn] is the reuse frequency. The strength of the interference power is dependent on the effective emission power, reuse interval and path fading. By the derivation, the reuse frequency cluster number K is obtained: K=i2+ij+j2 where i, j are integers.
Figure 6-1 Interference schematic diagram Let: q=

D R
= 3&K
(1)
then the analysis of the common frequency interference is:

C I
C Ik
(2)
where Ik is number k interference signal, K=1,2,. . . N. The above expression may also be:
C I
1 (q k )
(3) is the path fading
where
is number K common frequency interference factor,

6-2
offset determined by the actual geographic environment, in the mobile environment, the path fading value =3-5, generally it is 4.
For the base station with the omnidirectional antenna, the first level of the interference source includes six (since the interference over the second level is small, it may be omitted), if the conditions of the six interference cells are the same, the one with the largest interference is to be taken into consideration, then
q 1 = (6 &
C I
(4)
For the 120 degrees of directional base station, it is theoretically thought that there are two interference sources, however, considering the influences of the antenna side and back lobes, the interference sources are still calculated by six (the worst condition), it can be obtained from the expression (4)
C I
(q 1 ) 6
(5)
The relation between C/I and q can be obtained from the above expression, and further the relation between C/I and K. If the cellular arrangement is not proper, each base station will undertake more interference sources. GSM is an interference limited system, according to the demodulation requirements of the signal in the air interface, GSM specifies that the common adjacent frequency protective ratio should meet the following requirements: Common frequency C/I: C/I 9dB; it has 3dB allowance in engineering, i. e. , C/I 12dB; Adjacent frequency suppression ratio: C/A -9dB; it has 3dB allowance in engineering, i. e. , C/A -6dB Second adjacent suppression ratio: C/A2 -41dB.
6.1.2 Principles of the Frequency Planning

A good network structure is the basis of a good frequency planning. When the frequency plan is carried out in a certain area, it is done in a geographic division mode, but some frequency bands must be reserved (when the frequency is sufficient for use) at the division junctures or the frequency bands are to be divided. The selection of the juncture should be away from the hotspot area or complicated networking area. Generally, the plan is carried out beginning from the place where the base stations are closely packed. Due to the irregularity of the site distribution, it is difficult to guarantee that the frequencies of the same level of carrier frequencies can be planed fully according to the common pattern of 43 or 33, it is needed to be adjusted according to the actual situations. Whatever patterns may be used for the frequency plan, the following principles should be observed: (1) It is not allowed that there are cofrequency frequency bands in the same base station; (2) In the same cell, the frequency interval between BCCH and TCH is preferably over 400K; (3) When the frequency hopping is not used, the frequency interval between TCHs in the same cell is preferably over 400K;
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(4) In non 13 reuse pattern, the direct adjacent base stations should avoid cofrequency (even though the directions of their antenna main lobe are different, the influences of the side lobes and back lobes may be difficult to be estimated due to the reasons of the antenna and environment); (5) Considering the complexity of the suspending antenna and propagation environment, the base stations with closer distance should prevent from the opposite cofrequency (including diagonal opposite) as possible; (6) Generally, for the 13 reuse, it is ensured that the frequency hopping band should double the number of the hopping carrier frequencies or over; (7) Pay attention to the cofrequency reuse, the case that there are the same BCCH
and the same BSIC in the adjacent areas should be avoided.

(8) Enabling the PBGT handover, after the adjacent frequency suppression ratio is determined via the parameter adjusting, the adjacent frequency may be employed in the direct adjacent opposite cells. Since the PBGT handover algorithm is judged based on the BCCH field density (path dissipation), when the BCCH frequency and the TCH frequency are alternatively allocated, after the downlink power control is enabled, the new adjacent frequency interference problem may be occur: for example, when a mobile phone makes a call on the number 50 TCH of the cell A, the BCCH of its adjacent cell B is 51, and the PBGT handover may not be occur because the field density is less than that of the cell A; however, the downlink timeslot of the call on the number 50 of the cell A may be less than BCCH of its adjacent cell B because of the power control, which causes the new adjacent frequency interference. The solution is: respectively allocating the independent frequency range to the BCCH frequency and the TCH frequency without any interleaving as possible; reducing the overlapped coverage between the cells; properly increasing the expected level of the downlink power control.
6.1.3 Basic Frequency Reuse

The most basic frequency reuse pattern of GSM is the 43 frequency reuse, which is the basis of other frequency reuse patterns. "4" refers to 4 sites, "3" indicates that each site has 3 cells, total 12 cells are the frequency cluster. For various cells in the same cluster, their frequencies are different. Figure 6-2 shows the 43 frequency reuse cell cluster.
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Figure 6-2 Basic frequency reuse 43 reuse cluster
For the 12 cells shown in the figure, their frequencies are different, covering other cells in the figure, and reusing one grouplink of frequencies in the 12 frequency cluster. An example is used to describe the 43 frequency reuse. It is assumed that the available bandwidth is 12. 2MHz, the channel number is 34-95, the assignment of the 12 channel groups is shown in Table 6-1.
Table 6-1 43 frequency reuse assignment table A1 B1 C1 D1 A2 B2 C2 34 40 52 64 76 88 41 53 65 77 89 42 54 66 78 90 43 55 67 79 91 44 56 68 80 92 45 57 69 81 93 46 58 70 82 94 D2 35 47 59 71 83 95 A3 36 48 60 72 84 B3 37 49 61 73 85 C3 38 50 62 74 86 D3 39 51 63 75 87
It can be seen from the table, in the case of 12. 2MHZ, the average largest site type is S5/5/5. When allocating the frequencies to the base stations, the rule {A1, A2, A3} or {B1, B2, B3} or {C1, C2, C3}, or {D1, D2, D3} is selected, the co-frequency or adjacent frequency may not occur in the same cell and the adjacent cell.
6-5
6.1.4 Compact Frequency Reuse

When the network construction is developed to certain content, it will certainly bring along the rapid increase of the capacity, and put forward more strict requirements for the network construction in turn. With the application of cell splitting, micorcell and distributive antenna system, how to appropriately plan the frequencies becomes a challenging question, and various frequency compact reuse technologies emerge accordingly. Currently, the most used are MRP, IUO and FRACTIONAL REUSE (13) technologies. Different frequency reuse technologies need the corresponding software and hardware technology supports, and subsequently the handover, power control, channel assignment algorithm and the functions such as DTX and frequency hopping are improved and developed; it is put forward more strict requirements for the selection of the antennas. In other words, as the frequency reuse is very compact, how to reduce the interference is the key to guarantee the system service quality. For the planning, it appears as the appropriate selection of the base station position and the cell direction, the appropriate setting of the height and declination angle of the antenna for reducing the cross-cell coverage; for the system function, it appears as the utilization of the DTX and frequency hopping technologies, and of the PBGT handover, uplink/ downlink power control, optimized channel assignment algorithm, and the like. For the parameter settings, it includes the appropriate settings of various thresholds of the base station static power and handover, and of the frequency hopping parameters for reducing the possibility of the collision of the common adjacent frequencies to the maximum extent; in addition, for the equipment, it puts forward more strict requirements with regard to the stray indexes of the base station equipment and the selective indexes of the adjacent channel. Various compact reuse technologies utilize the multi-layer concept on the whole, planning the BCCH and TCH in multi-layer, various layers utilize different frequency reuse pattern. Considering that BCCH must at intervals send the system message for the detection and contact of the mobile phones, so that the mobile phones can decode correctly and the report correctness of the mobile phones may be increased, BCCH should be assigned with at least 12 frequency bands. During the actual assignment, considering the irregularity of the base station distribution and the change of the directional angles of the cells, over 14 of frequency bands are generally assigned to BCCH, and the frequency plan is to be made generally by utilizing the 43 or more incompact frequency reuse pattern. TCH frequency plan is made by utilizing patterns such as 33, 23, 13 and the like. It is to be mentioned here, the purpose for various carrier layers to utilizing different reuse degrees is to prevent the interference as possible, which is embodied in the following aspects: In the case of the non-uniform network site types, as not each of cells is to utilize TRXs of the last layer or layers, TRXs of the last layer or layers of TRXs may realize the more compact reuse degree (even though in the case of no frequency hopping). Since each carrier layer is to utilize the different reuse patterns as possible, the frequency bands of any two of the cells in the network are not the same, that is, there are no thoroughly co-frequency cells. After the multiple frequency reuse is realized, while the interference is increased, the TRXs are also increased in the cell, so that the frequencies participated in the hopping are increased, increasing the gain. If there are the frequency band with smaller interference and the frequency band with larger interference simultaneously in a cell, after
6-6

the hopping technology is utilized, the frequency band with smaller interference and the frequency with larger interference will be merged. According to the characteristics of the Viterbi decoder, the interfered frequency band may still be utilized normally. Although the interference is variable with regard to each burst, the voice quality will be dependent on the average value of the interference with regard to a specific connection.
I. Multiple compact reuse pattern (MRP)

The multiple compact reuse technology is also called MRP (Multiple Reuse Pattern), allowing the simultaneous existence of several different frequency reuse patterns, which is put into operation, in the same GSM network. For example: BCCH utilizes the 43 reuse pattern, TCH utilizes 33 and 23 patterns, Figure 6-3 shows the schematic diagram of its structure.
Figure 6-3 Schematic diagram of multiple compact reuse In the figure, the same color refers to the same grouplink of frequencies that are reused, the size of the circle refers to the coverage range. L1, L2, , Lm refer to the frequency layers in the cell, it can be seen from the figure, the reuse of the layer that is closer to the top layer is more compact. In the case of the given frequency, comparing the multiple compact reuse with the same reuses in various layers, the number of the channels in the unit area will be increased significantly. Essentially, MRP is a frequency planning method, without putting forward any special software/hardware requirements. It is established based on the concept of a carrier multi-layer. That is to say, all of available frequency bands are divided into several groups, each of which acts as a carrier layer. According to the compact reuse rules, the frequency bands arranged in each layer which are illustrated by way of the following example, conform to the following expression: n1 n2 n3 n4 . . . . . . nm. Layer BCCH TCH1 n1 n2 Number of frequency band
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n3
TCH2
..................... TCHm-1 nm
For example, assuming that the available frequency bandwidth is 10MHz and the signal channel numbers are 46-94, the rules of the BCCH and TCH carrier layers may utilize the continuous grouping pattern. For the continuous grouping pattern, the BCCH frequency band is preferably added with 1-2 additional frequency bands for planning, i. e. , total 12-14 frequency bands for planning. Table 6-2 has no reserved frequency band.
6-8

Table 6-2 Continuously assigning MRP Carrier type BCCH TCH1 TCH2 TCH3 TCH4 TCH5 Absolute carrier number of the available frequency band 46 57 58 66 67 74 75 82 83 88 89 94 Number of the available frequency bands 12 9 8 8 6 6
It can be seen from the above table, the above frequency bands are thus divided into 6 groups, the carrier layer where the broadcasting channel (BCCH) is located has 12 frequency bands for reusing, the service channel is divided into TCH1-TCH5, total 5 groups of the carrier layers, each grouplink is assigned with different numbers of frequency bands for reusing. Thus, in the case of 10MHz of the bandwidth, the base station configuration is made to S6/6/6. According to the above assignment of the frequency bands for various carrier types, the frequency plan is carried out in the entire network. In the case of the traditional 4/12 reuse pattern, the maximum configuration of the base station can be made to S4/4/4. With regarding to the continuous grouping pattern, there may be the cofrequency/adjacent interference in the base station frequency layer, and the interference between the base station frequency layers occurs at the frequency boundary point. In addition to the continuous assignment, the interval assignment may be utilized, Figure 6-4 shows the schematic diagram of the interval assignment. In the figure, it is assumed that the frequencies that may be assigned to BCCH are 1, 3, 5, , 37, from which, 12 frequency bands are obtained for BCCH, the rest frequencies are assigned to TCH1, THC2, THC3 and MICRO, each layer of frequencies are selected at regular intervals. In the case that there are the adjacent frequency interference within the layer instead of between the layers, when the traffic is not very busy, this pattern is useful for reducing the network interference.
Figure 6-4 Discontinuous frequency assignment
6-9
The reason that MRP may realize the frequency compact reuse layer by layer so as to realize the increase of TRX is: since not every cell needs the last layer of TRX during the initial stage, the last layer of TRX may realize the more compact reuse. Further, after MRP is utilized, while the interference is increased, TRXs are also increased in the cell, so that the frequencies participated in the hopping is increased, increasing the gains. If there are the frequency point with smaller interference and the frequency point with larger interference simultaneously in a cell, after the hopping technology is utilized, the frequency point with smaller interference and the frequency with larger interference will be merged. The Viterbi decoder can still demodulate the code element correctly. The interference appears in the concept of the average value, which does not affect the normal operation of the base station. It should be mentioned here, when the MRP frequency assignment is carried out, the minimum frequency reuse degree of the TCH layer is recommended not less than 6; and the average frequency reuse degree of the TCH layer is at least between 7-8. If the frequency resources are available, in the initial frequency planning, it is very effective to reserve a given frequency bands for the microcell and for settling the troublesome problems in optimization.
II. Ordinary concentric circle technology

The ordinary concentric circle technology is to divide the ordinary cell into two service layers, i. e. , the great circle and the small circle, to divide the frequency bands into two parts, the TRX powers corresponding to some of the frequency bands are adjust down, so that two concentric circles with different coverage in the coverage range. For the mobile phones in the great circle, the frequency bands with more incompact frequency reuse such as the BCCH frequency band, as possible; for the mobile phones in the small circle, the frequency bands with the more compact frequency reuse such as the frequency bands except BCCH, as possible, the system capacity can be effectively increased by utilizing the compact frequency reuse pattern for the frequency bands across the small circle. It is seen from Figure 6-5, since the mobile phones in the small circle is far away from the interference source, the voice quality can still be guaranteed, even though the frequency with the compact reuse is used. Also, since the mobile phones in the great circle utilize the frequency with the incompact reuse, the voice quality can be guaranteed.
Cell A
Signal
Cell B
Interference
Big circle
Small circle
Figure 6-5 Schematic diagram of the compact frequency reuse in the concentric circle cell
6-10
If the inner circle is overlapped with the excircle or inner circle of the other cell, the inner circle can be switched to another cell directly, which can effectively reduce the congestion condition in the excircle. When the ordinary concentric circle technology is utilized, as the inner circle of the concentric circle can utilize the more compact frequency reuse pattern, comparing to MRP, it can increase the network capacity to the larger extent, and the network quality is also guaranteed. In some special case, for example, when the excircle of the concentric circle cell is configured with only one carrier BCCH, using 43 frequency reuse pattern, and other TCH carriers are all configured on the inner circle with the 13 frequency reuse pattern, the concentric circle cell is just the same as the 13, and the average frequency reuse degree is the same as the 13, therefore, the concentric circle in this case can effectively reduce the interference in the entire network without reducing the network capacity, so as to realize the network quality higher than 13. The problem caused by the use of the ordinary concentric circle is that the traffic control, i. e. , the handover control, between the inner circle and the excircle. Based on the feature that the coverage ranges of the inner circle and excircle are different, the signal level threshold and TA value threshold are generally regarded as the handover basis; based on this feature, this technology may be used to guide the traffic in the cell in which the coverage ranges of some carriers are different.
III. Intelligent underlay/overlay (IUO)

To guarantee that the coverage ranges of all the carriers in the base station are identical, the intelligent underlay/overlay (IUO) technology is introduced, in which, all the TRXs in the cell are the same. The design philosophy of the IUO is shown in Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-6 Schematic diagram of the IUO structure
It is seen from the figure, the IUO philosophy is to divide the base station frequencies into two parts, or so-called two layers, one layer is called "REGULAR layer", and the other "SUPER layer". For "REGULAR layer", the interval of the frequency reuse is larger, utilizing the incompact frequency reuse pattern; for "SUPER layer", the interval of the frequency reuse is smaller, utilizing the compact reuse pattern. The frequency assignment of IUO is described by way of an example, assuming that the assignable frequency band is 10. 4MHz. Figure 6-7 shows the example of IUO frequency assignment.
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Figure 6-7 Example of IUO frequency assignment BCCH R S TCH TCH reuse: 15 TRX TRX reuse: 12 reuse: 6
BCCH selects 15 frequency bands, utilizing the 43 reuse pattern. REGULAR layer utilizes 24 frequency bands. The 43 reuse pattern is utilized. SUPER utilizes 12 frequency bands and the 23 reuse pattern. After the IUO technology is utilized, the maximum site type is S5/5/5, if the 43 reuse pattern is utilized, the maximum site type is only S4/4/4. The problem caused by the use of IUO is that SUPER interference is larger, the specific handover algorithm is needed to be provided by the equipment to judge the interference in the network; once it is found that C/I goes beyond a given standard, the system will switch the user to the REGULAR layer. Both of the judgment and handover are completed automatically. When C/I>good threshold, the frequencies of the S layer are used; when C/I<bad threshold, the frequencies of the R layer are used. For example: when the frequency hopping is not used, C/I>17db, the frequencies of the S layer are used, C/I<12db, the frequencies of the R layer are used; when the frequency hopping is used, C/I>11db, the frequencies of the S layer are used, C/I<7db, the frequencies of the R layer are used. The traffic of the R/S layers can be controlled by adjusting the threshold value. C/I detection is based on the RXLEV and RXQUAL of the BCCH channel in the adjacent cell reported by MS, the cofrequency reuse cell is predefined in the system, forcing it as the adjacent cell. The mobile phones report the best and strongest signal of the six measurements, the base station judges the component of the cofrequency cell, calculates the C/I, and obtains the criterion for the R/S layer handover.
IV. Fractional reuse technology (13 or 11 fractional reuse)

The fractional reuse technology and the 13 or 11 reuse technology are combined with each other; for the 13 or 11 reuse, the reuse interval is smaller and the interference is larger, the RF hopping technology should be utilized, the collection of the available hopping frequencies is far lager than the number of TRXs, and the MA, HSN, MAIO parameters should be set, so as to avoid the collision of the frequencies. Assuming 10MHz bandwidth, 50 frequency bands, BCCH occupies 14 frequency bands, and TCH utilizes 36 frequency bands. If the 43 reuse pattern is utilized for planning, each cell is assigned with 3 TCH frequency bands, with the site type of S4/4/4. If the fractional reuse 13 is used, the TCH frequency bands that may be used by each cell are 12, and the actual available frequencies used by the cell are dependent on the fractional reuse ratio; specifically, if FR LOAD is 50%, then TRX=1250%=6, with the maximum site type of S7/7/7. According to the previously obtained relational expression of C/I and K and the relation between K and FR, the curve chart 6-8 of FR and C/I is obtained, from which it can be seen, the better C/I ratio (12dB) can be guaranteed when the average load factor is 0. 5, and C/I is unbearably deteriorated when the average load factor is 1, i. e. , the true 1X3 pattern; on the other hand, it is recommended that the actual average frequency
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reuse degree is not less than 6, which is the bottom line of the current frequency reuse degree. In this reuse pattern, the interference may be expressed as the collision probability of the common adjacent frequencies; the result of the simulation shows that the collision probability is only relative to FR, independent from how much the available frequencies are and how much the available TRXs are.
Figure 6-8 Relation graph of FR and C/I
It should also be mentioned, when this pseudo spread spectrum pattern is used, if the initial plan is incorrectly made, comparing to the small traffic, the quality is seriously deteriorated when the traffic increases. The preferred method is to simulate the interference conditions with the large traffic by sending the idle Burst function when the network is initially established, and perform the adjustment for optimization.
Figure 6-9 13 fractional reuse frequency assignment 6-13
Figure 6-9 shows the base station frequency arrangement in the case of the 13 fractional reuse pattern visually. Total N (>12) BCCH frequency bands and 18 TCH frequency bands. The frequency bands assigned in a cell is to be described now, TRX1 utilizes one of the N BCCH carriers, at a certain time, TRX2, TRX3 and TRX4 that are using the 13 pattern are assigned to the 3 frequency bands of the 6 TCH carriers. Each TRX (2-4) is configured with the same MA and HSN, but MAIO is different. Now the specific application of the 13 reuse pattern will be described by an example of the Unicom GSM900 network somewhere. Unicom 900 frequency band: 96-124 Carrier configuration: S3/3/3 BCCH carrier layer: 96-109 TCH carrier layer: 110-124 (1) Sequence grouping solution TCH is grouped in sequence, the three cells in the same base station utilize the same HSN, different sites utilize different HSNs, all the carrier of the same layer in the network utilize the same MAIO. Assuming that the frequency hopping groups are allocated as follows: Grouplink one: 110 Grouplink two: 115 Grouplink three: 120 111 116 121 112 117 122 113 118 123 114 119 124 reuse pattern: 43 reuse pattern: 13
HSN of the site A is 1, MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2 in each cell are 0 and 2 respectively, HSN of the site B is 2, MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2 are 0 and 2 respectively, and so on; in this way, the cofrequencies among the three different cells in the same site are avoided; comparing to the TCH interval grouping, the possible collision of the cofrequencies in the adjacent cells opposite to the different sites are reduced; however, comparing to the TCH interval grouping, the possible collision of the cofrequencies between the cells parallel to the different sites in direction is increased. (2) Interval grouping solution TCH utilizes the interval grouping, the three cells in the same base station utilize the same HSN, the different sites utilize the different HSNs, and the carriers of the same layer in the same base station utilize the different MAIO. Assuming that the frequency hopping groups are allocated as follows: Grouplink one: 110113 Grouplink two: 111 114 Grouplink three: 112 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124
HSN of the site A is 1, MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2 in the grouplink one cell are 0 and 1 respectively; MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2 in the grouplink two cell are 2 and 3 respectively, MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2 in the grouplink three cell are 4 and 0 respectively, HSN of the site B is 2, and so on. In this way, the cofrequencies among the three different cells in the same site are avoided; comparing to the TCH sequence grouping, the possible collision of the cofrequencies in the adjacent cells opposite to the different sites are increased;
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however, comparing to the TCH sequence grouping, the possible collision of the cofrequencies between the cells parallel to the different sites in direction is reduced. With respect to the question how to grouplink TCH so that the 13 frequency hopping interference is relatively smaller, both sequence grouping and interval grouping patterns have some defects; however, generally, the adjacent frequency influence of the adjacent cell opposite to the central area where the base stations are compact dense and are regularly distributed is larger than that of the adjacent cell parallel to the central area in direction, it is obviously advantageous to utilize the sequence grouping pattern; however, in the areas around the dense base stations, as the irregularity of the base station distribution, it is useful for homogenizing the influence caused by the interference by utilizing the interval grouping pattern. Therefore, which grouping pattern being utilized should be considered together with the actual environment situations. After the new channel allocation algorithm in the compact reuse pattern is realized, it is recommended that the sequence grouping solution is to be utilized, thus, the better guarantee of the service quality in the entire network will be actually implemented.
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6.2 Anti-interference Technology

6.2.1 Frequency hopping Technology
I. Several concepts
(1) Frequency hopping Frequency hopping means that the carrier frequencies with useful information hop with the time sequence under the control of a sequence called hopping sequence number (HSN). A hopping sequence is an array that uniquely specifies all (N) frequencies, in the set of the frequencies (MA) including N frequencies, by the hopping sequence number (HSN), mobile allocation index offset (MAIO) and frame number(FN) through a given algorithm. N channels in the different timeslots may utilize the same hopping sequence, the different channels in the same timeslot in the same cell utilize the different mobile allocation index offset (MAIO). (2) Hopping mode Hopping mode is divided into the frame hopping and slot hopping in terms of the time domain, and into the RF hopping and baseband hopping in the carrier realization mode. Frame hopping:hopping by the unite of TDMA frame, in this mode, each carrier may be regarded as a channel; the TCH on the TRX carrier where the BCCH is located during the frame hopping in a cell can not participate in the hopping, other different carriers should have different MAIOs, this is the special case of the slot hopping. Slot hopping: every slot frequency band of every TDMA frame changes once, the TCH in the TRX where the BCCH is located during the slot hopping may participate in the hopping, however, it is currently realized only during the baseband hopping. RF hopping: both of the transmitting TX and receiving RX of the TRX participate in the hopping. The number of the frequencies that participate in the hopping in a cell may be larger than the number of the TRXs in this cell. Baseband hopping: each transmitter works at a fixed frequency, TX does not participate in the hopping, and the transmission hopping is implemented through the switching of the baseband signal, but RX must participate in the hopping. Therefore, the number of the hopping frequencies in a cell may not be larger than the number of TRXs in this cell. (3) Frequency hopping algorithm Now several parameters will be described first: CA: cell allocation table, it is the set of the frequencies used in the cell; FN: TDMA frame number, it is broadcast in the synchronous channel. BTS and MS are synchronized through FN (0-2715647);
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MA: a set of the radio frequenc channels numbers used for the mobile station, it is a subset of CA. MA includes N frequency channel numbers, 1 N 64 MAIO: mobile allocation index offset (0-N-1); during the communication, the radio frequency sequence number used in the air interface is one element of the set MA. MAI (mobile allocation index, 0-N-1) is used to determine one specific element of the set MA, in other words, the actually used frequencies are specified by the MAI. MAIO is a initial offset of the MAI, its purpose is to prevent multiple channels from scrambling for the same carrier in the same time. HSN: hopping sequence (generator) number (0-63); it is the sequent hopping when HSN=0; and it is the random hopping when HSN 0.
Only after the actual functions of various parameters in the hopping algorithm and the hopping mechanism are well understood, the relative parameters may be reasonably set, so as to put the system in the optimized operation. Figure 6-9 is the flow chart of calculating the actual operation frequency of the carrier at every hopping slot. Among them: MAI=(S+MAIO) MOD N,RFCHN=MA (MAI); S is obtained by calculating according to the frame number and hopping sequence number, and MAI is obtained from S plus S hopping offset moding the number of the carriers in the MA set.
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MAIO (0 N-1) FN T3(0 50) HSN (0 63) FN T1(0 2047) FN T2(0 25)
MAI (m0 mN-1)
NBIN bits
6bits
6bits
11bits
T1R= T1 MOD 64
5bits
Represent in 7 bits
6bits Exclusive OR 6bits Addition 7bits Look-up table 7bits Addition T=T3 mod 2^NBIN NBIN bits N 8bits M'=M mod 2^NBIN
7bits
M'<N
NBIN bits Y
S=(M'+T) mod N NBIN bits MAI=(S+MAIO) mod NBIN bits RFCN=MA MAI
Figure 6-10 Hopping algorithm
S=M'
In Figure 6-10: mod: mode ^: power NBIN: INTEGER (log2N+1) Table:
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Contents 48 0 101 80 55 87 82 77 117 16 91 125 98 64 47 34 111 19 58 108 114 49 15 99 63 25 118 127 75 3 40 122 4 7 21 17 1 81 85 13 38 68 107 37 90 79 24 123 36 76 18 6 109 110 32 60 43 119 46 95 59 56 89 71 26 5 66 52 61 39 78 124 96 57 112 33 106 121 53 22 93 102 23 86 103 29 31 92 42 113 84 105 94 104 54 12 11 8 62 51 120 9 65 73 100 2 74 88 45 67 126 72 97 70
Address 000-009 010-019 020-029 030-039 040-049 050-059 060-069 070-079 080-089 090-099 100-109 110-113
(4) Concept of the synchronous cell The concept of the synchronous cell is very important for the establishment of the hopping strategy and the effective reduction of the interference in the network. BTS and MS are synchronized through the appointment of the frame number. In the synchronous cells, since the frame number used by each TRX in various cells are the same, the same HSN may be used in various hopping group, and the MAIO is properly set, so as to avoid the collisions of the common or adjacent frequencies of various cells in the same base station or the collisions of the common adjacent frequencies in one cell.
II. Frequency hopping function

The frequency hopping is introduced in the GSM system, because the frequency hopping provides two functions: frequency diversity and interference averaging. (1) Frequency diversity The frequency hopping can reduce the influence of signal strength variations caused by the multipath fading, this function may be equivalent to the frequency diversity. In the mobile communication, due to the influence of the Rayleigh fading, the radio transmission signal may change rapidly in the large amplitude, and this change is relative to the frequency. As the difference between the frequencies is larger, the fading will be more independent; for the mobile communication band, 200KHz frequency interval basically guarantee the noncorrelation of the fading characteristics between the frequencies, and 1MHz can thoroughly guarantee this noncorrelation. By the hopping, all of the burst pulses containing the same voice frame code word will not be damaged by the Rayleigh fading in a manner, as shown in Figure 6-11.
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Received signal level
Distance
Figure 6-11 Fading The statistics shows that the frequency hopping gain is relative to the environment factor, especially to the movement speed of the mobile station. When MS moves in a high speed, the position change of two burst pulses in the same channel will be subjected to the influence of other fading; the higher the speed is, the lower the gain is. However, for the numerous users who move slowly with the mobile phones, the frequency diversity is advantageous. Further, the hopping gain is also relative to the number of the frequencies , when the number of the frequencies is reduced, the gain is reduced, too. The relation between the number of the frequencies and the hopping gain in such a way that the hopping is the pseudo spread spectrum, the obtained gain is the processing gain obtained from the useful signal spread transmission frequency band. The basic method for actually measuring the hopping gain is that, on the prerequisite that the same FER is required, the receiver will require for different C/Is at various numbers of the frequency hopping bands, and the difference between these C/I is the gain obtained from the hopping. Some documents list the relation between the number of the frequency hopping bands and the hopping gain (the actual gain will be subjected to the environmental influence):
The number of the carriers that participate in the hopping =1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 >=11 Frequency diversity gain 0 3 4 5 5. 5 6 6. 3 6. 5 6. 8 6. 9 7
(2) Interference averaging The frequency hopping provides the difference of the interference in the transmission path, so that all the burst pulses that contain a part of the code words may not be
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damaged by the interference in the same manner, and the original data can be recovered from other part of the receiving stream through the correction coding and interleaving of the system. Obviously, the frequency hopping may obtain a certain gain only when the interference is distributed in a narrow band; if the interference is distributed in a wide band, all the burst pulses will be damaged, and the original data can not be recovered, so that no gain can be obtained. In the actual network, the interference is generally distributed in a narrow band. In the state of the hopping, it is found that the error bit ratio tends to upward in the test, however, people subjectively feel that the voice quality is improved. The reason is that, though the error bit ratio is increased, but the index of the voice frame erase ratio (FER) is improved, in the view of the voice communication, it is understood that the voice quality is improved; however, in the view of the data service, it may have some defects, especially, when the data speed rate is very high, the frequency hopping becomes harmful. This result will be seen from the simulation of the GPRS later.
6.2.2 Power Control

I. Mobile station power control
The mobile station power control is divided into two adjusting stages, i. e. , the stable adjusting stage and the initial adjusting stage. The stable adjusting is the normal method for performing the power control algorithm, while the initial adjusting is used in the time when the call connection is initially started. When a connection is performed, MS is output as the nominal power of the cell where it is located (the nominal power indicates that the MS transmitting power is the MS maximum transmitting power MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH in the broadcast system messages on the BCCH channel of the cell where it is located. If MS does not support this power class, the supported power class that is nearest to it will be utilized, such as the maximum output power class supported by the reported MS Classmark in the establishment indication message). However, since BTS may simultaneously support multiple calls, the receiving signal intensity should be reduced in a new connection as quick as possible, otherwise, the quality of other call supported by this BTS may be deteriorated due to the saturation of the BTS multi-coupler, and the call quality of other cells may be affected due to the high interference. Therefore, the purpose of the initial stage power control adjusting is to reduce the MS transmitting power as quick as possible until the stable measurement report is obtained, so that the MS can be adjusted according to the stable power control algorithm. The parameters that must be selected in the uplink power control, such as the expected desirable uplink receiving level, desirable uplink receiving quality, etc. , are all set by the O&M data management console, the data configuration can be dynamically carried out according to the actual situations of the cell. After a given number of the uplink measurement reports is received, by the processing methods such as interpolation and filtering, the actual uplink receiving level and the receiving quality are obtained, then they are compared with the desirable uplink receiving level and the receiving quality, with the power control algorithm, the power class to which the MS should be adjusted is calculated; if it is different from the current MS output power class and meets a given application restricted conditions (such as the power adjusting step length restriction, MS output power range restriction), the power adjusting command is sent. The essence of the uplink power control adjusting is to enable the actual uplink receiving level and receiving quality obtained from interpolation and filtering to progressively approach the desirable uplink receiving level and receiving quality set by O&M. The purpose for the interpolation and filtering of the measurement reports is to process the lost measurement report, clear the temporary nature (spilliness), so as to ensure the stability of the power control algorithm.
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The difference between the initial stage power control and the stable stage power control is that the expected uplink receiving level and receiving quality in the initial stage is different from that in the stable stage, the length of the filters are also different, and only the downward adjustment is performed in the initial stage.
II. Base station power control

The base station power control is an optional function. The base station power control is basically identical to the MS power control, except that the base power control utilizes only the stable power control algorithm. The parameters that must be selected in the power control include the receiving level threshold (lower limitation) to be performed the power control and the receivable maximum sending level threshold (upper limitation). The receiving level RXLEV is divided into 64 classes, with numbers from 0 to 63, class 0 of the receiving level is the lowest, while the class 63 of the receiving level is the highest. The base station power control is divided into the static power control and the dynamic power control, the later is the fine adjusting based on the former. The 0505 protocol specification specifies that the base station static power class is divided into 6 (2dB/per class), when the maximum power output by the base station is 46dBm (40W), the class 6 is 34 dBm. The static power level is defined in the cell attribute table of the data management console, i. e., the maximum output power value Pn of the current dynamic power control is specified. As the dynamic power control classes are set to 15, the range of the dynamic power control is Pn-Pn-30dB. If the requirements cannot be satisfied when the dynamic power control reaches its maximum value, the static power control classes should be adjusted to increase the maximum output power value Pn of the dynamic power control.
III. Power control process

(1) Interpolation of the measurement report The actual measurement report (MR) will be lost, which is divided into several cases. First, the MR message numbers reported by the BTS are discontinuous; second, the MR message optional items reported by the BTS will cause the discontinuity of some measurement reports no longer; third, the MR message is lost due to the error of the MR message format reported by the BTS. In engineering, the first order interpolation formula is used to estimate the lost measurement report, the purpose for doing so is to avoid the call loss due to the lower power. (2) Filtering of the measurement report The purpose for the filtering of the measurement report is to clear the temporary nature, so as to ensure the stability of the algorithm. (3) Power control adjusting The power adjusting calculation is made according to the difference degree between the current receipt conditions and the expected value, so as to determine the power value to be adjusted to.
6.2.3 Discontinuous Transmission

During a communication process, the mobile users are making calls only in 40% of times, in most of times, no voice message is transmitted, thus, the system resources are wasted greatly. With respect to this case, the discontinuous DTX mechanism is introduced into the GSM, it prohibits the radio signals that is thought to be unwanted
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by the users to reduce the interference level, so as to increase the efficiency of the system. Whether the downlink DTX in the network is used is to be set by the network operator in the switching side, generally, it is controlled taking BSC as the unit, the control message is transmitted to the base station baseband processing part through the special signaling channel, and then to TC through the inband signaling of the TRAU frame, notify whether the downlink DTX is used. Whether the downlink DTXs of some manufacturers are used may also be set taking the cell as the unit. The uplink DTX is set by the network operator in the radio side, i. e. , setting the DTX parameter in the system message, this parameter is composed of 2 bits, its coding mode is shown as the follows:
DTX 0 1 10 11
Meaning The mobile station may use DTX The mobile station must use DTX The mobile station is not allowed to use DTX Reserved
The parameter DTX is included in the information unit "Cell options", and transmitted regularly in the system message of each cell broadcast, the mobile phone is to determine whether the uplink DTX function is enabled according to this message. To implement this mechanism of the DTX, the source must be able to indicate when the transmission is required and when is not. When the DTX mode is activated, the voice encoder must detect it is either voice or noise, which uses the voice detection VAD technology. By calculating some signal parameters and according to some thresholds, VAD can determine whether the receiving signal is either voice or noise. This judgment is based on a energy law: the energy of the noise is less than that of the voice. The VAD technology is to generate a group of thresholds in every 20ms voice block time, determining whether the next 20ms voice block is either voice or noise. However, when the background noise is very high, the noise signal will be regarded as the voice by the VAD and be encoded for sending. The downlink VAD is in TC, while the uplink VAD is in the mobile phone. DTX may be used in both uplink and down link, but they are two programs that is no relative to each other. They may be activated by the system parameter according to the respective situations, whether the other party activates this function. There are two measuring methods in the GSM: one is called global measurement, which is to average the level and quality in the 104 slots of the entire measuring period (26 multiframes of 4 TCHs); the other is called the local measurement, which is to measure and average the level and quality of the 12 slots, including the 8 continuous TCH burst pulses (for the TCH/F channel, 0-103 TDMA frames are taken as a circulation, these 8 burst pulse frame numbers are 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 respectively; when no voice and signaling are transmitted, they have the description information of the comfortable noise, called SID) and 4 SACCH burst pulses carrying the measurement report (0-103 TDMA frames are taken as a circulation, these 4 burst pulse frame numbers are 12, 38 , 64, 90 respectively). For the conformity, whether the uplink/downlink of the system activate the DTX function, the base station and mobile station will complete both measuring methods; and whether the discontinuous transmission mode is utilized during the last measurement report period is indicated in every SACCH measurement report of the BTS ad mobile station, according to this indication, BSC is to decide that either global measuring or local measuring is used for judging.
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The discontinuous transmission is applicable for the voice as well as the opaque data transmission, however, the carrier where the BCCH is located does not use this technology. DTX should be realized in every cell. The main functions of the DTX technology in the uplink/downlink are: the uplink can save the mobile phone battery and reduce the interference in the system; the downlink can reduce the power consumption of the base station, reduce the interference and reduce the crosstalk in the base station. When the downlink DTX is utilized together with the uplink DTX, the C/I cofrequency interference ratio of the system will be improved. This improvement may be applied to the cell planning with the compact frequency reuse, especially, when it is used together with the frequency hopping, larger system capacity may be obtained.
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Table of contents
26
Wireless Network Planning
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Chapter 7 Parameter Design

The network planning is concerned with hundreds of parameters, which consists of complicated algorithms and protocols. Only with deep understanding of the algorithms and protocols can we flexibly apply these parameters to various different actual environments. Therefore, this chapter mainly describes some protocols and algorithms related to the network planning, such as system message, handover, power control, channel allocation, etc. For description of other parameters, please refer to Data Configuration Specifications for GSM900 and 1800 BSS Network Planning. The research on radio network parameters should take potential dangerous factors of radio network (such as large traffic, abnormal user behavior, etc.) into consideration (please do not limit your attention to individual small network). Furthermore, the parameters are not independent from each other, and many network problems and phenomena result from the combined function of many functional algorithms and radio networking modes. For these integrated phenomena, please combine the theoretic research and practical experiences to conduct complete and indepth analysis of special topics from various aspects such as MSC, BSC, BTS, characteristics of radio network, etc. During the analysis, please pay attention to application recommendations of actual networking algorithm and guide to problem analysis, etc. Especially, when the radio network is getting more and more complicated and the traffic and capacity are getting larger and larger, this task is more urgent and it is more complicated and difficult to conduct integrated application of these parameters with combination of the characteristics of radio network. To accomplish this task, long-term practice and experience accumulation are needed. In the GSM system, large quantities of radio parameters are set based on cell or local area, while the inter-area parameters generally have strong relativity. Therefore, please consider the influence of parameter setting in an area upon other areas or especially neighboring areas during parameter planning and adjusting, or the parameter adjusting may lead to great side effect. In addition, if certain problem occurs to local area in the network, please firstly determine whether the problem is caused by equipment fault (including connection problem). Only when you confirm that the network problem is really caused by service can the radio parameter adjustment be made.
7.1 System message

To obtain or provide various services, the MS needs many messages from the network, and these messages broadcast at radio interfaces are called system messages. The system message includes main radio network parameters at are interfaces, specifically speaking, including network identification parameters, cell selection parameters, system control parameters and network function parameters. Through receiving the system messages, mobile phones can correctly access and select appropriate network and can fully utilize various services provided by the network so as to perfectly cooperate with the network. The system message can be divided into two parts: System messages transmitted in BCCH channel, mainly including system messages 1, 2, 2BIS, 2TER, 3 and 4; and system messages transmitted in SACCH channel, mainly including system messages 5, 5BIS, 5TER and 6. To support GPRS, Huawei BSC also supports system message 13, which will not be described in this section.
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Chapter 7
Parameter Design
I. System message 1
System message 1 mainly describes Random Access Control information (RACH) and Cell frequency Allocation table (i.e., CA table), transmitted in BCCH channel. System message 1 mainly includes information of the following parameters: CA table, maximum retransmission times (MAX retrans), number of expanded transmission timeslots (Tx_interger), cell access barred (CELL_BAR_ACCESS), Access level Control (AC), Call reestablishment enabled (RE), Emergency Call enabled (EC), etc.
II. System messages 2, 2bis and 2ter

System message 2 mainly describes RACH, Network Color Code Permitted NCC Permitted} and frequency allocation table of neighboring cells (i.e., BA1 table), transmitted in BCCH channel. In general, system messages 2, 2BIS and 2TER different parts of the BA1 table respectively, and mobile phones can conduct cell reselection in idle mode through reading and decoding the BA1 table. For a 900 mobile phone in PHASE 1, it only identifies frequency of neighboring cell described by system message 2, but neglects frequency messages of neighboring cells carried by 2BIS and 2TER messages. System message 2BIS mainly describes RACH and expanded frequency allocation table of neighboring cells (it is also a part of BA1 table). It is optional and transmitted in BCCH channel. Generally, the frequency allocation table carried by system message 2 can only describe a limited number of frequencies, so system message 2BIS carries information of other frequencies (which are in the same frequency band as system message 2) in the BA1 table. System message 2TER mainly describes expended frequency allocation table of neighboring cells (part of BA1 table), transmitted in BCCH channel. Only dual frequency mobile phones read this message (single frequency 900 or 1800 mobile phones will neglect this message. Since this message carries frequency information of different frequency band from the frequency of current cell, so these messages are unnecessary for single frequency mobile phone. System message 2, 2bis and 2ter mainly includes information of the following parameters: Neighboring cell description (BA1 table), NCC Permitted, RACH Control Para, extended neighboring cell description (Extended), multi-band reporting (Multiband_Reporting), etc.
III. System message 3

System message 3 mainly describes location area identifier, cell identifier, RACH and parameters related to cell selection. It is compulsory and is transmitted in BCCH. System message 3 is one of the most important system messages. System message 3 mainly includes information of the following parameters: Cell Global Identity (CGI), IMSI Attach-Detach allowed (ATT), Common control channel configuration (CCCH-CONF), number of accessed modules allowed to be reserved (BS_AG_BLKS_RES), number of paging channel multi-frames (BS-PA-MFRAMS), Periodic location updating timer (T3212), power control indication (PWRC), discontinuous transmission (DTX), radio link timeout (Radio_Link_Timeout), Cell Selection Hysteresis, maximum power level of control channel (MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH), accessible minimum received level (RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN), additional reselection parameter indication (ACS), half-rate indication (NECI), RACH Control Para., etc.
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Chapter 7
Parameter Design
IV. System message 4

System message 4 mainly describes location area identifier, RACH, cell selection parameter and optional CBCH channel information. It is compulsory and is transmitted in BCCH. The optional IE CBCH description and the MA describe the configuration of the CBCH channel and corresponding frequency information when the system supports cell broadcast. System message 4 mainly includes information of the following parameters: Location Area Identity (LAI), Cell Selection Para., RACH Control Para., CBCH channel description and CBCH MA, cell reselection parameter indication (PI), Cell Bar Qualification (CBQ), Cell Reselection Offset (CRO), Temporary Offset (TO) and Penalty Time (PT).
V. System message 5, 5bis, 5ter

System message 5 mainly describes frequency information of neighboring cells (i.e, BA2 table). It is compulsory and is transmitted in the SACCH channel. Different from system message 2, mobile phones can read frequencies described in system message 5 in communication state and report relevant information of neighboring cells in measurement report so that the report can be used as basis of handover. Similarly, for a mobile phone in PHASE 1, it only can identify neighboring cell frequency described in system message 5, but neglects frequency information of neighboring cell carried by messages 5BIS and 5TER. System message 5BIS mainly describes frequency information of neighboring cells (part of BA2 table). It is optional and is transmitted in SACCH. Generally, the frequency allocation table carried by system message 5 can only describe a limited number of frequencies, so system message 5BIS carries information of other frequencies (which are in the same frequency band as system message 5) in the BA2 table. System message 5TER mainly describes frequency information of neighboring cells (it is also a part of BA2 table). It is transmitted in SACCH channel. Similarly, only dual frequency mobile phones can read this message (single frequency 900 or 1800 mobile phones will neglect this message). System messages 5, 5bis and 5ter mainly include information of relevant parameters such as neighboring cell description (Neighbor Cell Desc.), extended neighboring cell description (Extended), etc.
VI. System message 6

System message 6 mainly describes location area identifier, cell identifier and some parameters describing cell functions. It is compulsory and is transmitted in SACCH channel. System message 6 is also one of the important system messages. System message 6 mainly includes information of the following parameters: Information on relevant parameters such as CGI, Cell Option, NCC Permitted, etc.
7.2 Cell Selection and Cell Reselection

In idle mode, mobile phone can conduct the following operations: Network selection, cell selection/reselection and location update.
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Chapter 7
Parameter Design
7.2.1 Network Selection

The mobile station always preferably selects Home Public Land Mobile Network (HPLMN). If a mobile phone is not within the coverage area of the HPLMN, then the mobile phone will select Visit Public Land Mobile Network (VPLMN). Even in roaming mode, the mobile station will still periodically attempt to search for the HPLMN. (1) Power on or start network selection when entering coverage area (2) Subscriber reselection A subscriber can start network selection at anytime. (3) Periodically searching for HPLMN in national roaming mode In national roaming mode, the mobile station will periodically attempt to search for the HPLMN. Its periodic value T is stored in the SIM card (If T is not available in the SIM, then please use the default value of 30 minutes). Success sign of network selection by mobile station: Successfully finding appropriate resident cell in the network. Successful location update There are two network selection modes: Automatic mode and manual mode. (1) Automatic mode The mobile station automatically select available network of the highest priority. (2) Manual mode The mobile station provides a network list and the subscriber selects the network to be accessed. This network list includes PLMN not allowed. The mobile phone stores a PLMN not allowed list in the SIM card. When the mobile phone conduct the location updating of location registration in the VPLMN and receives the location updating rejection including PLMN not allowed, it will add the network (VPLMN) to the list. After successful location update in manual network selection mode, the network (VPLMN) will be deleted from the list. After power-off or pulling out the SIM card, the list is still reserved. The HPLMN is not included in the list.
7.2.2 Cell Selection and Reselection

In the selected network, the mobile station will search for an appropriate resident cell according to the descending order of the received level strength so that the mobile station can receive system messages from the network.
I. Conditions of appropriate and normal resident cell

The priority of cell can be divided into: Normal, low priority and bar access. Only when there is no appropriate normal cell will the low priority cell be selected. The appropriate conditions include: (1) The cell belongs to the selected network. (2) The cell is not barred. (3) The cell does not belong to barred national roaming location area.
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Chapter 7
Parameter Design
(4) The radio path loss between MS and BTS is under the threshold set for the network. The cell priority is determined by both CBQ(CELL_BAR_QUALIFY) and CBA(CELL_ BAR_ACCESS).
CELL_BAR QUALIFY 0 0 1 1 CELL_BAR ACCESS 0 1 0 1 Cell selection priority Normal Barred Low Low Status for cell reselection Normal Barred Normal Normal
II. Cell selection

To implement cell selection and reselection, mobile phones require that all monitored frequencies should maintain an average received level grade. The average received level (RLA_C) should be unweighted average value of the receiving signal level measured with dBm. (1) Normal cell selection A mobile phone will search all RF channels in the system (at least 30 RF channels for 900M system, at least 40 RF channels for 1800M system and at least 40 RF channels for PSC1900) to obtain the received level of each RF channel and to calculate the corresponding RLA_C. The averaging of the received level of each TRX should at least based upon five measured samples (with a time about 3 to 5 seconds). The measured samples of different RF TRXs are uniformly distributed within this period of time. Then the sequencing according to the descending order of the levels will be performed and BCCH will be selected. The cell of normal priority will be selected preferably among these TRXs. If the appropriate cell is only the cell of low priority, the mobile phone will also select the cell of best level. However, in this case the mobile phone has already performed all decoding and identification of the above frequencies. If no appropriate cell is available, the mobile phone will continue to search. The maximum time to synchronize a BCCH TRX is 0.5s and the maximum time to read the data of a synchronized BCCH TRX is 1.9s. Where the time to obtain system message is exceptional, being n*1.9s(n>1). (2) Storage table cell selection In this case, the mobile station has a previously stored BCCH frequency list of the selected network (more than one). For each stored BCCH TRX of the selected network, the mobile phone executes the same sampling process as normal cell selection (only aiming at the stored BCCH TRX). If the storage table cell selection fails, please start normal cell selection. Please note that if all the cells in this case are cells of low priority, the mobile phone will also finally select a cell of the highest level (but the mobile phone has conducted the decoding of TRXs in all the BA lists. When a mobile phone over 900M network enters the 900/1800 network, the mobile phone may select the 900 network regardless of the priority, since all the contents of the BCCH frequency list stored in the mobile phone only cover 900M frequencies. (3) Cell selection criteria The path loss criteria parameter C1 should be used for cell selection: C1=RLA_C - RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN- MAX((MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH- P), 0) For DCS 1800 3 mobile phones, C1 is: C1=RLA_C-RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN-MAX((MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH+POWER OFFSET- P), 0)
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Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Where all the parameters have the same unit dBm. The meaning of each parameter is as follows: RLA_C: Average received level of mobile station RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN: Minimum accessible received level of mobile station MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH: Maximum CCH power level P: Maximum transmitting power level of mobile station. POWER OFFSET: Power offset used by DCS 1800 3 mobile phones, which is related to MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH The so-called appropriate cells should meet the requirement: C1>0.
III. Downlink signaling link fault

The downlink link fault criteria are based upon downlink signaling link fault counter (DSC). When the mobile phone resides in a cell, the DSC will be initialized to an integer close to 90/N to the greatest extent (N stands for BS_PA_MFRMS---number of frames among same paging, with a value range: 2 to 9). Therefore, when the mobile phone attempts to decode the message in the paging subchannel, the value of DSC will increase by one whenever a message is successfully decoded (but should not exceed the initialized value). If the message decoding fails, the DSC will decrease by four. If 0 DSC , then a downlink signaling link fault occurs. The downlink signaling link fault will lead to cell reselection.
IV. Cell reselection

After the cell selection and when the cell reselection starts, the mobile phone will synchronize and read information of 6 BCCH TRXs (with highest signal level) not in the service cell as soon as possible (The BCCH TRXs should be in the BA table). For multi-frequency mobile phones, the TRXs with strongest signal level possibly are distributed in different bands. In idle state, the mobile phone will keep on monitoring the information of all the BCCH TRXs specified by the BCCH allocation table (BA), and also within the time period from 5s to Max {5 , ((5 * N + 6) DIV 7) * BS_PA_MFRMS / 4}s, the mobile phone will average each received level of the BCCH TRX (where, N refers to the number of BCCH TRXs not in the service cell). For each RLA_C (average received level), at least five level measurement samples are needed (RLA_C value is often updated). With respect to service cell, each paging block of the mobile phone at least needs one received level sample. The RLA_C is calculated by averaging the sampled level values received from 5s to Max (5s, five consecutive paging blocks of that MS). Each time when the measurement of RLA_C is updated, the TRXs in the list (in BA list)of 6 BCCH TRXs with the highest signal level not in service cell will be updated either (possibly the frequencies will be updated faster). The mobile phone at least attempts to decode all BCCH data of the service cell every 30s, and it at least attempts to decode the BCCH data block (which exerts influence upon cell reselection parameters) carried in 6 BCCH TRXs (with the highest signal level) not in service cell every five minutes. When the mobile phone finds that a new BCCH TRX has become one of the six TRXs with the highest signal level, the data of this BCCH TRX should be decoded in 30s. At least every 30s, the mobile phone attempts to detect the BSIC (base station color code) of the 6 BCCH TRXs (with the highest signal level) not in service cell so as to confirm whether it monitors the same cell. If the BSIC changes, then this TRX will be regarded as a new TRX and the BCCH data will be read once again.
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The mobile station in resident state will keep on selecting cell better than the current cell. Corresponding to the parameter C1 applied to cell selection, the path loss criteria parameter C2 is used for cell reselection. C2 is determined by the following formula: C2=C1+CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET-TEMPORARY_OFFSET*H(PENALTY_TIME-T) When PENALTY_TIME< >31, C2 = C1-CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET When PENALTY_TIME =31, where: CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET: Cell Reselection Offset (CRO) is used to manually correct C2. TEMPORARY_OFFSET: Temporary Offset (TO), PENALTY_TIME: Penalty Time (PT), determining the action time of the TO. T: A timer with the initial value of 0. When a certain cell is recorded in the list of the six neighboring cells with the highest signal level by the mobile station, the counter T corresponding to this cell starts to count to the accuracy of a TDMA frame (about 4.62 ms). When this cell is deleted from the list of the six neighboring cells with the highest signal level by the mobile station, the corresponding cell will be reset. If cell reselection is needed, the previous service cell enters the list of the six neighboring cells with the highest signal level, and the T value is PENALTY_TIME. H(x) : For non-service cells (neighboring cells): H(x) = 0 when x < 0 = 1 When x > 0 For service cell: H(x) = 0 If CELL_RESELECT_PARAM_IND in system messages 3 and 4 broadcast in BCCH is set as 1, then the cell reselection parameters CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET, TEMPORARY_OFFSET and PENALTY_TIME are also broadcast in BCCH system messages 3 and 4. If CELL_RESELECT_PARAM_IND is set as 0, then the mobile phone will think that all cell reselection parameters are 0, therefore, C2=C1. At least every 5s, the mobile phone will calculate C1 and C2 of the service cell. The mobile phone will calculate C1 and C2 of all cells not in service (neighboring cells) again if necessary. The mobile phone will keep on checking the following conditions: (1) The path loss (C1) of the current service cell is decreased to a value less than 0 within 5s. It indicates that the path loss of the cell is too great. (2) The C2 value of an appropriated non-service cell keeps on exceeding C1 value of the service cell in 5s and also meets the following conditions: (a) If the new cell is in different location area, C2 value of the new cell subtracted by cell reselection hysteresis (CELL_RESELECT_HYSTERESIS, broadcast in system messages 3 and 4 in BCCH channel of the service cell) keeps on exceeding C2 value of the service cell. (b) If cell reselection occurs in recent 15s, then the C2 value of the new service subtracted by 5dB keeps on exceeding C2 value of the service cell in 5s. A new cell meeting the above condition is the better cell. If the better cell is available, then the mobile phone will perform cell reselection. After finding the better cell and cell reselection, the mobile phone should not reselect the previous resident cell in 5s, although the cell may meet the cell reselection conditions.
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To summarize, the following conditions will lead to cell reselection: (1) The radio path loss of the current resident cell is too great (C1 0 (2) The downlink of the current resident cell fails (DSC 0 (3) The current resident cell has been barred. (4) According to the cell reselection parameter C2, it is found that there is a cell better than the current resident cell in the same location area, or with the application of the Cell Reselection Hysteresis parameter (CRH), there is a better cell in another location area of the network. (5) The random access times reaches the maximum retry times broadcast in BACH, but the mobile phone has not successfully accessed to the current resident cell yet. ). ).
7.2.3 Location Updating

I. Normal location update (location update of offside location area)
When a mobile station moves from one location area to another location area, it should make registration, that is to say, once the mobile station finds that the LAI in its memory is different from the LAI number of the current cell, it will request the network to change the stored location information. This process is called location update. Firstly, considering mobile station powered on in idle state, which moves in the same location area, and if cell reselection occurs in this case and the service cell of the mobile station has changed, the mobile station will not inform the network of the change. That is to say, the mobile station only conducts cell reselection, but not the location update, so the network does not take part in the processing. If two cells are not in the same location area before and after reselection, the mobile station must inform the network of the location area change. This process is called forced registration. According to the different location update identifiers, i.e., in broad sense, the location update can be divided into normal location update (location update of offside location area), periodic location update (corresponding to T3212) and IMSI attachment (corresponding to mobile stations powered on). Dividing specifically, the location updating division depends whether the location update program belongs to the same VLR and whether the participation of IMSI number is needed. It can be divided into the following several types of location update. (1) Location update of different location areas in the same VLR (INTRA VLR LOCATION UPDATE) This is the simplest location updating process. During this process, the mobile station does not need to provide IMSI number. The updating is conducted I the current VLR, without the need to notify HLR. During the initialization, the mobile station has marked in the initialized message carried by SABM frame sent to the network that the direct access reason is location updating request (MM LOCATION UPDATING REQUEST). This message carries the TMSI number and LAI numbers of the mobile station with clearly indication of normal location updating. If the MSC sends this message to the VLR when it receives it, the VLR will update the location message of the mobile station and store the new LAI number, and also it will send a new TMSI number (it is appropriate for the TMSI reallocation command not to carry the TMSI number, but in this case the mobile station will still use the previous TMSI) to the mobile station. After the TMSI re-allocation of the mobile station is finished, the MSC will send the location update accepted
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(LOCATION UPDATE ACCEPT) to the mobile station. After this, it releases the channel location update end. (2) Extra-VLR Location update and the TMSI number is transmitted When a mobile station enters a cell, if it finds that the stored LAI number is different from the current LAI number, then in the location updating request, it will send its old LAI number and the stored TMSI number to the VLR through the MSC. When the VLR finds that the LAI number does not belong to itself, it will educe the previous VLR address according to the old TMSI and LAI numbers and also it will request the old VLR to send the IMSE and authorization parameters (MAP_SEND_IDENTIFICATION). The old VLR will return the IMSI and authorization parameters of the mobile station to the new VLR. If the new VLR cannot obtain the IMSI due to certain reasons, the VLR will send identity request message to the MS to ask for the IMSI number. After the VLR obtains the IMSI number, it will send location updating message to the HLR of the MS. The location message includes MS identifier and relevant information so that the HLR can query data and set up path. After the HLR receives this message, if the new MSC/VLR has normal service authority, then the HLR will store the current VLR number and will also send Cancel location message to the old VLR (MAP/D_CANCEL_LOCATION). The old VLR will delete all the information of the MS after receiving the message and will also send cancel location confirmation message back to the HLR (MAP/D_CANCEL_LOCATION_RESULT). The new VLR will continue the process of authorization encryption and TMSI re-allocation. After that, the HLR will provide the VLR with necessary subscriber information through originating message of inserting subscriber data (MAP_INSERT_SUBSCRIBER_DATA), including information such as authorization parameters, etc. When the HLR receives the response of the VLR, it will send location updating confirmation message to the VLR. (3) Extra-VLR Location update and the IMSI number is transmitted The location updating process is the same as the above one and is simpler, since it directly request authorization parameters from the HLR through the IMSI number.
II. IMSI attachment and detachment

The IMSI attachment and detachment means to add a binary mark to the subscriber record in the MSC/VLR. The IMSI attachment process means to set the mark as access allowed, while the IMSI detachment means to set the mark as access not allowed. When the mobile phone powers on, it should notify the network of the power-on state. This notification process is implemented as follows: The mobile station sends an IMSI attachment message (IMSI ATTATCH) to the network so that the network can know that the current state of the mobile phone has changed. The network will indicate clearly the current subscriber state in the system data when receiving this message, such that the network can originate its paging program when the paging message of the mobile station arrives. After power-on, if the mobile station finds that its stored LAI number is consistent with the current LAI number, then it will perform the IMSI attachment process. It program process is basically the same as that of INTRA VLR LOCATION UPDATE, and the only difference is that the LOCATION UPDATING REQUEST message clearly indicates that the location updating type is IMSI attachment. Its initialization message includes the IMSI number of the mobile station. After power-on, if the mobile station finds that its stored LAI number is not consistent with the current LAI number, then it will execute normal location updating process.
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It the mobile station wants to power off, it will define to trigger the IMSI detachment process through a key. During this process, only one command is sent from the MS to the MSC/VLR. This is a piece of unconfirmed message. When the MSC receives the IMSI detachment request, it will notify the VLR to add the Detach mark to the IMSI, but the HLR is not informed of the message that the subscriber has detached from the network. When this subscriber is paged, the HLR will request the roaming number (MSRN) from the VLR where the subscriber is located. In this case, the HLR will be informed that the subscriber has detached from the network. Thus, the paging program will not be executed and the paging message will be directly treated, such as playing the announcement The subscriber is powered off, etc. After the MS sending out this message, the RR connection will be abandoned automatically.
III. Periodic location updating

If the following conditions occur, the network will always lose connection with the mobile phones: (a). When the powered-on mobile station moves out of the covered area (i.e., blind area) of the network, in such case, the mobile station cannot send any instructions to the network, therefore, the network cannot know the current state of the mobile phone and it will still think that the mobile station is in attachment state. (b). When the mobile station sends the IMSI Detach message to the network, if the link is off poor quality due to certain interference in the uplink lf the radio path, then the network possibly cannot correctly decode the message. Therefore, it means that the system still think that the MS is in attachment state. (c). When the mobile station is powered off, it still cannot inform the network of its current state, so the two of them lose connection. When the above three cases occur, if the mobile station is being paged, then the system will send the paging message in the location area which the subscriber has registered before. The result is of course that the network cannot receive the paging response, which will lead to invalid system resources seizure. To solve this problem, the GSM system takes corresponding measures to force the mobile station to report its current location to the network after a certain period of time. Thus, with this kind of mechanism, the network can understand whether any change occur to the current state of the mobile station. This is the periodic location updating mechanism. With the help of the system broadcast message of BCCH in the cell, the BSS sends the periodic location updating time (T3212) to all subscribers in the cell so as to force the mobile stations to automatically originate the location updating request to the network after the timer is timeout (the request reason should be marked as periodic location updating. After the cell selection or reselection, the mobile station will read T3212 from the system message of the current service cell, and also it will set the timer and store it in its SIM card. After that, the mobile station will automatically originate location-updating request to the network if it finds that the T3212 is timeout. Correspondingly, for the NSS part, the network will periodically query the subscribers marked as IMSI attachment in its VLR and it will change the identifier of the subscribers (which do not have any connection with the network during this period of time) as IMSI detachment (IMSI DETATCH), so as to prevent paging for such mobile stations (such paging will lead to waste of system resources). This period of time is called the IMSI detachment time. To improve the connected rate, it is expected that the time be set as a shorter value (on the precondition that it is longer than periodic location updating time). However, the coverage differs greatly for different areas. This difference should be taken into consideration in LAC division, and meanwhile, it is much better to set the IMSI detachment time with LAC as unit for the convenience of matching with the periodic location updating time setting. The periodic location updating is an important means for the close connection between the network and mobile subscribers. Therefore, the shorter the periodic location updating time, the better the overall performance of the network. However, frequent location updating will lead to side effects: On one hand, the signaling traffic of the network will be greatly increased and the utilization ratio of radio resources is
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decreased, which will exert some influence upon the processing capacity of MSC, BSC and BTS; on the other hand, the power consumption of the mobile phone will be severely increased, so the standby time of the mobile phone in the system is greatly shortened. Therefore, please take the actual conditions into integrated consideration in T3212 setting.
7.3 Huawei Handover Algorithm

To adapt to the rapid development of mobile communication service and to solve the problems of insufficient frequency resources and network congestion, Huawei M900/M1800 system has adopted hierarchical network architecture, as shown in 7-1.
Umbrella Cell GSM900 Cell GSM 900
GSM 900
GSM 900
GSM 900
GSM1800 Cell
GSM1800
GSM1800
GSM1800
Micro Cell
GSM900 GSM1800
GSM900 GSM1800
GSM900 GSM1800
GSM900 GSM1800
Figure 7-1 Hierarchical network architecture The whole network uses four layers as the basic framework: Umbrella, Macro, Micro and Pico. Each layer can be configured with 16 priorities, which provides operators with sufficient network planning space so as to adapt to various complicated networking environment. Where, the Macro layer is the main force 900 layer, the Micro layer is the main force 1800 layer and the Pico layer is the microcell layer of 900 and 1800. Purpose of hierarchical network design: To rapidly expand the network capacity with the application of the hierarchical network and to remove the bottleneck of network frequency resources. Try best to guide the dual frequency mobile phones to be resident in M1800 cells so as to ease the congestion state of the original M900 network. To widen the coverage range and to improve the signal quality of hot spots and large-traffic areas.
7.3.1 Handover Decision Flow

The decision flow of Huawei handover algorithm is shown in Figure 7-2.
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Figure 7-2 Decision flow of Huawei handover algorithm
7.3.2 Measurement Report Pre-processing

The measurement report pre-processing mainly includes the following two functions:
I. Measurement Result (MR) Interpolation

Generally, the MS will periodically report the measurement results of the uplinks and neighboring cells, and the BTS will combine the measurements of corresponding uplinks to form Measurement Result and then will report to the BSC. If due to some reason, the received measurement results are discontinuous, then these lost measurement results should be interpolated within a certain loss limit. This processing is called MR interpolation calculation. The continuity of the MR is judged by Measurement result number, and the interpolation algorithm adopts simplified one-order interpolation method (the lost value is calculated according to the measurement value at both ends of the lost measurement result).
II. MR filtering (MR Time Evaluation)

The series of measured values corresponding to a radio link will not be a smooth curve. To remove accidental factors in handover decision, smooth processing should be conducted for various measured values. This process is regarded as MR filtering. There many methods for MR averaging. At present, we use the method of obtaining current values for decision-making by the simple forward averaging. The number of forward obtained values is called filter length. For different types of measured values, there are different filter lengths.
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7.3.3 Penalty Processing

I. Penalty for handover failure
Among existing algorithms, when the service cell fails in handover to the neighboring cell, it will terminate regarding the neighboring cell as the destination cell, but continue handover attempts to the cell. Thus it will lead to frequent invalid handover attempts and exert great influence upon the system performance. Therefore, in cell handover, once the handover fails, the destination cell should be punished during a certain period of time so as to avoid frequency unsuccessful handover attempts.
II. BQ and TA penalty

For emergency handover caused by BQ and TA, after handover to the destination cell, once the destination cell needs handover due to reasons such as traffic, priority, etc. (since in this case it cannot obtain the TA and receiving quality of the original service cell except the received level), if the received level of the original cell is higher, then the MS will still possibly be handed over back to the original service cell, thus leading to ping-pong handover. Therefore, the penalty-processing module also includes the handover penalty for BQ and TA, i.e., After the MS is handed over to its neighboring cell due to TA and BQ, the original service cell will be punished during a certain period of time.
7.3.4 Handover Sequencing Algorithm

To select an appropriate destination handover cell, the neighboring cells will be queued according a certain sequencing principle. The M criteria, K criteria and 16bit criteria.
I. M criteria
Firstly, determine whether the received levels of the neighboring cells are higher than the minimum received level, since only the neighboring cells whose received lever is higher than the minimum received level can enter the candidate cell list, i.e., the neighboring cells are tailored according their received levels. For the service cell: RXLEV(o) >MSRXMIN(o) + MAX(0,Pa(o)) For neighboring cells: RXLEV(n) > MSRXMIN(n)+ MAX(0,Pa(n)) Where, RXLEV(o) and RXLEV(n) are MS received levels of the service cell and the neighboring cell respectively, while MSRXMIN(o) and MSRXMIN(n) are the minimum received levels of the MS required by the service cell and the neighboring cell. Pa(o)=MS_TXPWR_MAX(o)-P; Pa(n)=MS_TXPWR_MAX(n)-P; P =max_power_of_ms; MS_TXPWR_MAX(n) is maximum transmitting power of mobile phone limited by the BSS.
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max_power_of_ms is the maximum transmitting power of the mobile phone itself. The method can be described as follows: The existing algorithm only considers the minimum received power threshold of downlink and does not consider uplink. Thus, if the maximum power of the mobile phone exceeds the maximum transmitting level required by the BSS, then Pa is equal to zero, i.e., the uplinks of the mobile phone can also meet the requirements; to the contrary, the minimum received level of downlink should be added with a compensation value to meet the requirements of uplink received level of the neighboring cell.
II. K criteria
The sequencing of candidate cells is based upon the received level. A hysteresis exists among the cells, i.e., the K hysteresis, which is equivalent to a threshold between different cells and plays the function of handover stabilizer. The actual received level of the downlink of a neighboring cell subtracted by a virtual offset (K hysteresis) is the received level of the neighboring cell finally obtained by the service cell. All neighboring cells are sequenced according to this value and the priorities of the neighboring cells are reduced from front to back.
III. 16 bits criteria

Huwei BSC handover algorithm is based upon the 16bit criteria of each cell, the cell with the minimum value is selected as the handover cell.
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
The specific meaning of each bit is as follows: Bits 1 to 3: Sequencing based upon the received level of each cell. It results from the sequencing of six candidate cells and one service cell according the received level (with the combination of the received level and the corresponding penalty). Bit 4: the handover hysteresis comparing bit between cells of the same layer. Bit 3 of the service cell is zero all the time. When the received level of a neighboring cell subtracted by the received level of the service cell is greater than the inter-cell handover hysteresis, it is set as 0; when the received level of a neighboring cell subtracted by the received level of the service cell is less than the inter-cell handover hysteresis, it is set as 1. Bits 5 to 10: Bits in handover layering and leveling. The bits are used for determine the layers and priority levels (when the level of the neighboring cell or service cell is lower than relationship between the inter-layer handover threshold and hysteresis, they will be screened and set as 0). There are 64 priorities. Bit 11: Load adjusting bit. If the candidate cell is the service cell and the load is greater than or equal to the local handover start threshold, then it is set as 1, or it will be set as 0; if the candidate cell is the neighboring cell and the load is greater than or equal to the local handover receiving threshold, then it is set as 1, or it will be set as 0. For the load handover start threshold and receiving threshold, please refer to the load handover data table. No matter whether the load handover switch is opened or not, the bit plays its due function. Bit 12: Common BSC adjusting bit (i.e., sharing the same BSC). If the level of the neighboring cell or the service cell is lower than the relationship between the interlayer handover threshold and hysteresis, it will be screened and set as 0.
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Bit 13: Adjustment bit sharing the same MSC. When the level of the neighboring cell or service cell is lower than relationship between the inter-layer handover threshold and hysteresis, they will be screened and set as 0. Bit 14: Inter-layer handover threshold adjusting bit. Whether the level of the neighboring cell is higher than the inter-layer handover threshold + hysteresis or the level of the service cell is higher than the inter-layer handover threshold hysteresis. The bit is set as 0 or 1. Bit 15: Cell type adjusting bit (mainly used for 70KM extended cell).
7.3.5 Emergency Handover

The emergency handover means that the triggering of the handover is rapid. At present, the emergency handover mainly destinations at four cases: High TA, poor receiving quality, rapid decrease of received level and great interference. During emergency handover, the best cell will be selected only according to the current cell sequencing, not multiple sequencing, so as to speed up the time response characteristic of the system.
I. Handover caused by high TA

The timing advance can serve as a criterion for restricting cell size in a sense. The BSC will judge whether the TA of the current MS exceeds the defined maximum TA threshold TALIM (Timing Advanced LIMit). If it does, the BSC will originate an emergency handover due to high TA value.
II. Emergency handover caused by BQ

The transmission quality of links is measured with BER (Bit Error Ratio). The reason of high BER may result from low signal power or channel interference.
III. Emergency handover caused by rapid level decrease

This is mainly used to judge the emergency handover due to rapid decrease of the received level of the MS. Since in this case, if the normal handover flow is used (i.e., the handover is triggered when the received level of the MS is lower than the edge handover threshold), then the MS may be disconnected without rapid trigger since it still is making P/N decision. The judgement of rapid level decrease is the emphasis of this part. The decision method is to introduce the concept of fast filter. For rapid level decrease, considering over fluctuation of the original level, it is planned to filter the level for a short period of time and then to judge whether the level is rapidly decreased with an appropriate filter (the filter is specially used to judge rapid level decrease). The averaged filter length is set as QCKFALLLEN (3 by default). After filtering of the averaging filter, then use the filter for judging the rapid level decrease to conduct appropriate processing, shown as follows:
CF(nT) =
i=0
$C((n i)T) <
Where, C(nT) (when j=0) is the measured value of the current signal strength and C((n-j)T) is the corresponding measured result in the Jth period (T) before the current period.
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IV. Emergency handover caused by uplink/downlink interference

If the BER of the link increases, but the received level is still high, then it is thought that the channel has been interfered and the emergency handover due to uplink/downlink interference will be originated.
7.3.6 Load Handover

The so-called load handover means that when the load of a cell is too heavy, then the load will be appropriately distributed to neighboring cells of low load so that the load is uniformly distributed over the whole network and to decrease the blocking rate. If the allowed identifier of load handover is set as HoClsAcc, then the system is allowed to perform load handover, i.e., the system allows the load to be handed over to its neighboring cell and also it allows to accept the subscribers handed over due to load reason, otherwise the cell neither can hand over subscribers to the neighboring cell due to heavy load nor the cell will accept the subscribers handed over from other cell. The traffic load handover can only be performed in cells of the same BSC. The current design supports the handover between different layers of the hierarchical network. To implement the load handover function, first of all please judge whether the flow level of the current system is higher than the allowed load handover threshold (ClsSysFlowLvl). If it is, then the load handover will not be performed, so as to prevent great influence of load handover upon the overall system. During load handover, please judge whether the local of the cell where the subscriber is located is higher than the load handover threshold (ClsLevel). If it is and also the subscriber is within the load handover area, then the subscriber will be handed over to the neighboring cell (if the load is lower than the received threshold ClsAcc, then the ClsAcc must be lower than ClsLevel). The purpose of setting the load handover area is to prevent that too many subscribers are handed over to the neighboring cell simultaneously. The load handover area refers to the area between the edge handover threshold and the edge handover threshold plus load handover area offset (ClsOffset). Please refer to Figure 7-3.
Load handover area
Normal handover boundary
Cell A
Cell B
CONF_HO_RXLEV+CLSOFFSE CONF_HO_RXLE T V CONF_HO_RXLEV+CLSRAM P
Figure 7-3 Schematic diagram of load handover Thus, it can be seen that if the system permits the load handover, then all the subscribers within the load handover area will become load handover objects simultaneously and will be handed over to Cell B. This will exert great influence upon the BSC processor and meanwhile it may lead to blocking of the destination cell. Therefore, please gradually hand over the load to Cell B. The gradual handover to Cell
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B is controlled by classified load handover step (ClsRamp). When the load handover is allowed, the system allows the subscribers within CONF_HO_RXLEV and CONF_HO_RXLEV+ClsRamp to be handed over to Cell B and in the meantime, the system will start the load handover timer (TimerTCLS). When the timer reaches a certain time (ClsPeriod), the system allows the subscribers within CONF_HO_RXLEV and CONF_HO_RXLEV +2*ClsRAMP to be handed over to Cell B. This process continues until all subscribers in the load handover area are handed over to Cell B. Hereafter, all subscribers in the load handover area can be handed over to Cell B. Functions such as CRO, leveled traffic control, load handover and direct reuse, etc. are applicable to abnormal traffic peak in local area of the radio network as emergency measures or real hierarchical implementation, so they should not be regarded as the main solutions to traffic congestion, since such means will change the normal cell layout and will cause accidental network quality problems such as strong signal fluctuation, etc. If a local area of the network always needs load handover or direct reuse, then please consider adjusting the sector TRX configuration of the base station and the network layout.
7.3.7 Normal Handover

I. Edge handover
In N MRs, if P uplink levels of the MS or service cell are lower than the edge handover threshold, then the edge handover will be triggered. The edge handover requires that the candidate cells should be in front of the service cell in the queue of candidate cells.
II. Leveled cell handover

The handover of dual frequency system is implemented through setting the cells as different levels (CellLevel) and different priorities (CellPriority). That is to say, the dual frequency system is regarded as a network. According to the actual requirements, the GSM1800 system can be set as higher priority. Here, please note the lower the level, the higher the priority and the lower the priority level, the higher the priority. For example: The cell of level 1 has a priority higher than the cell of level 2, and the cell with priority set as 1 has a higher priority than the cell with a priority set as 2. The cell leveling function is implemented through setting cell levels and priority of cells in the same level. The cells are divided into four levels, and each level is divided into 16 priorities. After basic cell sequencing, the cells will be sequenced again according to the levels and priorities of the candidate cells, and the cell of high priority will be sequenced at the front. Thus, it is guaranteed that in the same condition, the MS will be handed over to cell of high priority preferably. Thus, the cell levels and priorities will play function in the sequencing of the candidate cells to which the MS may be handed over. This part is implemented in the network characteristic adjusting module of the handover algorithm. The network characteristic adjusting module will simultaneously judge whether the neighboring cell and the service cell share the same BSC/MSC, because in order to meet the requirements of independent networking and to reduce handovers between BSC and MSC as much as possible, and the priority of whether the cells share the same BSC is higher than the leveled priority, therefore, the relationship between cells should be judged. Here, please set the On/Off of CO_BSC_MSC_TREATMENT. If it is set as On, then please adjust the queue of the candidate cells according to whether the neighboring cell and the service cell configured by the data management console share the same BSC/MSC.
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III. PBGT handover

In regions with dense network architecture, the actual radio coverage range is greatly larger than the distance between base stations. Thus, if the MS keeps communication in a cell, it cannot be effectively handed over to a closer cell needing lower transmitting power. Therefore, it will lead to extra-cell coverage phenomenon, which increases interference upon the radio environment and influences networking planning and optimizing. To solve this problem, please introduce the PBGT handover algorithm based upon path loss. The PBGT handover algorithm is a handover algorithm based upon path loss. The PBGT handover algorithm searches in real time whether there exists a cell which has smaller path loss and meets certain system requirements and also it will judge whether the handover is needed. The PBGT handover at least can bring about the following advantages: (1) Solving the problem of extra-cell coverage. (2) Reducing the dual frequency handover times. (3) Providing more flexible means for traffic guidance and control. (4) Providing subscribers with best current service quality all along. The GSM05.08 protocol describes the calculation of the PGBT in it appendix as follows: PBGT(n) = (Min (MS_TXPWR_MAX,P) - RXLEV_DL - PWR_C_D) - (Min (MS_TXPWR_MAX (n),P) - RXLEV_NCELL(n)) --Equal to the downlink received level of the neighboring cell -(Downlink received level of the service cell + Power control level) The meaning of each parameter is as follows: MS_TXPWR_MAX: The maximum MS transmitting power allowed by the service cell MS_TXPWR_MAX (n): The maximum MS transmitting power allowed by the neighboring cell n RXLEV_DL: The downlink receiving power of the service cell RXLEV_NCELL(n): The downlink receiving power of the neighboring cell n PWR_C_D: The difference of the maximum downlink transmitting power of the service cell and the actual downlink transmitting power of the service cell caused by power control P: The maximum transmitting power of the MS When PBGT(n) > HO_MARGIN(n), the PBGT handover can be triggered. The triggering criterion of the PBGT handover is: If the path loss of the neighboring cell is less than the path loss of the service cell by a certain threshold and also meets the P/N criteria during a certain period of measurement time, then the PBGT handover will be triggered. Specifically speaking, P measurements among N measurements meet PBGT(n) > PGBT_Ho_Margin(n). Where P, N and PBGT_Ho_Margin(n) are set in the Data Management Console, and PBGT(n) is calculated according to the parameters configured through the Data Management Console and the measurement results reported by the BTS.
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In addition, the PBGT handover can only be performed between cells of the same level and priority and also can only be triggered in TCH channel.
IV. Speed sensitivity handover

The handover will be conducted according to the relative speed of the mobile station so as to reduce the handover times and disconnection rate. Here, we describe the speed sensitivity handover in the Active mode. Generally, portable mobile stations are relatively fixed, unreasonable extra-cell handover times will not be resulted even in dense mircocell network. However, there exists another problem: A portable mobile station can be regarded as making fast motion relative to cell size. If processed by macrocell network, such rapid motion may lead to quite a number of extra-cell handovers so that it is difficult to implement call control. Therefore, macrocells are used to provide service for these mobile stations with fast motion so that the extra-cell handover times will not increase considerably. How to judge whether a mobile station is making fast motion and what method should be used to hand over it to the macrocell are problems to solve. Principle 1: If the mobile station is making fast motion relative to the microcell network, the please hand over it to the macrocell network. Principle 2: To prevent the fast mobile station registered in macrocell from entering the microcell network, time penalty should be applied to the microcell. If the service cell is a macrocell: To prevent the fast mobile station registered in macrocell from entering the microcell network, time penalty should be applied to the microcell. If the penalty time of a certain neighboring cell is not 0, then when the neighboring cell passes the M criteria, please start the time penalty timer. Subtract the received level of the cell by a larger value before the timer is timeout so that the cell will be sequenced at the back of the queue of candidate cells. Generally, the MS will be handed over to this cell only in emergency handover. If the service cell is a microcell: This algorithm adopts the method of obtaining statistic of the microcells the MS passes. Among the P microcells, if Q microcells think hat the MS is in fast motion, then the MS will be handed over the macrocell, and in the meantime, the corresponding statistical parameter will be cleared.
7.3.8 Power prediction after handover

If the transmitting power after handover is the maximum transmitting power of the MSs allowed by the new cell, then perfect connection quality can be guaranteed even for MSs in the edge areas of the cell during extra-cell handover. However, if the MSs are very close to the base station during the extra-cell handover (especially when the distance between base stations is very short), then it is unnecessary to use the maximum allowed transmitting power. Although the power control can rapidly reduce the transmitting power of a mobile station to an appropriate level, the RF power peak after extra-cell handover may lead to uplink/downlink interference upon the radio network. Furthermore, excessive power level will shorten the battery life of the MS. Please refer to Figure 7-4.
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Min(MS_TXPWR_MAX(n), P) MS_TXPWR(n)
BTS1
HO
BTS2
Figure 7-4 In case without handover power prediction In fact, we can set the optimum uplink received level of the cell so as to guarantee perfect communication quality during and after handover. Based upon this, we can deduce the optimized algorithm of the initial MS transmitting power after handover so as to replace the maximum allowed transmitting power with optimized initial MS transmitting power. It can also reduce the uplink power control times after handover so that the uplink level can verge to the expected power control value faster. Please define the following variables: MS_TXPWR_MAX(n): The maximum MS transmitting power of mobile phone allowed by neighboring cell n MS_TXPWR(n): The actual transmitting power of mobile phone allowed by neighboring cell n BSPWR(n): Output power of the base station transmitter of neighboring cell n BSTX_MAX(n): The maximum allowed transmitting power of neighboring cell n PATH_LOSS_UL(n): The uplink path loss of neighboring cell n PATH_LOSS_DL(n): The downlink path loss of neighboring cell n RXLEV_NCELL(n): The downlink signal level of neighboring cell n MsOptLevel(n): The optimum uplink received level of neighboring cell n After handover, please guarantee that the uplink received level is a perfect value so as to prevent possible handover failure or call disconnection. This value is represented with the optimum received level. When the received level of the base station approaches to the optimum uplink received level, the received level of the MS the received level of the base station, i.e., the received level of the MS is also approaches to the optimum uplink received level. The difference between the received level of the MS and the optimum uplink received level reflects the difference between the maximum transmitting power of the base station and the required transmitting power after handover. This difference is equal to the difference between the maximum transmitting power of the MS and the required transmitting power after handover. Therefore, the calculation formula of the initial transmitting power of the MS after handover is as follows: MS_TXPWR(n) MS_TXPWR_MAX(n) - Max(0,(RXLEV_NCELL(n)- MsOptLevel(n))) Function Max( ) guarantees that the difference between the downlink level and the optimum uplink received level of the destination cell is not negative.
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To guarantee the calculated power is not beyond the MS capability and to set the lower limit (MSTX_LIM_MIN(n)) of the MS transmitting power so as to prevent too low MS transmitting power due to improper parameter setting, then MS_TXPWR(n) Max( Min( A, P ), MSTX_LIM_MIN(n) ) Where, A=MS_TXPWR_MAX(n)-Max(0,(RXLEV_NCELL(n) - MsOptLevel(n)))
MS_TXPWR_MAX(n)
RXLEV_NCELL(n)
MS_TXPWR(n) MsOptLevel(n) BTS1 HO BTS2
Figure 7-5 Case with handover power prediction If the uplink power control of the destination handover cell is not opened, then the initial transmitting power of the MS after handover should use the maximum allowed transmitting power (not the optimum value). For inter-office handover, please do not calculate the optimum value of the initial transmitting power of the MS after handover.
7.3.9 Concentric Circle Algorithm

The division of inner circle and excircle of Huawei concentric circle cell is based upon the downlink received level and timing advance of mobile phones (such as Figure 7-6). According to the received level threshold and timing advance threshold, the border of inner circle and excircle can be adjusted flexibly such that the inner circle and excircle can reasonably share traffic in the precondition of guaranteeing various network indices. The transmitting power of the inner circle is less than that of the excircle, so when a subscriber is in the inner circle area, then after the connection of inner circle has been set up, the measured value of the service cell obtained from the MR (Measurement Result) is based upon measured inner circle value of small power, while the measured value of the neighboring cell is based upon measured excircle value of large power (indicating a kind of unequality). In this case, please make power compensation for the inner circle so that the service cell will have equal position as the neighboring cell during sequencing. The power difference of the inner circle and excircle is generally the sum of the power difference of inner circle/excircle power amplifier, insertion loss difference of combiners, path loss difference of difference antennas and path loss difference of difference frequencies. If the inner circle and excircle shares the same antenna, then please select any a test point, close the uplink power control function and set up communication connection in the inner circle and excircle respectively, and then measure the stable signal strength difference of the inner circle and excircle in communication state (the data is configured as this difference). If the inner circle and
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excircle does not share the same antenna, then please select three test points and test according to the previous method, and finally average the difference. In the figure, the TA threshold and path loss threshold are the thresholds preset by the system and the broken line stands for the actually configured threshold. There is a hysteresis between the value of the real limited area and the configured value. The inner circle area can be expressed as: received level > Received level threshold + Received level Hysteresis and threshold - TA Hysteresis The excircle area can be expressed as: received level Received level threshold -Received level Hysteresis threshold + TA Hysteresis or TA TA TA<TA
Obviously, there is a blank segment between the inner circle and excircle expressed by the formulas, i.e.: Received level threshold- Received level Hysteresis < Received level Received level threshold TA< TA level Hysteresis and TA threshold - TA Hysteresis +Received threshold - TA Hysteresis This area is the hysteresis area of the concentric circle. It is the same as the hysteresis concept of ordinary handover algorithm. Its main function is to prevent the ping-pong handover. If the TA value is 63 and the TA Hysteresis value is 0, then the border of the inner circle is completely determined by the received level parameter; if the received level threshold is 63 and the received level Hysteresis is 0, then the border of the inner circle is completely determined by the parameter TA.
Excircle
Receiving level threshold Receiving level hysteresis
TA threshold nner circle
TA hysteresis
Figure 7-6 Division of inner circle and excircle for concentric circle cell
I. Channel allocation technology of concentric circle cell

With the consideration of the characteristics of concentric circle cells, the channel allocation technology of the concentric circle cell adopts different allocation policies for different channel allocation conditions, mainly including the following conditions:
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(1) Instant assignment There are not the received level and TA for reference during the instant assignment. To guarantee the service quality, the SDCCH channels in the excircle will be allocated preferably. The signaling channels of the inner circle will be allocation only when there is not any available signaling channel in the excircle. (2) Assignment The channel allocation policy of concentric circle is used for channel allocation. Firstly, please judge the subscriber position according to the MR in SDCCH. When the subscriber is within the inner circle range, then try best to allocate the inner circle channels, and when there is not any available inner circle channel, then allocate the excircle channels. Similarly, when the subscriber is within the excircle range, try best to allocate the excircle channels, and when there is not any available excircle channel, then allocate the inner circle channel, so as to implement the purpose that the appropriate service layer provides subscribers with appropriate services. (3) Internal handover of BSC It is applicable to non-concentric circle handover and direct handover to neighboring cell from the inner circle. The concentric circle channel allocation policy is used for channel allocation such that the appropriate service layer will provide service for mobile phones handed over to the cell. The basic principle is: through adding the measured value of BCCH in the destination cell to the handover request message between BSC cells, provide the values for concentric circle cell decision and select the service layer to allocate channels preferably. The decision method in this case is basically the same as that of the concentric handover decision. However, the TA value of the destination cell cannot be obtained, so the TA condition in the concentric circle decision cannot be considered. (4) Inter-BSC handover Since the received level and TA of the neighboring cell cannot be obtained, the mode of preferable inner circle/excircle selection without policy is applied with switch selection. For example, in ordinary networking condition, the inter-BSC handover is triggered at cell edges, so in this case the excircle channels can be selected preferably; While in dual frequency networking condition, 900/1800 shares the same station in most cases, in such a case, if there is a great number of incoming handovers (generally such handover is not triggered at cell edge), therefore, the inner circle channels can be selected preferably.
II. Concentric circle handover technology

Generally, the inner circle has more channels, so the traffic bearing capacity of the inner circle is far greater than the excircle. Therefore, if an MS sets up connection in the excircle, then when the MS moves to the service area of the inner circle, it should be handed over to the inner circle. The inner circle only has a limited coverage, therefore, if an MS sets up connection in the inner circle, then when the MS moves to the border of the inner circle and excircle, the MS should be handed over to the excircle channel so as to maintain the connection. In generally, the concentric handover is inter-cell handover. In some special cases, maybe the MS needs to be handed over to a neighboring cell directly from the inner circle, for example when the excircle is congested. Call disconnection may occur if the MS is not allowed to be directly handed over to the neighboring cell from the inner circle. Decision criteria of concentric handover:
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(1) Handover from excircle to inner circle When the current service layer is the excircle, if P among N measurement times meets the following condition Rxlev > Received level threshold +Received level Hysteresis Downlink power control compensation, and also If TA < TA threshold - TA Hysteresis, then handover from the excircle to the inner circle will be triggered. IN this case, if the inner circle does not have any available channel, it will directly return the handover rejection message (the cause value is no available channel). When the handover from the excircle to the inner circle is triggered, then the handover to the neighboring cell is not allowed. Because, the condition for triggering the handover from the excircle to the inner circle is that the received level of the current service cell is higher than a threshold, while the inner circle has higher traffic bearing capacity and has higher priority level, so the concentric circle handover is triggered. However, in this case if the handover to the neighboring cell is triggered, the network optimization is not reflected and the handover may increase the excircle load of the neighboring cell. The handover from the excircle to the neighboring cell can be implemented through other handover modes, such as PBGT handover, edge handover, etc. (2) Handover from inner circle to excircle When the service layer is the inner circle, if P among N measurement times meets Rxlev Received level threshold -Received level Hysteresis Downlink power control compensation or If TA threshold + TA Hysteresis ,
then the handover from the inner circle to the excircle will be triggered. When the handover from the inner circle to the excircle is triggered, the direct handover to the neighboring cell is not allowed. In this case, if the excircle does not have any available channel, then it will directly return the handover rejection message (the cause value is no available channel). Where, the meaning of each parameter is as follows: Rxlev: The downlink received level of the current channel
Downlink power compensation: Due to power consumption of the current channel caused by the downlink power control, the calculation is the current BS power level multiplied by 2. Please not that the BCCH TRX channel needs special processing. P: P/N decision parameter, i.e., data configuration [Statistic time of concentric circle handover] N: P/N decision parameter, i.e., data configuration [Duration of concentric circle handover]
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7.4 Huawei Power Control Technology

The second generation of Huawei power control algorithm can implement the following functions: (1) MR (Measurement Result) compensation (2) Filtering of predicted MR (3) Canceling initial adjustment stage (relative to the first generation of Huawei power control algorithm) (4) Adjusting power calculation decision optimization After power control, the MR compensation is a kind of remedial measure to solve the problem that the received level in the MR before power adjustment obviously cannot reflect the current receiving condition. These MRs may be used to estimate the current receiving condition or to predict future MR values. For high accuracy, appropriate compensation should be made. The MR prediction filtering function is mainly an improved means for dealing with in sufficient power control hysteresis. To achieve concise and explicit concept and in the meantime prevent the initial adjustment after introduction of accessed level optimization measure from becoming a useless adjustment process, the initial power adjustment has been cancelled in the second generation of power control algorithm. Our main design considerations include: firstly, put forward power adjustment requirements according to receiving quality and received level, and then implement the decision with combined consideration. Thus, the power control efficiency can be improved and the instability of the algorithm can be removed since such solution can bring about more information for reference and better power control policy adjustment can be conducted.
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Se con d gen era tion of Huaw ei power control algorithm
Is MR compensation allowed
Yes
MR queue compensation
No
MR queue compensation
No
MS power processing
No
Yes
Yes
MS power processing
Uplink MR prediction filtering
MS power processing
MS power Control
MS power processing
Figure 7-7 Flow diagram of the second generation of Huawei power control algorithm
7.4.1 MR Preprocessing
I. MR compensation
Every time when an MR is received, the MR will be placed in the MR queue to serve as the original materials for power control and handover decision. To make decision, take integrated consideration of certain number of new MRs. We had such an assumption before that these MRs were obtained in the condition of constant transmitting power. Thus, if we found that the average received level had changed, we thought that the path loss had changed, so the change would be compensated on the basis of the current transmitting power. However, the present situation is that, these latest MRs possibly are obtained in different transmitting power conditions. Thus, the method of using the MRs before power adjustment to estimate the received level in current transmitting power condition will surely lead to error. To reduce such error, the MRs before power adjustment should be compensated. The specific method is to compensate the received level for the historical MRs at the moment when the power adjustment changes (considering adjustment delay, we can judge whether the transmitting power has changed according to the actual MRs).
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The MR compensation after power adjustment is to guarantee the accuracy of the MR prediction function of the second generation of power control algorithm.
II. Prediction filtering

The power control is a process of transmitting power control based upon the current received level and the receiving quality. The sending and transmission of power control command and power adjustment will take certain period of time, so there will exist certain hysteresis between the receiving change and corresponding transmitting power adjustment. If the hysteresis is very severe, then the transmitting power change not only cannot compensate the receiving change, but to the contrary, it will accelerate this change, so the power adjustment cannot play its due active function. In general, after the transmitting power adjusment command on the uplink is sent out, the transmitting power will be adjusted after three MRs. However, after the power adjustment command on downlink is sent out, the transmitting power will be adjusted immediately. Therefore, the power control hysteresis is mainly applied to the uplinks. It can be predicted that, the delivering of power control command in advance will facilitate the effective control of the received level, which is beneficial to stable received level and high receiving quality. The basic principle of the prediction filtering is: Firstly, calculate the weighed mean value (P1) of the received levels in N1 MRs approaching to the calculation moment, and then calculate the weighed mean value (P2) of N2 points before N1 points, and finally predict received level (Py) of the subsequent points according to N1 and N2. Thus, the prediction filtering value of the received level is: Py=P1 + (P1-P2) a (a stands for the amplification coefficient) Here, the time weighing is used. The newer the MRs is, the larger the weighed value will be. As, the newer MRs reflect comparatively current situations more accurately. This value can be directly used during average decision of power control. This value can also serve as a new MR to predict the next reference value with the same method, and so on. To improve the system controllability, the prediction times can be set in the background.
7.4.2 Second Generation of Huawei Power Control Policy

According to the actual communication state based upon different power adjustment requirement combinations, the second generation of Huawei power control algorithm adopts pertinent power control policy so as to guarantee the validity and stability of the power control algorithm. The following three steps are taken for the calculation of adjustment power:
I. Calculating adjustment power step according to the received level (AdjStep_Lev)

To improve the system flexibility and to prevent power control fluctuation, the dualthreshold power control policy is used. To guarantee rapid and accurate positioning of the power adjustment, the variable step power control is used. Please refer to the current receiving quality in final determination of step adjustment, because according to our estimation of the actually measured results, different receiving quality values correspond to different average received levels. Generally, the corresponding average received level when the receiving quality is 0 is far greater than the average received level when the receiving quality is not 0. When the receiving quality is not 0, the average received levels are almost the same. When the receiving quality is 0, if the received level requires that the transmitting power should be decreased by 6dB, then after the power adjustment, the receiving quality is possibly 0. Thus, the power control
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is implemented. When the receiving quality is 1, then similarly, if the received level requires that the transmitting power should be decreased by 6dB, then after the power adjustment, the receiving quality possibly turns to 4. Thus, the receiving quality may require higher transmitting power. Therefore, the power adjustment just now is not as good as that when the receiving quality is 0. With such consideration, we take the measure of appropriately referring to the current receiving quality in the adjustment step based upon the power of the received level, so as to better match with the actual situations and to make the power adjustment more efficient. Based on the first generation of Huawei power control algorithm, the second generation of Huawei power control algorithm has been improved with direct requirements for control target. The adjustment step based upon the final power of the received level will use the smaller one of the following two values. (1) The adjustment step AdjStepThr_Lev based upon the comparison of the actual received level and the threshold. When the received level is low, the power will increase. In this case we can judge that when Rxlev<PcLowerThresoldsLev, AdjStepThr_Lev=IncrStep_Lev =(PcLowerThresoldsLev+PcUpperThresoldsLev)/2Rxlev When the received level is higher, the power will decrease. In this case, when we judge Rxlev>PcUpperThresoldsLev, AdjStepThr_Lev=DecrStep_Lev =Rxlev(PcUpperThresoldsLev+PcLowerThresoldsLev)/2 When the received level falls between the upper threshold and the lower threshold, the transmitting power will not be adjusted. In this case, when we judge that when PcUpperThresoldsLev Rxlev PcLowerThresoldsLev, the transmitting power will not be adjusted. In the above formula, the data: Rxlev is the actual received level after prediction filtering. PcLowerThresoldsLev PcUpperThresoldsLev stands for the upper/lower threshold, which is set through the background. The distance between the two thresholds should not be too great, or the power control will be not so sensitive to the change of the received levels and will lead to greater fluctuation of the received levels. However, it also should not be too small, or the power control will be too sensitive to the change of the received levels, which will lead to power control fluctuation easily and will excessively restrict the improvement space of the transmitting power due to low receiving quality. It is recommended that the appropriate distance be 6 to 10dB. The range can float upwards/downwards according to the actual requirements. IncrStep_Lev, DecrStep_Lev and AdjStepThr_Lev are the calculated values, respectively standing for increased power step, decreased power step and the adjustment step based upon the comparison of the received level and threshold. (2) The maximum reference adjustment step of the current receiving quality (CurQulMaxStep). For the convenience of more effective adjustment, some actual receiving conditions are taken into consideration. The receiving quality is divided into three quality areas (0, 1 to 2, above 3), and each quality area specifies a maximum reference adjustment step (can be set in the background). The higher the receiving
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quality is, the greater the step. The lower the quality, the smaller the step, because in this case, the system faces more interference and is quite sensitive. Thus it facilitates in guaranteeing the stability of the algorithm. The setting of the maximum allowed adjustment for each quality area is based upon two aspects: (a). The setting should not be too small, or the algorithm cannot attain the purpose of fast power control. (b). The setting cannot be too great, or the due reference function cannot be implemented, which will lead to decreased power control validity. It is recommended that the maximum reference adjustment step of quality area 0 be 8 to 16dB, that of quality area 1 be 4 to 8dB and that of quality area 2 be about 3dB or 4dB. The adjustment step calculated according to the received level is: AdjStep_Lev =min (AdjStepThr_Lev, CurQulMaxStep).
II. Calculating adjustment power step (AdjStep_Qul) according to receiving quality

Generally, the receiving quality varies with interference. The main interference in the GSM system is the cofrequency interference generated during frequency multiplexing. This interference is mutual, the increased power of a call is equivalent to the increased interference of another call. Therefore, please pay attention to the power adjustment caused by receiving quality change so as to prevent the vicious cycle of improving transmitting power due to low quality. The result of such group effect is that all GSM systems use the maximum transmitting power, but the receiving quality is not improved at all. The receiving quality threshold is also set as dual threshold. The transmitting power will not be adjusted for receiving quality within the quality area, but the transmitting should be adjusted for those out of the quality area. Because you cannot estimate the influence of the transmitting level change upon the receiving quality, and furthermore, to guarantee the stability of the algorithm, please try to prevent large step during power adjustment. We have used the fixed step. This value can be set in the background. (1) Improving transmitting power for low receiving quality If Qulity>PcbadThresoldsQul, please increase the transmitting power and increase the step to AdjStep_Qul. (2) Decreasing transmitting power for high receiving quality If Qulity<PcgoodThresoldsQul, please decrease the transmitting power and decrease the step to AdjStep_Qul. (3) Please do not adjust the transmitting power when the receiving quality falls between the upper/lower thresholds If Qulity PcgoodThresoldsQul PcbadThresoldsQul transmitting power. , please do not adjust the
Data in the formula: Qulity is the actual receiving quality value after filtering. PcgoodThresoldsQul PcbadThresoldsQul stands for the good/poor receiving quality thresholds, which can be set through the background. Generally, it is recommended that the good threshold be 0 and the poor threshold be 2. AdjStep_Qul is the adjustment step of the receiving quality and is also set through the background. This value should not be too great, since in most cases, the receiving quality improvement is based upon the transmitting power increase. In this case, the receiving quality is very poor, so please increase the transmitting power gradually. It is recommended that the value be set as 2 to 4dB.
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III. Combining the two power control requirements

When taking the two requirements into combined consideration, on one hand, try best to meet its requirements, and on the other hand, when the two requirements are not consistent or completely opposite, then please consider the stability of the algorithm and forbid unstable adjustment. Based upon the above principles, the following power adjustment table is obtained:
Adjust step according to received level Reduce AdjStep_Lev Reduce AdjStep_Lev Reduce AdjStep_Lev Add AdjStep_Lev Add AdjStep_Lev Add AdjStep_Lev No action No action No action Adjust step according to receiving quality Reduce AdjStep_Qul Add AdjStep_Qul No action Add AdjStep_Qul Reduce AdjStep_Qul No action No action Reduce AdjStep_Qul Add AdjStep_Qul Take adjustment results into comprehensive consideration Reduce Max (AdjStep_Lev, AdjStep_Qul) No action Reduce djStep_Lev Add Max(AdjStep_Lev, AdjStep_Qul) Add AdjStep_Lev Add AdjStep_Lev No action Reduce AdjStep_Qul Add AdjStep_Qul
Furthermore, besides the adjustment as shown in the above table, please pay attention to the power control fluctuation due to mutual action of the received level and the receiving quality. For example, after, the transmitting power should be decreased by 4dB according to the received level, the poor receiving quality requires an increase of 4dB, and after than the received level again requires an increase f 4dB. Thus, the fluctuation is generated due to cyclic increase/decrease. The method to avoid such fluctuation is: If only the receiving quality has power adjustment requirement, then please check after the adjustment, whether the received level will exceed the dualthreshold range. If it will, then please do not conduct the power adjustment, so as to avoid power control fluctuation. Thus, we can obtain the power step to be finally adjusted. The uplink/downlink adjustment policies should be consistent.
7.5 New Channel Allocation Algorithm

The new channel allocation algorithm is based upon the optimization mechanism. Comparing with the classical first generation of channel allocation algorithm based upon rotation, the new channel allocation algorithm can provide subscribers with communication channels as good as possible. The new channel allocation algorithm considers the following optimization factors: Interference priority, TRX priority and historical seizure record priority. (1) Interference priority The interference priority is consistent with the interference carried by the radio resources indication message, reflecting the channel quality. (2) TRX priority TRX priority: It is determined by the network parameter TRX optimization level. The higher the level is, the more preferable the channel allocation will be. The lower the level, the more difficult the channel allocation will be. (3) Historical seizure record priority. Successful seizure: Priority increased; Failed seizure: Priority decreased
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Call disconnection during seizure: Priority decreased Interference during seizure: Priority decreased. To restore the historical seizure record priority of channels after deterioration, every period of time, we should increase the historical seizure record priority by a constant.
7.6 Dual-band Network Technology

7.6.1 Necessity for Building Dual-band Network
Predicted according to the 4 3 networking mode of macrocells, the maximum subscriber number supported by the GSM900 macrocell is about 40 million, that is to say, if there is not a fast, economic and effective expansion scheme, the mobile communication frequency resources and radio channels will become more insufficient. There are many methods for GSM system expansion, including adding macrocell base stations, reducing distance between base stations, adopting multiple frequency multiplexing technology (MRP), expanding microcell, half-rate application, etc. However, these methods cannot slove the problem of insufficient network capacity fundamentally. Comparatively, the introduction of GSM1800 (1805 to 1880MHz and 1710 to 1785MHz) network will bring about the following advantages: (1) The application of different frequencies from GSM900 (935 to 960MHz, 890 to 815MHz) and the communication bandwidth as high as 75M can effectively solve the bottleneck of GSM900 frequency resources. (2) It has the same specifications as the GSM900 system and can repeatedly utilize the existing GSM900 sites. Therefore, the building of the GSM1800 network is a fast and effective means to solve the expansion problem fundamentally.
7.6.2 Fast Fading Characteristic and Coverage Problem of GSM1800

Since the working frequency of GSM1800 is one time that of GSM900, according to the COST-231 model and actual experiences, within the horizon, the transmission loss of GSM1800 is higher than that of GSM 900 by 6dB; while beyond the horizon, the transmission loss of GSM1800 is higher than that of GSM by 10dB; and within buildings, it is higher than that by 5 to 17dB (depending different media). The fast fading characteristic of GSM1800 goes against perfect coverage of GSM1800 (the coverage of the GSM1800 exerts direct influence upon the network performance.
I. GSM1800 Coverage requirements

(1) Outdoor coverage If the distance between base stations is not so great, then the outdoor coverage is easily implemented. If necessary, besides the building of GSM1800 sites on the original GSM900 sites, you should also considering building new sites in necessary places. (2) Indoor coverage To guarantee perfect indoor coverage of the GSM1800 system, the distance between base stations in downtown area should not be greater than 1000 meters. The city
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buildings in China mainly adopts the reinforced concrete structure with high transmission loss, therefore, it is recommended that the distance between base stations be about 500 to 800 meters.
II. GSM1800 characteristics in different coverage degrees

(1) Perfect consecutive coverage The GSM1800 system has the following characteristics: easy to absorb traffic, small number of inter-layer handover, high operation quality, easy to implement frequency allocation and network optimization, easy to control traffic distribution, one-step station building, gradual expansion according to TRX setting, convenient to construct and maintain, big investment and difficult to determine all stations at one time. (2) Consecutive coverage in hotspot regions The GSM1800 system has the following characteristics: Only absorbing limited traffic, large number of dual-band handovers, high requirements for determining traffic hotspot, difficult in frequency allocation and network optimization due to irregular distribution of GSM1800 base stations, inconvenient to construct and maintain, and gradual station building in high-dense regions so as to save investment. (3) Sporadic coverage in hotspot regions The GSM1800 system has the following characteristics: SM1800: Only absorbing very small, frequent dual-band handover, high requirements for determining traffic hotspot, difficult in frequency allocation and network optimization due to irregular distribution of GSM1800 base stations, inconvenient to construct and maintain, and small volume of initial investment.
7.6.3 Dual-band Networking Structure

There are three dual-band networking modes: Independent MSC networking, MSCsharing/independent BSC networking and BSC-sharing networking. The first two networking modes are generally called independent networking and the BSC-sharing networking is also called hybrid networking. The independent networking relatively increases inter-office handover and location updating times, and it also increases the load of signaling links. The independent networking is concerned with cooperation of different manufacturers. Technically speaking, there does not exist any problem, but manual factor exerts great influence. However, these problems can be avoided. With consideration of long-term application, the independent networking is superior to the hybrid networking.
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I. Independent MSC networking

BTS MS BTS EIR OMC SMC BTS MS BTS BSC MSC/VLR HLR/AUC BSC MSC/VLR
GSM900
GSM1800
Figure 7-8 Independent MSC networking mode Characteristics: (1). It will not exert any influence upon the original network. (2). It is characterized by explicit networking planning, clear network data configuration and easy engineering implementation. (3). It meets the requirements for long-term network expansion. (4). It is convenient for whole network management and new service development. (5). It needs large volume of initial investment in network building and small volume of unit user investment. (6) Competition is introduced so as to decrease equipment investment and improve service quality. (7). Both MSC and BSC have backup to enhance the network security.
II. MSC-sharing/independent BSC networking

BTS MS BTS OMC MSC/VLR SMC BTS MS BTS BSC HLR/AUC EIR BSC
GSM900
GSM1800
Figure 7-9 MSC-sharing/independent BSC networking mode
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Characteristics: (1) It will exert great influence upon the original network. (2) It needs re-planning of the NSS and it is quite difficult to implement the engineering. (3) It has limited expansion space, so it may lead to difficulty in engineering and maintenance for network development. (4) It needs small volume of initial investment in network building and small volume of unit user investment. (5) Competition can be introduced so as to decrease equipment investment and improve service quality to some degree. (6) The BSC has backup so as to achieve certain network security
III. BSC-sharing networking

BTS MS BTS BTS BSC
OMC MSC/VLR SMC
EIR
HLR/AUC
BTS MS BTS BTS BSC
GSM900
GSM1800
BTS
GSM1800/GSM900
Figure 7-10 BSC-sharing networking mode Characteristics: (1) It may exert great influence upon the original network. This characteristic is more obvious when the BSC capacity is smaller. (2) It needs re-planning of the NSS and it is quite difficult to implement the engineering. (3) It has limited expansion space, so it may lead to difficulty in engineering and maintenance for network development. (4) Restricted new service development (5) Competition cannot be introduced, so it is hard to deduce the price and improve the service. (6) It needs small volume of initial investment in network building, but largest volume of unit user investment.
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7.6.4 Traffic guidance and Control Policy of Dual-band Network

According to original intention of building the 1800 network, the following principles should be followed: During the initial period of dual-band network construction, please try best to let 1800M cells to absorb dual-band subscribers. When the dual-band subscribers reach a certain number, then all frequencies share the traffic so as to reduce handover times and to provide quality service. To implement different traffic control policies, the operators only need to adjust different parameters. To implement flexible and effective dual-band traffic guidance and control, various control policies are used: (1) In the idle mode, when a subscriber powers on a mobile phone to perform cell selection or to perform cell reselection in standby state, through setting the system parameters, the 1800M cell will have higher priority or better cell measurement comparison value so as to become the service cell of dual-band subscriber more easily. Thus, the subscriber will spend more time in waiting for the 1800M system before communication so as to avoid unnecessary handover. (2) During call connection setup, the mobile phone can adjust the traffic allocation through direct retry. (3) In communication state, through the division of cells into different levels and the division of the same layer cell into different levels (HCS, hierarchical cell system), the traffic will goes to 1800M cell of lower level and low priority as much as possible. (4) Various dual-band traffic handover methods can be used to implement reasonable cell traffic load.
I. ECSC and MBR

In the GSM system, the service capability, support band, power capability and encryption capability of mobile stations are characterized by the level (CLASSMARK) of mobile stations. The CLASSMARK of mobile stations can be divided into CLASSMARKs1, 2 and 3. In a general GSM system, the network can understand various capabilities of mobile stations through querying the CLASSMARK of mobile stations. ECSC can either be Y or N. Y indicates that after link setup, the mobile station should immediately report its CLASSMARK3 to the network, and N indicates that the mobile station is not allowed to report its CLASSMARK3 to the network. The main information in CLASSMARK3 targets at dual-band application, therefore, please set ECSC as NO for single frequency GSM application area and set it as YES for dual-band GSM application area. In single frequency GSM system, when a mobile station reports the measured result of the neighboring cells to the network, it only needs to report the contents of the 6 neighboring cells with the highest signal level in a frequency band. If multi-band networking, generally, according to the actual network situations, the operator hopes that the mobile station will enter a certain frequency band preferably during extra-cell handover. Therefore, it is hoped that the MR reporting of the mobile station is not only based upon signal strength, but also based upon signal frequency band. The parameter Multi-band report (MBR) is used to indicate the mobile station needs to report contents of neighboring cells at multiple bands.
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0: According to the signal strength of the neighboring cells, the mobile station will report the measurement results of the six allowed neighboring cells with the highest signal level and with known NCC, regardless of the band the neighboring cells are located. 1: The mobile station needs to report the measurement result of an allowed neighboring cell at each band (not including the band used by the current service cell) with highest signal level and know NCC included in the neighboring cell table. The neighboring cell at the band of the current service cell will be reported in residual position. If there are still residual positions, then the conditions of other neighboring cells will be reported (regardless of frequency band). The value range of MBR is 0 to 3. In multi-band application environment, the value is related to the service traffic at each band. Generally, please refer to the following principles in setting the value: If the traffic of each band is basically the same, then when the operator does not need band selectivity, please set the MBR as 0. If the traffic of each band is obviously different and the operator hopes the mobile station to enter a certain band preferably, then please set the MBR as 3. For the case between the above two conditions, please set the MBR as 1 or 2.
II. Cell selection and reselection

In cell selection, whether the mobile phone accesses the 1800 cell or 900 cell depends upon the cell priority (it depends upon parameter C1 if the priorities are the same). However, the 1800M signals is of great attenuation, so C1 value of 900M cell is generally higher that of 1800M cell. Therefore, we make the 1800 cell have higher priority by setting parameters CBQ (Cell Bar Qualification) and CBA (Cell Bar Accesses). In the idle mode, through reasonable parameter adjustment, try best to make subscribers wait in the 1800 cells so that the calls are also set up in the 1800 cells. through the setting of CRO, TO, etc., 1800 cells will have higher reselection priorities.
III. Direct retry

Provided that during the call originating process in 900M band, a mobile station has implemented switching, connection and control of certain number of signalings through the control channel, then the SDCCH is used to assign TCH so as to connection the voice channel. However, in this case, it is found that the service channel is full, then please use the direct retry so that the SDCCH will assign a TCH for the mobile station, so as to guarantee successful call connection. Thus, the function of traffic-loading is implemented.
IV. Dual-band handover

In communication state, reasonable traffic distribution between the frequencies can be implemented with the application of various Huawei dual-band handover algorithms, such as leveled handover, load handover, speed-sensitive handover, PBGT handover, etc.
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V. Others
In current 900/1800 dual-band networking, there exist the following objective phenomena: (1) With the CRO value during cell reselection, a mobile phone can easily reselect the 1800M network from the 900M network so as to guide the traffic. However, in independent MSC networking, the inconsistency of LAC leads to the location updating one more time (i.e., if the mobile phone approaches to a 900M, then when it selects a 1800M cell through CRO, it needs the location updating one more time). (2) The 1800M coverage is not continuous, especial in indoor environment, the mobile phone may have to select a 900M cell since it possibly cannot find 1800M signal at all. (3) A considerable number of single frequency 900M mobile phones still exist. According our original recommendations, through the selection of CAQ and CBA values, the 900M cells become cells of low priority, while the 1800M cells become cells of normal priority. However, in most cases (e.g., the above cases (2) and (3)), when powered on, the mobile phones are very slow to access the network. Therefore: (1) In current network condition, set the CBA and CBQ such that the 900M 1800M cells have the same normal priority, thus, when powered on, the mobile phones can access the network at fastest speed. The traffic guidance is implemented with CRO. However, in independent MSC networking, such method will lead to a redundant location updating. In current poor 1800M coverage condition, the location updating this time can be neglected among the total number of locations, while in MSC-sharing networking condition, it only leads to cell reselection one more time. (2) When the 1800M network basically implements continuous coverage and most mobile phones are dual-band ones, in the precondition that the 1800M network shares most of the traffic, we can set CBA and CBQ such that the 1800 cells have higher priority. Thus, when powered on, most mobile phones will access the 1800 cells and most of them will not reselect the 900M cells.
7.6.5 Dual-band Networking Engineering Implementation

For engineering implementation, the policy of stepped debugging and gradual opening is used for dual-band network construction and optimization, which facilitates the debugging of the newly-built GSM1800 network and the newly-expanded GSM900 network respectively. Based upon perfect adjustment of individual single networks, then conduct gradual dual-band network cutover debugging according to sites so as to finally implement the construction f the whole dual-band network. The construction of the whole dual-band network can be divided into three stages as a whole: Deployment preparation, single 1800 network debugging and 900/1800 dualband network debugging.
I. Deployment preparation
It mainly implements dual-band network technology coordination and network planning. The dual-band technology coordination is the precondition to implement dual-band cooperation of different manufacturers. Huawei has been focusing on the research on the cooperation of dual-band technologies all along and has sufficient technical reserve strength. The network planning is the first tache in radio network construction, including site survey, electromagnetic test, coverage test, etc.
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II. Single 1800 network debugging

Without the need of data modification of the original 900M network, the 900 network still provides service for subscribers and the 1800 network does not absorb any traffic. At this stage, conduct the complete test of the single 1800 network, including, coverage, dialing, handover, power control, interference, uplink/downlink power balance, contrast test of power adjustment, contrast test of 900 and 1800 coverage, etc. On one hand, these tests aim to find existing network problems, and on the other hand, the tests (power, obliquity, parameter adjustment, etc.) and the optimization of parameters such as transmitting power and obliquity, etc. of each cell in the 1800 network aims to guarantee the perfect operation of the single 1800M network.
III. 900/1800 dual-band debugging

After the GSM900/1800 dual-band network is put into service, please try to find existing network problems through various means such as drive test, etc., conduct optimization adjustment targeting at the problems and verify the optimization results. The tests include: Cell reselection and location updating test, traffic load control, continuous communication mode test, automatic re-dialing and frequency sweeping test, dual-band network handover test, main street call and handover test, edge area handover test, poor coverage area and indoor dialing test, outdoor dialing test in major regions, etc. Please observe the stable operation of the dual-band network after cooperation, analyze the traffic measurement data of the whole network and check the network operation index. According to the drive test data analysis and traffic measurement data analysis, determine the existing problems and necessary adjustment measures, and then please conduct test again after adjusting relevant network parameters until the network indices meet the design requirements. Through the above-mentioned three stages of work, implement the process of Design of dual-band cooperationDebugging of single network operationDebugging of dual-band network operation and finally implement the construction and optimization of the dual-band network.
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Traffic Statistics
Chapter 8 Traffic Statistics

Huawei BSC traffic statistics system provides perfect measurement types and rich counters, facilitating the network operators to learn about the BSC running status, to locate the network problems and to optimize the network. The BSC traffic statistics system consists of the BAM, the traffic statistics terminal, the OMC server, etc. The specific statistics flow is as follows: after registering on the traffic statistics terminal, the statistics task will be sent to the foreground host via the BAM for statistics, then the statistics result will be returned back to the BAM. Therefore we can view the statistics result on the traffic statistics terminal. In order to have an understanding of the statistics points of all indexes and to analyze problems, we will introduce some important calling flows first.
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8.1 Brief Introduction to the Calling Flows

8.1.1 Ultra-early TCH Assignment Flow
MS
Channel Request (RACH)
BTS
BSC
MSC
Channel Required Channel Activation (TCH) Channel Activation Acknowledge Immediate Assignment Command Immediate assignment (AGCH)
CM-Service Request Complete layer 3 information CM-Service Req CM-Service Accept CM-Service Accept Assignment Request Mode modify Mode modify ACK Channel Mode modify Channel Mode modify ACK Assignment Complete
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8.1.2 Calling Flow (Calling Party)
MS
Channel_req
BTS
Channel_Active Channel_Active_Ack IMMEDIATE ASSIGN COMMAND First SABM
BSC
MSC
Establish_IND( CM Service Req) CR(Complete_l3_information) CC CM Service Accepted Setup Call Proceeding Channel_Active Channel_Active_Ack Assignment_Req
ASSIGNMENT COMMAND First SABM ASSIGNMENT CMP Alerting Connect Connect Ack Establish_IND Assignment_CMP
Conversation
Disconnect Release Release Complete Clear_CMD Clear_CMP
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8.1.3 Handover Flow within the BSC

The handover process within the BSC is controlled and implemented by the BSC. After the completion of a handover, the BCS will inform the MSC of this handover in a piece of Handover_performed message.
MS
BTS1
BSC
BTS2
Measure Report from MS
MS
MSC
Channel_Active Channel_Active_Ack HANDOVER COMMAND
Handover Access
PHY INFO PHY INFO
Handover_Detect
first SABM
Establish_IND
HANDOVER COMPLETE Handover_Performed
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8.1.4 Handover Flow between the BSCs

When realized through the A interface, the handover between the BSCs goes like this: an originating BSC originates Handover_Request to the destination BSC, and MSC requests the destination BSC for handover and gets Handover-Request_Ack, then it sends the handover command Handover_CMD to the originating BSC. When realized through the A-bis interface, the originating BSC sends the handover command to the original BTS, and the n0w BTS will report Hand_Detect on detecting the handover and access of MS, and then report HANDOVER COMPLETE after establishing a link with MS. And the old A-bis interface will disconnect the link to release the resource.
MS
BTS1
BSC1
MSC
BSC2
BTS2
MS
Measure Report from MS Handover_Required Handover_Request Channel_Active Channel_Active_Ack HANDOVER COMMAND Handover_CMD Handover_Request_Ack Handover Access Handover_Detect Handover_Detect PHY INFO PHY INFO first SABM Establish_IND HANDOVER COMPLETE Clear_CMD Clear_Cmp Handover_Cmp
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8.1.5 Handover Flow between MSCs

MS
Um
Mobile
MS
E
BSS1
Measurement of radio transmission signal
MSCa
MSCb
A
BSS2
Um
VLRb
HANDOVER REQ.
(The global destination cell table)
Perform handover(MAP)
(The global destination cell I The global service cell ID Channel type )
HANDOVER REQUEST HANDOVER REQUEST ACKNOWLEDGE
(PCM&Channel type)
(Including new TCH and handover reference number )
(Assign handover number ) Radio channel ack.(MAP) Including new TCH and HON
Allocation handover number Send handover report (HON.)

Radio channel acknowledge (Send handover report )
IAM ACM HANDOVER CMD

Forward MS to new channel via original BSS
HANDOVER COMMAND
HANDOVER DETECT
HANDOVER COMPLETE
CLEAR COMMAND CLEAR COMPLETE
Send end signal(MAP) Release PCM0
Send end signal
BSS2 selects a new TCH to connect to the PCM circuit MS enters the destination cell
ANS
~ ~ Release (TUP/ISUP)
End signal
~ ~
End signal(MAP)
Disconnect the physical link between MSCa and MSCb
Handover report
Release handover report
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8.1.6 Subsequent Handover Flow (MS Roams from MSVb to MSCb

MS MSCa BSS2
Measurement of radio transmission signal HANDOVER REQUIRED (The destination cell table )
)
MS VLRb'
Roam E MSCb MSCb' VLRb BSS2'
Perform subsequent handover (MAP) (The destination cell table , The destination cell ID ,MSC No.)
Perform handover
(The destination cell ID , The service cell ID, Channel type )
HANDOVER REQUEST (PCM&Channel type)

HANDOVER REQUEST ACKNOWLEDGE (Including new TCH number and handover number )
Allocate handover number(Assign handover number )

Radio channel acknowledge Radio channnel ack. (MAP) (Include New TCH and HON)
Send handover report(HON) (Send handover report )
IAM ACM Subsequent handover ack.

HANDOVER COMMAND
HANDOVER DETECT HANDOVER COMPLETE
Send end signal (MAP)
ANS
End signal (MAP)
CLEAR COMMAND Release (TUP) CLEAR COMPLETE End signal (MAP) Release (TUP/ISUP)
Release handover report
Release HON
~ ~
~ ~
Disconnect the physical link between MSCa and MSCb Release handover report Disconnect the physical link between MSCa and MSCb Release HON
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8.2 Analysis of Key Indexes of Traffic Statistics

8.2.1 TCH Drop-off Ratio
No 001 Measurement type Formula description Index name TCH drop-off ratio (%) General BSC performance measurement/cell performance measurement TCH drop-off ratio=TCH drop-off times /TCH occupation success ratio
Analysis of the statistical point of the original index
TCH drop-off times: (1) When the message CLEAR REQ is sent to MSC, the current occupied channel is of TCH type. Successful TCH occupation times: (1) Receive the message CH_ACT_ACK during the immediate assignment, if the channel is of TCH type. (2) Receive the message CH_ACT_ACK in the state of CS_WAIT_RR_EST, and the current channel is of TCH type. (3) The message of the completion of assignment is sent in the process of assignment (4) Receive the message MSG_ABIS_HO_DETECT during incoming BSC for handover. At this time the handover is not of SDCCH type.(5) Receive the message MSG_ABIS_HO_DETECT during handover within the BSC. At this time, the handover is not of SDCCH type. 1. In the General BSC performance measurement The calculating formula of the call loss ratio in the former version: Call loss ratio (%) =Drop-off times after conversation/(Successful connection times + Successful incoming BSC handover times) * 100% The calculating formula of TCH drop-off ratio in the updated version: TCH drop-off ratio (%) =TCH drop-off times / Successful TCH occupation times *100%
Others
Configuration of the parameters that affect the drop-off ratio: (1) Number of SACCH multiframes, Maximum retransmission times of physical information, Timer for radio link connection in the Cell Attribute Table. (2) Counter for radio link failure in the Cell System Message Table.
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8.2.2 SDCCH Drop-off Ratio

No 002 Measurement type Formula description Index name SDCCH drop-off ratio (%) Cell performance measurement SDCCH drop-off ratio=SDCCH drop-off Times / SDCCH occupation success times (All) SDCCH drop-off times(1)send out CLEAR_REQ, and the channel is of SDCCH type; (2) When receiving ERROR_IND, the channel is of SDCCH type; With respect to (1) there are following cases: Incoming SDCCH handover the message HO_DETECT is illegal. Incoming SDCCH handover the message HO_CMP is illegal. Incoming SDCCH handover sending the message HO_CMP fails TN_WAIT_HO_DETECT, TN_WAIT_HO_CMP (SDCCH handover) Time out TN_WAIT_INTER_HO_CMP (SDCCH handover) time out TN_T8 (Outgoing BSC handover is completed) time out Internal clearance resulted from other various reasons. SDCCH occupation success times (All):(1) When receiving CH_ACT_ACK in the process of assignment, the channel is SDCCH. (2) When receiving the message CH_ACT_ACK in the state of CS_WAIT_RR_EST, the current channel is SDCCH. (3) Incoming SDCCH handover receives HO_DETECT. (4) In the BSC SDCCH handover receives HO_DETECT. None
Others
8.2.3 Intercell Handover Success Ratio Within the BSC

The factors which affect the handover success ratio include:(1) Base station clock, BSC clock and MSC clock and judge if these clocks are out of frame; For MSC: f/f (frequency offset) 1E-8; For BSC/BTS : f/f(frequency offset)5E-8 . (2) The handover-related data configuration; Check Tables BA1, BA2 and the handover data table under the handover menu see whether the data configuration are correct and handover threshold settings are reasonable. For the handover involved between the MSCs, it is necessary to check or confirm if the opposite MSC has been configured with the handover data of the local MSC. If not, then there is handover request, but the successful handover is not available.
No. 003 Measurement type Formula description Analysis of the statistical point of the original index Others Inter-cell handover success ratio within the BSC (%) General BSC performance measurement Inter-cell handover success ratio within the BSC=Times of successful inter-cell handover within the BSC/ Times of Inter-cell handover attempts within the BSC. Times of successful inter-cell handovers within the BSC: (1) The completion of handover in the BSC. Times of the inter-cell handover attempts within the BSC. (1) When receiving the handover requests (inter-cell within the BSC) None Index name
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8.2.4 Incoming BSC Handover Success Ratio

No 004 Measurement type Formula description Analysis of the statistical point of the original index Others Incoming BSC handover success ratio (%) General BSC performance measurement Incoming BSC handover success ratio =Incoming BSC handover success ratio/ Incoming BSC handover attempts Successful incoming BSC handover times(1) When HO_CMP is sent to MSC successfullyTimes of successful handover within the BSC:(1) When the incoming handover request message from MSC is received. Index name
8.2.5 Outgoing BSC Handover Success Ratio

No. 005 Measurement type Formula description Outgoing BSC handover success ratio (%) General BSC performance measurement Outgoing BSC handover success ratio =Times of successful outgoing BSC handovers/ Times of outgoing BSC handover attempts Times of successful outgoing BSC handover: (1) For outgoing handover CLEAR_CMD is received because of HO_SUCC. Times of outgoing BSC handover attempts: (1) Statistics begins when the message HO_REQ is sent to MSC (including direct operation retry) Index name
Analysis of the statistical point of the original index Other
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8.2.6 TCH Congestion Ratio

TCH congestion ratio (handover excluded)=Times of TCH occupation failures (handover excluded)/Times of TCH occupation requests (handover excluded)*100% TCH congestion ratio (handover included) =Times of TCH occupation failures (handover included)/ Times of TCH Occupation requests (handover included)*100%
100 No. Measurement type Formula description 007 TCH congestion ratio (handover excluded)(%) Cell performance measurement TCH congestion ratio (handover excluded)=(Times of TCH call occupation Failures + ultra-early assigned TCH occupation failures) / (Times of TCH call occupation requests + Times of ultra-early assigned TCH occupation requests Times of TCH call occupation failures (1) Send out assignment failure message. Times of ultra-early assigned TCH Occupation Failures (1) Receive CH_ACT_NACK in the process of ultra-early assignment (including receiving CH_ACT_NACK when the satellite transmission state is WAIT_RR_EST. (2) CVI_INTERNAL_ERR (internal error) is the return cause when channels are distributed in the process of ultra-early assignment (3) CVI_NO_ACCEPT (illegal channel request) is the return cause when the channels are distributed in the process of ultra-early assignment (4) Channel has not been assigned when the channels are distributed in the process of ultra-early assignment (5) TN_WAIT_CH_ACT timed out in the process of ultra-early assignment Times of TCH call occupation requests: (1) Receiving MSC assignment request message. Times of ultra-early assigned TCH occupation requests: (1) No resource is available and the immediate assignment is allowed when distributing SDCCH; (2) When the channel request is received, the channel is of TCH type (for example, the emergency call). None Index name TCH congestion ratio (handover included)(%)
Other
No.
008 Measurement type
Index name
Formula description
Cell performance measurement TCH congestion ratio (handover included)=(Times of TCH call occupation Failures +Times of ultra-early assigned TCH occupation failures +Times of incoming cell handover within the BSC TCH Occupation Failures (due to congestion)+ Times of between BSCs incoming cell handover TCH occupation failures (due to congestion) / (Times of TCH call occupation requests +Times of ultra-early assigned TCH occupation requests + Times of within the BSC Incoming cell handover TCH occupation requests +Times of between BSCs incoming cell handover TCH occupation requests) Times of TCH call occupation failures: (1) Times of ultra-early assigned TCH occupation failures Times of TCH call occupation requests: (1) Times of Ultra-early Assigned TCH occupation requests The above indexes please refer to the analysis of No.008 indexes Times of within the BSC incoming cell handover TCH occupation failures (due to congestion)
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Others
1) TCH channel assignment fails during incoming cell handover within the BSC. Times of between BSCs incoming cell handover TCH occupation failures (due to congestion): (1) The reason for sending handover failure message when incoming cell handover between BSCs is that the TCH channel has not been assigned.Times of incoming cell handover TCH occupation requests in BSC: (1) When receiving inter-cell incoming cell handover request message within the BSC. (TCH handover) Times of incoming cell handover TCH occupation requests between BSCs: (1) When receiving incoming handover request message (TCH handover). None
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8.2.7 SDCCH Congestion Ratio

No 006 Measurement type Formula description Index name SDCCH congestion ratio %) Cell performance measurement SDCCH congestion ratio (%)=Times of All Busy SDCCH occupation / Times of SDCCH occupation requests (All) Times of all busy SDCCH occupation: (1) When SDCCH channel has not been assigned Times of SDCCH occupation requests (all) (1) Receiving the channel request message (the channel is SDCCH) (2)Once receiving the channel request message immediately assign TCH. And SDCCH can be assigned when there is no TCH (3) SDCCH handover within the BSC (4) Incoming BSC handover the handover is of SDCCH type None
Other
8.2.8 Radio Connection Ratio

No 009 Measurement type Formula description Analysis of the statistical point of the original index Others Index name Radio connection ratio
Radio connection ratio (1-SDCCH congestion ratio)*(1-TCH congestion ratio)*100% The respective indexes in this formua are illustrated as follows: For calculation of SDCCH congestion ratio and TCH congestion ratio please refer to Sections 8.2.6 and 8.2.7. This index is specified in the report of the mobile office.
8.3 Description of Traffic Statistics Registration

8.3.1 Routine Performance Measurement Tasks Necessary to Be Registered
1. The general BSC performance measurement task is compulsory. All the indexes under this statistics function type should be registered as much as possible either at the beginning of the deployment or at the stable system running stage.It is suggested that the statistics circle be 60 minutes, and the statistics time period be 00:00~24:00 2. Cell performance measurement task is compulsory. It is suggested that the statistics circle be 60 minutes, and the statistics time period be 00:00~24:00
8.3.2 Performance Measurement Tasks Used for Network Optimization and Location Problems
Incoming and outgoing cell handover performance measurement, defined and undefined adjacent cells performance measurement, receiving quality, receiving level performance measurement, drop-off performance measurement, power control performance measurement, uplink and downlink balance performance measurement, uplink frequency band scanning statistics, and interference band statistics after sending idle Burst, are all the good instruments both for checking whether the data
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configuration is reasonable and for network optimization. At the beginning of deployment, this kind of tasks should be registered as many as possible, and in the stable system running stage they could be deleted. SCCP protocol performance measurement and MTP link performance measurement can be used to detect whether NO.7 link and the A interface are normal. LAPD protocol performance measurement is used to monitor whether LAPD link and Abis interface are normal. This task could be deleted in the stable system running stage.Except the SCCP protocol performance measurement, the tasks of the above types consume subtask numbers extremely. Therefore the tasks of these types should be registered with pertinence in case of the subtask numbers being inadequate for use.
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Chapter 9
Network Optimization
Chapter 9 Network Optimization

Network optimization serves for the pursuit of a maximum application of network resource and a maximum improvement of QoS. Meanwhile, it also contributes to foundations and principles for future network expansion. Optimization here refers to optimization based on a sound implementation of network planning. In this sense, optimization is a supplement to the aspects failing to be taken into adequate consideration or resource adjustment for burst situations as suggested in a large traffic burst. Generally, drive test, traffic statistics and subjective perception on the part of human are taken as the basis for optimization, moreover signaling tracking and analyzing almost plays a crucial role in solving difficult problems.
9.1 Process of Network Optimization

The mobile communication network of GSM generally falls into Mobile SwitchingTransporting Part and Radio Part. Due to the mobility of subscribers and the complexity of radio waves in propagation, the Radio Part always becomes the decisive factor affecting the QoS of the GSM network. Radio network optimization refers to reasonable modification to planning and designing of communication networks according to certain principles so that a more reliable, more economic network operation, a higher QoS, and a higher utilization ratio for network resource can be achieved. Undoubtedly, this is of great significance for network operators and subscribers. Procedures for network optimization are as follows:
Preparatory Work Obtaining Basic Information of Network on Site Drive Test and Traffic Statistics Collection
Data Analysis
Network Parameter Modification
Does it meet the performance indices?
Y
Network Optimization Report
Preparatory work at early stage include obtaining knowledge of progressive status in network construction, analyzing the operation status of network, preparing for optimization test equipment and software, network planning report, collection of
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engineering and designing documents, etc. Obtaining of basic network information at site include further inspections on local radio environment, hot spots of traffic, confirmation of engineering parameters and network indices for practical installation, communication with customers to understand specific demand of customers. Data collection covers subjective reflection of mobile subscribers, data collection in drive test, OMC data collection, etc. Data analysis include background analysis of optimization software, OMC traffic statistical analysis, tools for network optimization analysis, etc. Network Parameter modification includes network engineering parameter modification and network function parameter modification. Network performance indices are in conformity with the General Indices of State Standard. Network Optimization Report covers measures used in this optimization, network performance indices expected, and positive suggestions for network development.
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9.2 Common Tools Used in Network Optimization

9.2.1 ANT Drive Test Equipment
ANT software can be used in re-selection test with mobile station in idle state, frequency scanning test, timed call-up test, continuous connection test, etc. Through simulating the actual state of subscribers in practical application, field intensity distribution, Carrier-To-Interference Ratio, voice quality and other on site data can be obtained. Meanwhile, the actual installation status of antenna and feeders can also be verified. Various test measures can be applied in combination with others according to demand. According to test result, modification to system parameters, antenna status shall be implemented accordingly. Among them, modification to system parameters mainly covers modification to transmission power, frequency configuration, handover level, parameters of adjacent cells, traffic load, the numbers of SDCCH and TCH channels for configuration, etc. Modification to antenna state has an important effect on coverage improvement and interference reduction. It mainly covers adjustment to antenna height hanging on masts, azimuth, down tilt, etc. Functions of ANT test software are mainly as follows:
I. Supports Multimode Test

ANT optimization software supports frequency scanning and call connection test in full frequency band. In two-handset-test mode, the software supports dual network test and interference test.
II. Real-time Graphic Description Window

In idle state, the ANT Optimization software can display real time BCCH field intensity and main information of the host cell and six neighboring cells. In connection mode, ANT optimization software can also display real time handover behavior and all indices of connection quality.
III. Geological Positioning Function

ANT Optimization Software applies high precision GPS in geographical positioning. Path of drive test and all performances of a handset (as Call Drop, handover failure, assignment failure, etc) can be displayed in real time icons. In background analyzing, data playing-back, problem positioning and geographical representation of all indices can be implemented.
IV. Data Analysis and Statistical Function

Background analysis of ANT optimization software cover Blind Zone of network coverage, lonely island positioning, co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference, frequency scanning analysis, etc. According to users demand, ANT optimization software can automatically create radio measurement and statistical report including interference statistics, radio indices statistics, system performance evaluation, and engineering parameter inspection.
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9.2.2 Signaling Analyzer

Signaling Analyzer MA-10 can be used in on-line test of the ABIS interface signaling information, A-G interface signaling information, SS 7 interface signaling information of ISUP, TUP, and INAP. It can also be applied in testing of error code covering PCM BERT and GSM BERT in transmission routes and analyzing in background offline state by opening the signaling information files. There are five sub application programs in MA-10 Test Software. Respectively they are MA-10 Control (on-line test of interface signaling for ABIS interface, A-G interface, and error code), MONITOR ABIS offline (ABIS interface signaling analysis offline), MONITOR MSC offline (AG interface signaling analysis offline), GSM-BERT offline (error code inspection and analysis offline), PCM-BERT offline(error code inspection and analysis offline). With Signaling Analyzer MA-10, a network optimization engineer can collect and analyze data of Abis interface and A interface, survey the complete process of signaling connection, extract survey report, and carry out contrastive study of these data against downlink signal collected from drive test (This ingenuous use of time points as indices and a combined application of latitude and longitude stored in equipment for downlink drive test can generate a uplink coverage graph and quality graph), so that the operation state of the entire network can be obtained. In this way, major causes and locations of Call Drop, handover failure, traffic congestion and other problems in a cell can be spotted.
9.2.3 Spectrum Analyzer

A spectrum analyzer is mainly used in test of attributes of a frequency domain including spectrum, power of adjacent channels, quick scanning of time domain, spurious radiation, inter-modulation attenuation, etc. A spectrum analyzer is frequently used in network optimization to carry out electromagnetic background test. The following example presents the HP E4402 in application. In electromagnetic background test, a small omni-directional antenna can be connected to the spectrum analyzer to implement broadband omni-directional test. As HP E4402 is equipped with a built-in pre-amplifier, no external amplifier is needed. At this time, scanning frequency of the spectrum analyzer is generally set in 880 960MHz 900MHz or 1700 1890MHz 1800MHz . Reference level can be set as 0dBm and amplitude of each line as 10dBm. Shall a signal be detected, scanning bandwidth will be narrowed down according to frequency band of the signal, and reference level, amplitude of each line, and resolution bandwidth will also be properly modified to carry out a detailed analysis of the signal. Signal positioning is similar to this operation. The only difference between the two lies in that the omni-directional antenna is changed into a directional antenna. By swinging the directional angle and watching the magnitude of the signal, location of the signal can be spotted.
9.2.4 Network Optimization Software

Network Optimization Software is a kind of application software. It can, in a proper way to indicate statistical data of calls, to assist commission and maintenance personnel and network optimization personnel in spotting network problems. Software Input includes configuration data of Data Management Terminal, traffic statistical results and commissioning engineering data recorded in BSC Traffic Statistical Terminal. Data output of the software is in diagrams and tables along with
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failure spotting and suggestions for solutions. In addition, the output also supports flexible report forms. Functions of general network optimization software shall be as follows: Introduction of Traffic Statistical data, configuration data, and network planning data Display of digital map in geographical representation Trend representation with flexible customization View Traffic Statistical result: Multi-functions and View with selfdefining configuration Data Filter: automatic detection of unusual points and indicate in geographical representation Index analysis and failure diagnose. Free report function covers self-defined report, template management, report preview, lead into and out of report, report in any format, creation of report across BSCs. Parameter Analysis includes, but is not limited to co-channel searching, neighboring channel searching, BSIC searching, CGI agreement inspection, neighboring cell searching and geographical representation Function of Experience Lab Engineering Management Good optimization software can adequately act as everyday work platform for radio engineers and maintainers (supervisors and optimizers). HUAWEI possesses a selfdeveloped Optimization software SNA.
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9.3 Radio Network Problems Positioning and Solving

9.3.1 Obtaining Basic Information
The purpose of obtaining basic information of a network lies in finding out possible aspects with problems and making out a test plan and an optimization plan according to actual situations so as to avoid blind operation. Firstly, a familiarity with planning state of earlier stages is prerequisite. To this end, document for earlier stage network planning is needed. The documents may include planning report, table of engineering parameters, network topology, report for frequency planning, report of cell parameter design, etc. This may offer a general idea of the network. Distinctive problems can also be detected from it. Secondly, progressive status of the present project is also needed. For example, status of base station installation completion, modifications to planning, especially those to engineering parameters, state of commissioning and simple drive test. Special attention shall be paid to network loophole caused by engineering erection quality or progressive status. The example suggested in handover failure and interference in large areas caused by uncompleted construction of base stations or erection errors is a good case in point. The following cases of optimization all refer to optimization after a sound earlier stage planning and a good implementation of the planning. In optimization practice, however, there are always installation problems and hardware problems as suggested in installation of antenna in opposite directions, problems with some carriers of base station, etc. This optimization is a continuous effort of error correction. No more details will be accounted here.
I. Traffic Statistical Data

From major indices including TCH Call Drop rate, TCH congestion rate, SDCCH Call Drop rate, SDCCH congestion rate, handover completion rate, network operation status can be understood. With traffic volume on the network, traffic statistical data is an important method to understand network performance.
II. Drive Test Data

For a network in commissioning, an extensive drive test shall be carried out to understand the network status when traffic volume becomes very low or nil. If necessary, transmission function of idle BURST in the base station can be started to study the downlink interference status under high traffic simulation. Necessary adjustment shall be furnished for practical problems. Shall failure be proved within a specific area according to traffic statistics, a practical drive test in this area can be used to confirm the failure a step further so that proper solution may be adopted.
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III. An Overall Knowledge of Network Coverage, Interference State, Traffic Distribution IV. Subjective Sense
Possible problems of the network can be judged from complaints of customers, suggestions of telecom companies, subjective senses of engineers on site, etc.
9.3.2 Coverage
Range of cell coverage is one of the important indices in QoS evaluation for GSM networks. Major factors affecting coverage are as follows:
I. Blind Zone for Signals

A Blind Zone results from no overlapping between coverage areas of two base stations or no overlapping caused by obstructions. Should there are more subscribers in the non-overlapping area of two base stations, or dimension of the area is relatively bigger, construction of a new base station is expected. Increasing the coverage range of these two base stations (as the case suggested by increasing transmission power, height of antenna) so that the overlapping depth of coverage may reach a level of 0.27R (R here refers to radius of the cell). Meanwhile, care should be taken to possible co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference caused by coverage expansion. (2) A Blind Zone caused by valley and back hillside can be recovered by constructing new base stations and repeaters in those areas. Repeaters can effectively recover Blind Zones in coverage area and expand the scope of coverage. On the other hand, repeaters can also bring about inter-modulation interference, co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference to other cells. Therefore, interference should be taken into consideration in introduction of repeaters in application. (3) Blind Zones within tunnels, underground garages, and tall buildings can be recovered by introduction of repeaters, leak cables, or micro station technologies.
II. Cross Cell Coverage

In actual networks, signals emitted from high base stations can be transmitted on hilly landforms or along roads to places far way. Hence the island problem was created. When a call is connected into the island of a base station, which is far from the base station, configuration handover in this cell may immediately result in Call Drop once the mobile station leaves this island area. To solve this problem, down tilt or gain of the antenna should be modified. Transmission directly along road should be largely avoided so as to eliminate island effect by reducing the coverage of base stations. In coverage optimization, modification to azimuth and down tilt is often used to change service range of the cell. Problem of Blind Zone caused by co-channel inference, adjacent channel interference and inter-modulation interference between TACS and GSM can be solved by eliminating interference.
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9.3.3 Capacity
I. Traffic Congestion
With OMC traffic statistics data, TCH congestion rate can be obtained (with occupation at all busy). It is also possible to judge the traffic congestion status by comparing the busy hour traffic volume against calculation capacity of each base station cell. For congestion cells, it is recommended that more carriers be added, or cell split, or construction of new base stations in common sites be adopted. It is also advisable to adopt new dual frequency networks, micro cells, etc.
II. Traffic Balance

For some base stations with congestions, measures to ease the congestion are as follows: (1) Modify the antenna height, down-tilt, transmission power of base stations and handset. (2) Modify the configuration for part of parameters In overloaded areas, the minimum access level may be suitably increased and handover threshold may be appropriately decreased to reduce traffic. Accordingly, the minimum access level may be properly reduced and handover threshold may be appropriately increased to increase traffic. Moreover, by setting CBQ and CBA of low traffic cells, these cells may be assigned with higher selection PRI. A suitable increase in CRO can make it more easily for the cell to be re-selected. (3) Start-up Load Handover and Directional Retry
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9.3.4 Interference
PLMN cellular system makes use of frequency multiplexing to improve application efficiency of spectrum and to increase system capacity. Meanwhile, it also brings forth co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference (This is called internal interference of the system.) In addition, there are also interferences caused by Multi-path Effect and external factors of the network as the interferences of TACS and repeaters.
I. Interference Positioning
GSM is a dual system with a difference of 45MHz between uplink frequency and downlink frequency. There might be interferences in both uplinks and downlinks. Downlink interference can be measured with instrument for drive test by maintaining the conversation status. Level of voice quality can be used in positioning. Voice quality are of 7 levels. Corresponding bit error rates are listed in Table 3-1. General requirement of voice quality shall not be lower than 3, i.e. the code error rate shall be less than 1.6%.
Table 3-1 Relational Correspondence between Signal Quality Level and Error Rate RxQual class 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mean Ber (%) 0.14 0.28 0.57 1.13 2.26 4.53 9.05 18.1 Ber range <0.2% 0.2 ... 0.4% 0.4 ... 0.8% 0.8 ... 1.6% 1.6 ... 3.2% 3.2 ... 6.4% 6.4 ... 12.8% >12.8%
Uplink interference can be positioned with the numbers of interference bands and Call Drop rates in HUAWEI OMC traffic statistics terminal. Interference band is an indication of idle TCH levels of 5 grades in all. Level ranges can be set through Data ConfigurationTerminal. Look at the following example:
Table 3-2 Level Range of Interference Band Interference Band 1 Interference Band 2 Interference Band 3 Interference Band 4 Interference Band 5 -110 -105 -98 -90 -87 -105dBm -98dBm -90dBm -87dBm -47dBm
Generally, shall idle channel fall into Interference Band 4 and Interference Band 5 continuously, it can be determined that there exists interference. Beside, measurement report for uplink and downlink can be viewed from Signaling Analyzer MA-10 connected to ABIS interface. In this way, uplink interference and downlink interference can also be positioned.
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II. Ways to reduce interference

(1) Increase the distance between two adjacent cells of the same or neighboring frequencies; (2) Decrease transmission power of base stations; (3) Modify antenna height; (4) Modify azimuth of the antenna; (5) Modify down tilt of the antenna; (6) Optimization of frequency configuration; (7) Start-up of anti-interference techniques used in GSM as Power Control, Discontinuous Transmission, Frequency Hopping, etc. (8) Due to non-linearity feature of TACS-TX amplifier, inter-modulation interference may be generated (as tertiary interference). Shall the signal be in the bandwidth of GSM receiver, it may have interference on the GSM receiver. Shall the TACS and GSM share a common site, inter-modulation interference may also be created. Intermodulation reduction may be accomplished by increasing the transmission power of GSM downlink and optimizing the frequency configuration.
9.3.5 Handover
When a mobile subscriber moves from one cell into another, handover must beimplemented. Otherwise, voice quality may be greatly reduced. In some cases, even Call Drop may occur. Frequent handover problems include voice quality declination or Call Drop caused by handover failure and handover delay, voice quality declination and system load increase caused by frequent handovers, unbalance traffic caused by unreasonable ratios of outgoing and incoming handovers. Drive test equipment can be used in testing of continuousconnection, tracking of handover failures, handover delays or frequent handovers, etc. With OMC traffic statistical data, handover completion ratio, incoming and outgoing handover ratio of the cell can be analyzed. Causes and resolvent of abnormal handover are as follows: (1) Handover threshold configrated too low (2) Congestion in adjacent cells, no idle channel available (3) Configuration of relation with neighboring cells missing (4) Handover hysteresis and handover priority configuration inappropriate (5) Configuration for the best statistical time N, P inappropriate (6) Networking in combination with other cells consisting of products by other manufactures, parameters of these external cells must be secured correct. These parameters cover LAC, CI, BCCH, etc.
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9.3.6 Call Drop

In GSM network operation, Call Drop has been the hot spot of complaint from customers. Call Drop here refers to Call Drop after distribution of traffic channels. There are various causes of Call Drop with the direct ones as field intensity, interference, and inappropriate configuration for parameters. For our products, there are two critical parameters affecting Call Drop. One is radio link timer failure for downlinks, the other is the number of SACCH multi-frames for uplinks. These two parameters shall be suitably configured according to traffic volume and coverage. Causes of Radio Link Failure are as follows: (1) When the mobile station enters into a Blind Zone for field intensity coverage, Call Drop may result from RF factors. (2) Internal or external interference of the network may result in SACCH frame decoding failure. This further leads to CallDrop. (3) When a mobile station approaches cell boundary in driving, the mobile station requests for handover. As the definition for neighboring cells was lost, or there are congestions in neighboring cells, there would be no cells available for handover. This finally leads to a CallDrop. (4) With imbalance between uplinks and downlinks, a handover may result in CallDrop. For example, take the mobile station is in CELL 1. There exists imbalance between uplink and downlink in the neighboring cells, CELL 2 (suppose that there are good downlinks but very weak uplinks.). According to downlink level, the mobile station then makes out the sequence of cells to for incoming handover. The mobile station may be directed into CELL 2. After the handset is directed into CELL 2, Call Drop may occur due to bad uplink. There are also Call Drops caused by non-radio link reasons as Abis interface failure, A interface failure, etc.
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9.4 Problem Positioning according to Network Indices

An important method to testify the effectiveness of optimization effort is to inspect major network indices covering TCH Call Drop rate, TCH Congestion rate, SDCCH Call Drop rate, SDCCH congestion rate, handover completion rate, traffic volume, etc. These indices can be expertly used in the analysis of network operation status. In analyzing traffic statistical indices, the first thing to be made clear is whether there are cells with abnormal indices. Should there be, the abnormal cells must be analyzed one by one. In view of the seriousness caused by abnormal indices, major indices can be basically arranged in the order importance as follows: TCH Call Drop rate, TCH congestion rate, SDCCH Call Drop rate, handover completion rate, etc. Interference and coverage, however can affect many other indices at the same time, as many indices are inter- related. Shall the problem of low handover completion rate be properly solved, Call Drop may be improved to a certain extent. Therefore, in practical analysis and solution of a certain problem, effort may be focused on a certain index with combination of others.
9.4.1 TCH Call Drop Rate

Causes of high rate of call drop are as follows: (1) Interference (network internal interference, external interference, interference from the equipment itself.) (2) Bad coverage (Blind Zones, Lonely Islands) (3) Inappropriate handover (planning of adjacent cells, handover parameters.) (4) Imbalance between uplinks and downlinks (Tower Amplifier, Power Amplifier, Antenna Direction) (5) Inappropriate Parameter configuration (Counter for radio link failure, number of SACCH multi-frames (6) Equipment problem (Carrier board, Power Amplifier, Tower Amplifier) Each factor will be analyzed as a subject as follows
I. Interference (network internal interference, external interference)

Judgment : (1) Analyze the regular patterns of interference band in traffic statistics With more than one idle channel presented in interference band three, four, and five, a judgment can be passed that there is interference in a general sense. Shall the interference be an internal one, it generally increases with the increase of traffic. Usually, an external interference bears no relations with traffic volume. It shall also be noted here that interference band is reported uplink to BSC via RF resource indication message by carrier channels of base stations in idle state. With busy channels at present, resource indication message becomes difficult to be reported uplink. The interference band statistics shall be considered in a comprehensive approach.
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(2) Measurement of receiving level performance (A matrix indicating relationship between level and quality is expected.) This is a statistical task specifically for carriers. If there are too many high levels of low quality, it suggests that there are co-channel interference, adjacent channel interference, or external interference for the frequency band of this carrier board. (3) Proportion of bad Quality Handovers In the measurement of cell performance / the measurement of inter-cell handover performance , or in the measurement of outgoing cell handover performance, number of attempts for outgoing cell handover caused by all sorts of reasons was recorded in traffic statistics. Shall there be too many handovers caused by bad quality, it suggests that there is interference. More handovers caused by bad uplink quality suggests uplink interference. More handovers caused by bad downlink quality suggests downlink interference. (4) Measurement of receiving quality performance Specifically for carriers, the statistical data of average receiving quality will be made for reference. (5) Measurement of Call Drop performance The average level and quality of Call Drop is recorded for reference. (6) Too many handover failures together with too many recovery failures. It is very possible that there is interference within the cell. This is for reference. Solution: (1) In actual drive test, check the road section with interference and inspection distribution of signal quality. Origins of overlapping signals causing interference should be made clear in cells. According to actual status, interference can be avoided by modifying the transmission power, down tilt of antenna, relations between adjacent cells, handover parameters, or frequency band planning of a cell concerned. (2) With a spectrum analyzer, interference frequency band can be detected. Source of interference can be spotted. (3) Adopt frequency hopping, DTX and power control. (4) Solve the equipment problems (as TRX self-excitation).
II. Coverage (Blind Zones, and lonely islands)

Judgment: (1) Measurement of power control performance, the average uplink signal intensity and down link signal intensity are too low. (2) Measurement of receiving level performance, the ratio of low receiving level is detected too high. (3) In measurement of cell performance and performance of handover between cells, threshold level for handover prompt and average receiving level are detected too low. (4) In Call Drop Performance measurement, level at Call Drop too low and TA abnormal before Call Drop are detected.
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(5) Performance measurement of defined adjacent cells. Adjacent cell with too low an average level can be spotted. (6) The average level of a undefined adjacent cells is too high. There are too many such cells(lonely islands). (7) Performance measurement of defined adjacent cells. Average receiving level of defined adjacent cells is detected too high (excessive coverage). (8) Measurement of power control performance, see if the average distance between MS and BTS is in conformity with design ideology. (9) Measurement of power control performance, see if the maximum distance between MS and BTS are overdue in several consecutive periods. (10) Performance test of outgoing handover from a cell, low handover completion rate into a certain adjacent cell. Solution: (1) A drive test is recommended to be carried out in areas with estimated bad coverage. (2) Modify network parameter according to drive test. (transmission power of a base station, down tilt and height of the antenna, minimum access level of handset, relations of adjacent cells, the minimum access threshold of handover candidate cells. (3) Increase base stations.
III. Inappropriate handover (planning for adjacent cells and parameters for handover)
Judgment: (1) Check the handover parameter. See if there is inappropriate parameter configuration. (2) Performance measurement of handovers between cells. More handover failures together with more recovery failures are detected. (3) Performance measurement of handover between cells. Too many handovers together with too many recovery completions are detected. (4) Performance measurement of undefined adjacent cells. Levels of undefined adjacent cells are too high and the number of report for undefined cells goes beyond standard. (5) Performance measurement for outgoing handovers: low rate of outgoing handover completion out of a cell (for a specific cell). Find out an adjacent cell with low incoming handover completion rate so that causes can be further detected from target cells. (6) Low rate of incoming handover completion. Inappropriate parameter configuration for counterpart cells is detected. (7) TCH Performance measurement: Times of handover is not in proportion to times of TCH call occupation completion. (handover/call>3) Solution: (1) Add appropriately adjacent cells.
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(2) Modify handover parameters.
IV. Imbalance between uplinks and downlinks (Tower Amplifier, Power Amplifier, antenna direction.)
Judgment (1) Register measurement for balance performance between uplinks and downlinks in traffic statistics. Analyze if there really exists imbalance between uplinks and downlinks. (2) Register Call Drop Performance Measurement in traffic statistics. Analyze the level and quality of uplinks and downlinks at Call Loss. (3) Register Power Control Performance Measurement in traffic statistics. Analyze the average receiving level of uplinks and downlinks. Solution: (1) Check Tower Amplifiers and Power Amplifiers. Specifically for Tower Amplifiers with alarm, the test may be focused on the Tower Amplifiers with alarm. Current values should be the main concern. (2) Check to see if the antenna direction is in accordance with design direction. (3) Check to see if it was caused by combiner alarm. (4) Check the MA-10 measurement report. (5) Check the BSC data configuration (Handset, transmission power of base stations, minimum access level of the handset.)
V. Inappropriate configuration of radio parameters (counter for radio link failure, number of SACCH multi-frames.)
Positioning of Problems: Check configuration for parameters concerned: System information data sheet: counter for radio link failure. Sheet of cell attributes: number of SACCH multi-frames, timer for radio link connection. Solution: Modify inappropriate configuration for parameters mentioned above.
VI. Equipment problems (carrier board, Power Amplifier, Tower Amplifier)

Judgment: (1) TCH Performance measurement: times of A interface failure abnormal with TCH occupation. (2) TCH Performance measurement: TCH application ratio abnormal. (3) TCH Performance measurement: too many times of Call Drop and interruption on ground link failure.
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(4) Shall Call Drop rate and congestion rate of this cell remain high, there might be problems with part of the equipment. Solution: (1) Watch over transmission and board alarm (TC board failure, Alarm for PCM synchronization loss at A interface, LAPD broken link, Power Amplifier board, HPA, TRX board alarm, CUI/FPU alarm). According to alarm data, analyze to see if there is transmission break or board failure (as suggested by carrier board failure or poor contact.)
9.4.2 TCH Congestion Rate

Main reasons of high TCH congestion rate are as follows: (1) Inadequate system capacity (2) Too much interference (3) Coverage (4) Handover reason (5) Inappropriate parameter configuration (system information) Every factor will be analyzed as a topic:
I. Inadequate System Capacity or Traffic Imbalance

Judgment: (1) Too high a traffic for each line (DGT specifies that a cell with a traffic load greater than 0.8 per line is taken as a super busy cell. A cell with traffic load smaller than 0.1 is taken as a super idle cell.) (2) With an applicable rate of 100% for channels, when there are too many times of occupation at all busy, there will be a long term all busy. (3) Traffic imbalance (inspect traffic imbalance between three sectors of a base station or between several stations) (4) In performance statistics of incoming handover into a cell, there are too many handover failures because of congestion. Solution: (1) Capacity expansion or modification to carrier configuration between busy cells and idle cells. (2) Modify the cell coverage (modify transmission power of base stations, modify azimuth, down tilt, and height of antenna.) (3) Modify major indices of cell (modify CRO, modify the minimum access level for handsets, start-up load handover, modify cell priority, modify cell handover parameters).
II. Interference (network internal interference and external interference)

TCH congestion rate falls into two parts. One is TCH occupation at all busy. This results in real channel allocation failure and further leads to channel request failure.
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The other one is channel assignment failure caused by various reasons after the assignment command being sent out. Times of TCH occupation failure (including handover)--times of TCH occupation at all busy, i.e. channel assignment failure caused by non-assignment availability factors. With too many occupation failures, there is possible interference within the network. Judgment and solutions: Refer to judgment and solution to interference in TCH Call Drop.
III. Causes of Handover (imbalance between incoming handovers and outgoing handovers)
Judgment: (1) Times of handover is not in proportion to that of TCH call occupation completion (3 handover/call specifically for the cell) (2) Times of incoming handover is far greater than that of outgoing handover (this results in traffic imbalance). Solution Modify handover parameters.
IV. Parameter Configuration Inappropriate

Judgment: Check the handset configuration for the minimum access level. Solution: Modify the inappropriate parameter configuration
V. Coverage (Blind Zones, lonely island)

Judgment and solution: Refer to judgment and solution to coverage in TCH Call Drop rate.
9.4.3 SDCCH Call Drop Rate

For SDCCH Call Drop Rate, refer to analysis for TCH Call Drop Rate.
9.4.4 SDCCH Congestion Rate

Main factors causing high SDCCH congestion rate are as follows: (1) Inappropriate parameter configuration (system information) (2) Inadequate system capacity Each factor will be analyzed as a special topic as follows:
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I. Inappropriate parameter configuration

Judgment: Measurement of random access performance: Times of immidiate assignment completion (the sum of location update + the sum of calls and other reasons)/Times of immidiate assignment< 85% The above formula presents the ratio of handset report uplink est_ind against immidiate assignment command downlink. The ratio generally should be in the range of 80 90%. With this ratio in abnormal, it suggests that there might be inappropriate configuration for relevant parameters. (1) The ratio of immidiate assignment success is too low. (2) Ratio of location update times against times of all assignment instructions (too many location update). Solutions: (1) Parameter modification (threshold of random access error, RACH access threshold),maximum times for retransmission, the number of TS in transmission expansion. (2) Pay attention to parameter configuration for partition of location area and location update (configuration for 1800MHz dual band network, CRO, cell reselection hysteresis parameters, time for periodic location update, etc.) (3) In dual band networks, excessive location update may be caused by excessive handover between mobile switch centers. Modification shall be made to handover parameters of the 1800MHz dual network, CRO, etc.
II. Inadequate system capacity

Apart from factors mentioned above, there might be capacity problems. SDCCH configuration number shall be increased or dynamic SDCCH assignment function and TCH carrier shall be engaged.
9.4.5 Rate of Handover Completion

Subject for analysis: Adjacent cells with low rates for outgoing handover completion and service cell with low rates for incoming handover completion. First, judgment shall be passed onto the following issues according to inter cell Performance measurement: Is the rate for incoming handover completion low? Is the rate for outgoing handover completion low? Low rate of outgoing handover completion shall be further studied via cell Performance measurement to detect which is the adjacent cell with the lowest outgoing handover completion rate. Main reasons of low handover completion rate: (1) Inappropriate handover (2) Equipment failure (damage in certain carrier boards, etc.) (3) Congestion (4) Interference (5) Coverage
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(6) Imbalance between uplinks and downlinks (7) Clock problem (The base station changes into an internal clock, the upper clock becomes unstable or the upper clock is overly floating.) In analysis, configuration of handover parameters, relations of adjacent cells, BTS synchronization loss with BSC, and other problems can be eliminated in the first place. Further analysis may be carried out over other factors affecting low rate of handover completion.
I. Inappropriate handover (planning for adjacent cells, handover arameters.)

Position and Solution: (1) Check to see if the configuration for handover thresholds of TA and BQ and handover switch is appropriate. (2) Performance measurement of undefined adjacent cells: level and the number of measurement reports of undefined adjacent cells exceed standard. Adjacent cells shall be suitably added. (3) In defining the Performance measurement of adjacent cells, defined adjacent cells with few handovers can be spotted. These cells can be recommended to be deleted. (4) Times of handover is not in proportion to that of TCH call occupation completion. With handover/call>3, there might be ping-pong handovers. In this case, handover parameters shall be inspected and modified. (Handover parameters include configuration of layers, inter layer handover hysteresis, inter cell handover hysteresis, PBGT threshold, etc). (5)Inter cell handover Performance measurement: the average level for handover prompt is detected too low. This may result from too low a handover threshold including edge threshold in configuration.
II. Equipment problem

Subject for Analysis: A service cell with low rate of incoming handover completion and adjacent cells with low rate of outgoing handover completion. Positioning of Problems: (1) There are channels being activated in target cells but NACK, TIMEOUT. (2) TCH availability abnormal. (3) Too many times of Call Drop and call interruption resulted from terrestrial link problem. (4) Shall Call Drop rate and congestion rate remain high in a cell, there might be problems with part of the equipment. (5) Survey the transmission and board alarm (TC failure, A interface PCM synchronization loss alarm, LAPD broken link, Power Amplification board, HPA, TRX alarm, CUI/FPU alarm) According to alarm data, see if there is a transmission failure or a malfunctioning board (as a carrier board failure or bad contact). (6) Check the provision of clock alarm.
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Chapter 9
(7) Due to the fact that handover between base stations is limited by access level and quality, care shall be taken to configuration for relevant parameters (RACH access threshold, Random Access Error Threshold.)
III. Congestion
Subject for Analysis: A service cell with low rate of incoming handover completion and adjacent cells with low rate of outgoing handover completion. Positioning of Problems: After the problem of inappropriate parameter configuration and equipment failure being solved, if there are (1) Too many incoming handover failures (caused by congestion) in measurement of incoming handover performance; (2) Times of outgoing handover attempts - times of outgoing handover is too great in measurement of handover performance between cells. It suggests that there is no channel available to be applied. There might be congestion in the target cell. With phenomenon mentioned above, the maximum number of TCH in all busy, the time of all busy shall be studied to confirm the existence of congestion. Congestion shall be solved as follows. Solution: (1) Modify cell coverage (modify transmission power of base stations, modify the minimum access level, modify RACH access threshold, modify random access error threshold, modify down tilt of antenna.) (2) Modify major parameters of the cell (modify CRO, start-up load handover, modify cell priority and handover parameter of the cell.) (3) Capacity expansion or modification to configuration of carriers of the cell.
IV. Others
After the problems of parameter configuration, equipment failure, and congestion being solved, with reference to TCH Call Drop analysis, the problem of cells with low rate for incoming handover completion and adjacent cells with low rate incoming handover completion can be solved by interference, coverage, balance for uplink and downlink analysis and solution.
9.4.6 Traffic Analysis

Calculate traffic volume of the specific area (mean traffic per line) to see if it is necessary to implement capacity expansion. Make out a list of super busy cells and super idle cells. Traffic trend. Based on historic traffic data, estimate the future trend of traffic. Analyze if there are cells with abnormal traffic volume.
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Table of contents
Radio network Planning
Chapter 10 Special Topic

10.1 The Problem of Coverage
At present there are more or less problem of coverage in the network. The problem of coverage concerns a large number of aspects. This section analyses the problem of coverage that is available on-line from the perspective of base station selection, carrier configuration, antenna feeder organization, antenna installation, installation quality and parameter setting, etc.
10.1.1 Equipment Configuration

I. Combiner Configuration
Solution recommendations under normal circumstances: For cells with less than, or equal to 2 TRXs, use EDU. For cells with less than, or equal to 4 TRXs, use CDU combiner. For cells with more than, or equal to 5 TRXs, consider using cavity combiner or fourin-one (SCU) combiner.
II. Tower Amplification

For some areas or bands whose uplink signal quality needs to be strengthened, consider designing tower amplification.
III. Antenna
Using high gain antenna can improve the base stations coverage capacity to a certain extent. When doing network planning, first consider the network quality from the perspective of network coverage and select appropriate antenna. Under normal circumstances the 900M directional antenna gain shall be in the range of 15-17dBi; the 1800M directional antenna gain shall be in the range of 15-18dBi. For city areas the directional antenna with horizontal half power angle of 65 degrees is preferable. When high gain antenna is used, the problem of Shadow right under the tower should be taken into account. Preferably zero-point filling antenna should be used. If the omni-antenna is built over high mountains, the problem of Shadow right under the tower should be taken into account too. Preferably omni-antenna with built-in low incidence should be used.
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10.1.2 Base Station Site Selection

I. Bad base station location and antenna installation will lead to the problem of coverage.
When there is a possibility that bad station location and antenna installation may lead to the problem of coverage, the on-site surveying personnel shall insist their viewpoints from the perspective of network coverage. The issue shall be explained thoroughly if it cannot be solved ultimately. What shall be explained is also the base stations coverage areas and objectives (in particular government offices, hotels, airports, residential areas, main roads, shopping centers and former cells coverage margins), as well as the cells carrier frequency configurations. Usually for intensively populated urban areas the height of the base stations antenna is 25-30 meters; the height of the base stations antenna in the suburbs (or the ones that point to the suburbs) is 40-50 meters. The planning personnel shall assist the network carriers to decide the coverage areas and objectives after a thorough study of the geographical features, the buildings absorption and loss features, and multipath effect to ensure that the base station will be constructed as expected. Furthermore, the base station, in particular the omni antenna base station shall not be too high. This is because the omni antennas vertical beamwidth is narrow. If the base station is too high, it will have bad coverage on the nearby area and good coverage on the faraway area where there arent many subscribers. Usually the height of the omni antenna base station shall not be 50-60 meters more than the covered area. For base stations that are too high, the built-in down-tilt omni antennas or antennas with broad vertical beam are desirable.
II. The antenna direction difference between the old and newly built network
For directional cells, if the antenna direction of the newly built network is different from that of the old network, such as: the old antennas direction was 0/120/240, while the newly built antennas direction is 60/180/300. For omni cells, if the antenna direction of the newly built network is different from that of the old network, such as: the old antennas direction (transmit and diversity antenna) is 0/180, while the newly built antennas direction is 90/270. This will cause the change of the diversity surface and transmit antenna position. This may make the previous good coverage a bad one, and previous bad coverage a good one. But the mobile phone subscribers are only concerned with the change from good to bad, which will give rise to complaints. Solution recommendations: During the engineering design, the antenna shall be so designed as to make the direction of it as identical as that of the old one. In cases where the direction change is desired, the main beam of the directional antenna or the direction of the omni antenna shall point to the places where heavy coverage is emphasized. Due explanations are also desirable.
III. The difference of the antenna height between the old and newly built network
The engineering design shall be so made as to ensure that the height of the new antenna is not lower than that of the old antenna. If the tower platform has not enough space to install the antenna, the explanations shall be given for decreasing the antenna height.
IV. Concerning the directional antennas down-tilt of the newly built network
Preferably the down-tilt shall not change. In cases where such change is desired due to the increase of the base station in the urban area for purpose of controlling the coverage area, such change shall be duly recorded.
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V. Change omni cell to directional cell

As the half power angle of the directional antennas beamwidth is 65 or 90 degrees, and the beamwidth of the omni antenna is 360 degrees, after the change, the marginal coverage of the cell within the directional base station can be worse than that of the previous omni station. During the planning, make sure that the main beam of the directional antenna points to the area where emphatic coverage is desired and describe the coverage differences between the omni-antenna and directional antenna.
10.1.3 Antenna Engineering Design and Installation

I. The problem of the directional antenna installation
Generally, the base stations uplink and downlink signals are balanced. Bad antenna installation may leave the mobile phone subscribers such impression that the base stations uplink coverage capacity is weak. (1) The transmitting antenna is installed inverse. Transmitting feeder and the cells antenna were mistakenly connected or BTS set top jumper was mistakenly connected. Possible phenomenon clue for fault discovery: The mobile phone is somewhere in the cell but cannot call out (the receiving antenna is in the other direction, the uplink is bad); Unilateral call connection; From a distance of the cell, drop-off happens frequently (infrequent near the base station); Drop-off after frequent handovers (the handovers are found to be mostly caused by weak uplink signal strength or bad uplink quality); The field intensity distribution of the BCCH frequency band between the adjacent sectors were found to be displaced during the drive test; Unexpected severe interferences with the adjacent frequencies. This type of error is easy to discover in the network. It can be found by checking installation or by analyzing the field intensity distribution of the BCCH frequency band during the drive test. (2) Wrong receiving antenna installation: This problem, which cannot be found by analyzing the field intensity distribution of the main BCCH frequency band in the downlink, can cause bad uplink in the current cell. After excluding the possibility that it is caused by transmitting antenna, check if the jumper or feeder of the receiving antenna are wrongly installed, also review the measurement report to see if the uplink level is too low, or if there are any call-out or handover problems, power control triggered by the uplink signal, or irrational handover ratio, etc.
II. The problem of shadow adjacent to the coverage area in the directional cell
During the installation of the directional antenna, caution must be taken to avoid the creation of large area of shadow in its coverage area. Shadow usually comes into being as a result of huge hindrance near the base station, such as skyscrapers, or mountains. Caution must be taken to circumvent such hindrance during the installation.
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When the directional antenna is installed at the surface of the top of the building, caution must be taken so that the wave beam is not hindered by the edge of the building, and that the antenna is not installed near the edge, thus reducing or extirpating the shadow. Due to the complexity of the antenna surface, when the antenna must be installed away from the edge of the building, it must be installed high above the antenna surface. For this reason, the bearing capacity of the building surface and the antennas against-wind force must be taken into account during the engineering.
III. The problem of the directional antenna diversity interval

The effective horizontal interval of the 900M directional antenna space diversity should be more than 4m (at least greater than 3m); The effective horizontal interval of the 1800M directional antenna space diversity should be more than 2m.
IV. The problems during the omni-antenna installation

Omni base stations are mostly located along the roads from villages to counties, or from counties to other cities. These base stations are mainly to serve the mobile subscribers along the road or subscribers in the villages. The common mistake that is made during the installation of the antenna feeder is that the distribution of the above subscribers are not fully taken into account, leading to the incomplete utilization of the performance of the base station, leaving the subscribers such impression that the coverage is bad. There are mainly 3 points concerning the design and installation of the omni antenna: (1) The interval between the omni antennas and the interval between the antenna and the tower (2) Diversity direction: the diversity surface should be directed to the area where subscribers are heavily populated (3) The position of the host transmitting antenna (TX) (the host transmitting antenna refers to that of the BCCH transmitting channel). The main transmitting antenna should be directed to the area where the subscribers are heavily populated. The following figure is on the direction of the base station omni antenna that covers the roads:
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MS_TXPWR_MAX(n)
RXLEV_NCELL(n)
MS_TXPWR(n) MsOptLevel(n) BTS1 HO BTS2

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Figure 10-1 Installation of the base station omni antenna that covers the roads In addition, a distance of more than 2m is required between the omni antenna and the tower. The horizontal effective interval for 900M omni antenna is more than 4m; The horizontal interval for 1800M omni antenna is more than 2m.
10.1.4 Antenna feeder, combiner (divider), CDU connections

When the amplifier work normally, the antenna and feeders VSWR is normal but downlink signal is weak, check if the connector between the amplifier and CDU (combiner) and the connector between CDU and set top are correct; When the antenna-feeder connection is correct but the uplink is weak, check if the divider connection is correct and the divider is open. Also note if the fan works normally.
10.1.5 Parameters settings and others

The parameters that affect the coverage include base station static transmitting power level, RACH access threshold, and the mobile phones minimum access threshold.
I. Static Power Setting

To reduce the interference with the adjacent frequencies, lower the height of the antenna, increase the down-tilt, or decreasing the base stations transmitting power. Usually, decreasing the transmitting power can also worsen the indoor coverage. So what are commonly adopted arefalling down the height of the antenna and increasing the down-tilt.
II. RACH Parameters Setting

To control the uplink access (call, paging response), and to balance between the coverage and call drop ratio, Huawei adds the parameter RACH access threshold in the BTS3.X base station. The parameter can go upward from 110dBm, and effectively controls the mobile phones uplink access.
III. Cell Selection and Reselection Parameters

C1 and C2 decide the cell selection and reselection. RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN is commonly set between -100dBm to 105dBm. Setting the parameter too great will make it difficult for the mobile phone to select the cell, which, when viewed from the subscribers perspective, is the mobile phones call drop and no coverage; Setting the parameter too small will lead to the situation that the mobile phone can receive the signal but cannot call out. During the parameter setting, also note the differences of sensitivity and maximum transmitting power between the 900M and 1800M networks, ignoring which may cause the unbalance between the uplink and downlink.
IV. Other Parameters and Phenomena

The setting of the random access error threshold can also restrict the mobile phones access. Its value, which is usually greater than 180, is set subject to the radio environments bottom noise and statistical result. The other parameters settings that have effect on the mobile phone attached, access, handover, and connection are: BSIC, NCC_PERMITTED, CELL_BAR_ACCESS, CELL_BAR_QUALIFY, radio link failure timer, the number of mobile phones maximum retransfer, the number of send
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distribution time slots (the number of extended distribution time slots), the number of SACCH multi-frames, the number of maximum physical retransfer, radio link connection timer, location update and paging-related parameters (including LAC distribution), handover-related parameters, power control-related parameters, flow control-related parameters, roaming permit-related parameters, TRX power settings of different CDU channels, etc. When the base stations upper clock is bad, MCK (TMU) is failure, propagation is unstable, or the carrier frequency board is failure (no warning, sometimes stable interferences), the mobile phones accessing, call and handover (usually asynchronous handover) will be affected. When the system information is wrong or is not delivered correctly, the mobile phones accessing, call or handover will be affected. When the frequency interference is severe, the mobile phones accessing, call and handover will be affected. When the channel is congested the mobile phones handover and call access will be affected. Multipath effect can lead to signal fluctuation During the cell reselection and frequent location border update, the signal of the mobile phone will fluctuate. During the connection, direct re-try and load handover caused by congestion can lead to strong fluctuation of the signal; Priority handover (for layered network) and edge handover (the edge handover threshold is set too low and there is no PBGT handover) can also lead to strong fluctuation of the signal. If the power control and handover parameters are not set properly during the signal fluctuation, the fluctuation will be strengthened until call drop happens. The cross-area coverage or coverage in the border areas for different services can all cause problems, leading to the subscribers huge increase of roaming bill. To solve the problem, the coverage area should be controlled or enlarged during the planning and optimization phase to avoid mutual cell reselection or only single-direction cell reselection. Solve the problem by adjusting the height, down-tilt, and direction of the antenna, CRH and MS minimum access threshold, and BAI table. The mobile phone subscriber having not sufficient understanding on the terrain, construction materials absorption loss, or multipath effect will tend to rise questions on coverage.
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10.2 TCH Congestion

In 2001, the mobile phone companies in all the provinces presented five indexes as network quality criteria. They are: long distance call success ratio, traffic call drop ratio, traffic channel availability ratio, radio successful connection ratio, and worst cells ratio, the last two of which are directly influenced by TCH congestion ratio.
10.2.1 The Causes of High TCH Congestion Ratio

The causes for high TCH congestion ratio are many, among others, data configuration problems, hardware problems and external interference. But in light of solution steps and sequence, it is desirable to first check the software and hardware problems of the equipment per se, and then check other equipment-unrelated factors such as external interference and constraints due to complex terrain (1) Interface A trunk circuit data configuration errors. (2) Carrier frequency board faults or unstable performance, leading to high congestion ratio. (3) Bad base station hardware installation causes unbalanced uplink and downlink level, leading to TCH congestion. (a) Uplink branch: antenna tower amplifier feeder line discharge arrester set top connector divider or CDU TRX board Divider cascaded half-rigid cable connection error, leading to uplink level discrepancy; Half-rigid cable distortion or loose connector, leading to the problem; Data bus problem. (b) Downlink branch: TRX HPA combiner or CDU set top connector discharge arrester feeder line tower amplifier antenna The transmit branch has antenna feeder standing wave ratio warning; Half-rigid cable distortion or loose connector; Cell antenna connection error or TRX natural transmit channel discrepancy cause the discrepancy in the coverage direction and area of main BCCH carrier and expansion carrier, leading to TCH congestion. (4) The repeater station is subordinated to the host cell. The repeater station doesnt expand as the cell does. (5) Interferences leading to congestion (6) Isolated station or complex terrain causes TCH assignment failure, leading to congestion. (7) Huge real traffic leading to congestion.
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10.2.2 Positioning Methods of High TCH Congestion Ratio

I. Remote Analysis of Congestion Ratio Cause
(1) By traffic statistics analysis By conducting traffic statistics analysis on the cells TCH performance, check if TCH congestion is due to all-busy congestion. If it is, the problem can be solved by network optimization which delegates the cells traffic to other cells, or by advising the operator to expand. If the problem is not due to all-busy congestion, check if the congestion is related to interference, namely, check interference 1 to 5. If interfered, the cells call drop ratio can be a little high. Register the receiving performance measurement traffic statistics tasks. Query the traffic statistics result by object and see if the uplink/downlink measurement report in the same TRX is balanced to decide if the uplink/downlink hardware branch is balanced. Query the traffic statistics result by time and see if there is any exceptions regarding the measurement report number in the same cell to decide if the congestion is related to that board. (2) View the warning Check the station warning to which the high-congestion-ratio cell belongs to see if there are any abnormal warning, such as VSWR warning, PCM synchronization lost warning, uplink data bus warning, etc, and decide if the congestion is related to that warning, taking into account the traffic statistics. (3) Remote maintenance terminal of the base station Check if the software of the boards in the base station is uniform. The version upgrade shall be subject to the notice from SUPPORT website. Use the maintenance terminal of the base station to congest in turn the cell carrier boards TCH channels that have high congestion ratio to see if the high congestion ratio is related to that cells carrier board. Solution principles: If the fluctuation of the congestion ratio is related to the block of the carrier boards channel, then very possibly that board is at fault. Check if there is any co-channel interference. Check the hardware performance of the uplink, downlink, and the board. If the congestion is not related to the carrier board, then the whole cell may be interfered or affected by the terrain. (4) Use the Signaling Analyzer to diagnose the ABIS interface message. According to the call flow and TCH assignment failure statistics, use the Signaling Analyzer to trace the ABIS interface message at every high-congestion-ratio cell. The figure shown here uses MA10 Signaling Analyzer, the detailed analysis of which is as follows: Analyze the assignment command Assignment CMD delivered in SDCCH, as the TEI value in figure 10-2, to determine the carrier board that SDCCH is in. The carrier board that TCH is in can be determined by referring to the ARFCN radio frequency band. Determine if the assignment failures are all in a TRX. Also analyze the causes of the assignment failures by focusing on the mobile phones TA value, uplink/downlink level value, and uplink/downlink signal quality in the measurement report. Local calling is required.
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If assignment failure points to a certain TRX board, the cause can be one of the following: TRX board down or unstable performance; Caused by bad uplink/downlink level. The uplink branch/downlink branch hardware is at fault; Bad uplink/downlink signal quality. Decide which branch is interfered, taking into account the mobile phones TA value.
Figure 10-2 ABIS signaling If the assignment failures are randomly distributed over the carrier boards of the whole cell, the analysis on the measurement report may point to the following causes: (1) Complex terrain within the coverage area of the base station; (2)Interference of the frequency band within the whole the cell, such as the one from the repeater station
II. Examination on the local base station

(1) Local maintenance: See if there are any abnormal warnings and solve them timely. (2) Check if there are any such hardware problems in the uplink and downlink antenna feeder branch as loose connector, inverse antenna, half-rigid cable connection error, and backplane loose wiring, etc. (3) Use mobile phones for calling in the same place; Calling by every carrier or by every channel to see if there are any time slots or boards that cannot be assigned. Check weather all the carriers downlink levels are approached. For carrier board whose levels are uneven, replace the board or uplink/downlink antenna feeder system to look for the causes.
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Note: for frequency hopping cells, use command line parameters to change that cell to non-frequency-hopping cell for the convenience of local calling. (4) Do the drive test by the network optimization software ANT-PLOT to see if there is any handover exceptions, downlink interference for any clues on the problem of congestion. (5) Use the spectrum analyzer to look for the interference source. (6) See if the terrain of the stations coverage area is complex.
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10.3 Voice Prompt

The voice prompt in GSM is controlled by the MSC of GSM network and broadcast to the subscribers. MSC plays the pre-recorded voice prompt in the channel corresponding to the voice card according to the different cause values and data configuration of the message. Typical voice prompt problems can take the following forms: (1) When the called is in idle state, The subscriber youre calling is busy or The mobile phone youre calling has turned off is delivered. (2) When the called is in idle state, The subscriber youre calling is out of the service area is delivered. (3) When the called is in idle state, For the time being the subscriber youre calling cannot be accessed is delivered. The reasons that cause the above phenomena can be some of the following: Subscriber status management exception on the NSS side, roaming number fetch failure, or no paging response. In the following section we emphasize on the analysis of the problem Subscriber out of the service area.
10.3.1 Paging Strategy

The primary causes for the problem of subscriber out of the service area are twofold: one is paging response time over; the other is no paging response. First lets look at how the paging is done. The paging strategy can be divided into the following three parts as per MSC, BSC, and BTS.
I. MSC Paging Retransfer and Paging Mode Selection

MSC can page the same message for a maximum of four times. If the latest paging is not responded, it will retransfer the paging message. The resend time interval is 3 seconds, 3 seconds, 2 seconds, and 2 seconds respectively. Two seconds after the last resend, i.e., twelve seconds after the first retransfer, if the paging is not responded, MSC will regard it as time-over and deliver prompt tone of Subscriber out of the service area to the subscriber. The paging methods MSC can choose are TMSI and IMSI.
II. BSC Paging Group Calculation and Paging Message Transfer between the Modules
After BSC receives the Paging Request delivered by MSC, it will calculate the paging group that the paging belongs to by the last three digits of IMSI, the cells CCCH channel configuration, and the paging block configuration, and then deliver Paging Command to that cell. Under multiple modules conditions, the Paging Command needs to be transferred between the modules.
III. BTS Paging Queue and Paging Combination

After BTS receives the Paging Command from BSC, it will put the paging in the Paging Group Queue that the Paging Command designates, and send the paging content of
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the paging group at intervals of the same paging frame period. At present, every queue length of the paging group in BTS is 9.In one paging reserve block, 2 IMSI paging or 4 TMSI paging can be delivered. So every time the paging is delivered, BTS must combine the paging according to the paging message type in the queue.
IV. MS Paging Detection and Paging Response

When in idle state the mobile phone can not only receive the system information from the broadcast channel, but also detect paging in its Paging Sub-channel. Therefore when the mobile phone receives the paging that is directed to it, it will send Channel Request to the Network Side and finish an immidiate assignment process. If the assignment is successful, it will report the Paging Response in the assigned SDCCH channel and complete a call connection process. Faults in any one of the above-mentioned four steps will lead to the problem of subscriber out of the service area.
10.3.2 Paging procedure

When in idle state, the mobile phone will stay in a cell that belongs to a location area. The mobile phones location area information is stored in VLR. When a mobile phone is being called, MSC will read the mobile phones location area and status information from VLR. If the mobile phone is in Attached, Idle state, it will send Paging Request to the BSC to which the location area belongs. The BSC will calculate the mobile phones paging subgroup, create Paging Command, and deliver the Paging Command to all the cells in the location area. When in idle state the mobile phone can not only receive the system information from the broadcast channel, but also detect any paging in the Paging Subchannel to which it belongs. Therefore after the mobile phone receives the paging that is directed to it, it will send Channel Request to the Network Side and finish an immidiate assignment process. If this immidiate assignment is successful, it will report Paging Response to the assigned SDCCH channel and complete a call connection process. Note: The Paging Response is reported in Establishment Indication. For example: all the cells in a region belong to one location area, the common control channel parameter configuration for the cells is as follows: One non-combined CCCH The number of frames between the same paging: 6 The number of access reserve block:1 Thus, there are 6x(9-1)=48 paging groups in every cell. The mobile phone will decide the paging group it belongs to according to the last three digits of its IMSI and the number of the paging groups, then detect in the relevant sub-channel. For a mobile phone whose number is 13013362000, and the IMSI is 460013361000037, the last three digits of its IMSI is 037, its paging sub group is 37.When in idle state, the mobile phone will always listen to the paging sub channel related to the No. 37 paging group. If someone calls 13013362000, the paging will be sent to that subscriber from the cells in that area. After the mobile phone receives the paging directed at 460013361000037, it will send a channel request, and finish an instant assignment according to the instant assignment from the network side. If there is idle SDCCH channel in the cell, a SDCCH channel will be assigned to that mobile phone, the mobile phone establishes the connection in the channel, and reports the paging response.
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10.3.3 Analysis on the Problem Subscriber Out of the Service Area

The reasons that cause Subscriber out of the service area are the time-out of the mobile phones response to the paging or no response. From the flow of the paging response report and analysis on the real cases, there are the following reasons that cause this problem:
I. MSC subscriber status management

If MSC subscriber status management is down and the request cannot be delivered to BSC, then MS will fail to receive the paging and to respond, leading to time-out. In real situations, there are cases when MSC didnt deliver the paging. There were also such abnormalities as faulted called being regarded as caller and 3Tick release abnormalities. Such abnormalities are non-recurrent. And can be identified by being traced by the GSM subscriber interface of MSC Maintenance Station.
II. Receiver in the base station

If the receiver of the base station, including DSP, TRX, and antenna feeder, is down, it will fail to detect the mobile phones access pulse or to establish connection with the mobile phone within the time limit, the paging response (in essence the instruction to set up connection) cannot be reported to BSC, leading to paging response time out or no paging response. For example, we found that T2688 in somewhere is slow in getting online. After the amplifier and the antenna feeder are discarded, the access speed can be 10 seconds faster. As this situation involves air interface and sometimes can be caused by the problems of MS, the diagnosis of it is difficult and dictates experts equipped with special devices.
III. The differences of the mobile phones fake accessing and accessing mode
According to the protocol, whenever the MS is performing open/close, it must update its position and do the IMSI detachment according to the systems requirement. Some mobile phones, mostly Ericsson, dont perform the above operations. If the mobile phone fails to update its position when attempting open, it will display the message that it has already been attached. But what happens is that there is no message reported and the subscriber status doesnt change. Dialing that subscriber will receive the message that it is close. Another example is that IMSI is not detached when the mobile phone switches off, so the subscriber status is still attached. Paging is still delivered to that subscriber when it is called. Out of service area message will come out when the time is out. Different mobile phones have different accessing mode and speed after the drop-off, causing some to have long time in accessing, leading to the problem of Subscriber out of the service area. Under the protocols of GSM 02 and 03, after the call drop the mobile phone follows the principles of ASAP (as soon as possible) and energy saving to access the network. The mobile phone will attempt to access the network in receiving signals strength order. 900M mobile phones search 30 frequency bands; 1800M mobile phones search 40 BCCH frequency bands; Double frequency mobile phones search 70 frequency bands. After the failed attempt, the mobile phone will decide when to start next time according to its own algorithm. Mobile phones of different models have different algorithms. For example, some models of Motorola mobile phones can set accessing network frequency. Under the low speed accessing mode, it takes 50 minutes to access the network after the mobile phone drops off the network and re-enter the coverage area. In addition mobile phones of different manufacturers have different accessing mode. Some mobile phones, after several failures in finding the network, will stop doing so for a long time to come. So, this
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problem is related to the mobile phone itself and can be solved by the switch on and switch off of the mobile phone.
IV. Uplink / Downlink Unbalance of Radio Link

The radio signal can be classified into uplink and downlink according to the propagation direction. Ideally the uplink-downlink are at balance, that is to say, at any area the base station and the mobile phone can receive (or not receive) the other sides signal simultaneously. The uncertainty of the radio signal propagation and the discrepancy of the actual circumstances dictate that complete balance within the whole network is impossible. So in the network there must be some areas where he downlink signal can cover but the uplink signal cannot. In these areas, the subscriber can receive message sent by the network, while the network cannot receive the message reported by the subscriber, including paging response. Therefore in these areas it is very common for the Subscriber out of the service area message to occur. To solve such problem of Subscriber out of the service area, adjust the radio parameters such as RACH access threshold, random access error threshold, MS minimum access level, and RSSI check to optimize the balance. In particular, note that the displacements of the measured level value in the measurement report for different versions of base stations are different.
V. SDCCH Congestion
After the mobile phone receives the paging command, it will send channel request to the network side. If there is no SDCCH channel available, or if the procedure to set up SDCCH channel fails, the paging response cannot be delivered to the network side, thus the problem of Subscriber out of the service area occurs. The causes for the SDCCH congestion are SDCCH all busy, random radio link failure, etc. For the SDCCH all busy situation, adjust that cells coverage area to reduce the SDCCH congestion. For congestion caused by other reasons, such as random radio link failure or surface link failure, the solution is subject to real situation.
VI. PCH Overload

The paging message in the network is random. Due to the restrictions on the structure of the radio channels and the limitations on the capability to send the paging command, it is possible that some of the paging groups are overloaded, leading to failure to send the paging messages out timely, and the resend paging cannot be responded within the valid time, thus causing the problem of Subscriber out of the service area. This situation can be improved by modifying CCCH configuration parameters the number of frames in the same paging, the number of access grant reserved block, and CCCH channel allocation. Reducing the number of access grant reserved block to a proper extent will increase the number of PCH sub channels, thus increasing the capacity of the paging channels; Reducing the number of frames in the same paging will improve the frequency of sending the paging message; Increasing the number of CCCH channels in the cell can significantly improve the systems paging capacity, but at the same time reducing the number of TCH configurations. Thus this method is seldom used. If PCH is severely overloaded, the size of the location area needs to be reduced, thus lowering the flow of the paging message.
VII. Mobile Phone Quality

When the mobile phones radio frequency module is down, the antenna loosens, or the battery is down, its receiving sensitivity goes down, the uplink signal quality worsens, and the capability to receive the paging command and access the network lowers. Mobile phones with such problems are prone to have the phenomenon of Subscriber out of the service area. The evaluation on the quality of the mobile phone
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sometimes requires special devices. The problems of the mobile phone can take the following forms: (1) Bad power supply leads to insufficient uplink transmitting power and uplink access failure. (2) Faulted mobile phone software leads to the mobile phones exceptional dead-end and failure to respond to the paging message. (3) Problems in the radio frequency part of the mobile phone will lead to failure to receive, unstable transmission, or high frequency error within some frequency band.
VIII. Non-comprehensive Coverage

In areas where the radio signal coverage is not good, usually indoors, the signal quality is likely to be bad, and the call drop is not uncommon .As the subscriber status in the VLR has not changed, when that subscriber is being called, the network side can deliver paging message normally, but the subscriber cannot receive the paging message and cannot respond to the paging message. Or because of the low quality of the signal, the paging response cannot reach the network side. It is normal under this circumstance that Subscriber out of the service area occurs. For such Subscriber out of the service area phenomenon, the quality can be improved by increasing the number of the base stations and perfecting the coverage. There is a significant percentage of complaints concerning the problem of Subscriber out of the service area that is due to bad coverage.
10.3.4 Supplementary Notes

In the radio network, because of the radio channel congestion or radio signal coverage, it is certain that the problem of No paging response occurs. In some areas where the coverage is bad, bad signal quality will lead to the failure to deliver the paging or paging response to the peer side, causing the phenomenon Subscriber out of the service area. For example, due to the temporary congestion of the SDCCH channel, the MS cannot be assigned an SDCCH channel, and the paging response cannot be reported, in which case the first dial may receive the prompt tone of Subscriber out of the service area and the second dial may succeed. As the paging sub channel of the cell where the subscriber is in is fixed, so the chance for that sub channel overload increases significantly. Calling that subscriber many times will be very likely to encounter the phenomenon of Subscriber out of the service area. These phenomena are all normal no-paging-response. It is an exception only when the attempt to call an idle state subscriber with good signal continuously for a long time receives Subscriber out of the service area.
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10.4 The Problem of Signal Fluctuation

The causes that can lead to the mobile phones signal fluctuation are: (1) Fluctuation in the base stations transmission power (2) Cell reselection (in idle state) or handover (in conversation state) (3) Power control, DTX (4) TRX faults (5) Interference (6) Huge traffic, leading to channel congestion (7) Multipath effect
10.4.1 Examine the Stableness of the Base Stations Transmission Power

(1) Directly measure the base stations output power (a) Use Spectrum Analyzer 8594, connect to the HPAs amplifier interface that sends BCCH through 30dB attenuator.
Spectrum analyzer 8594
30dB attenuator
HPA
Figure 10-3 Directly measure the base stations output power (b) Connect the base 13M clock and CMD57 reference clock input by the clock line and synchronize the equipment to the frequency band to test every timeslots power, frequency error, and phase error. If the test result shows that every timeslots frequency error and phase error conform to the standards, and that base stations 13M clock works stably, then the possibility that signal fluctuation is due to the 13M clocks fluctuation can be excluded. After ensuring the output power stability, lets check the installation quality of the antenna feeder to see if there is any instability in the standing waves. If the installation quality is good, then the possibility that the signal fluctuation is due to the equipments output power instability can be excluded. (2) Within the visual distance of the antenna (about 1km away. The purpose is to test the influence of the multipath propagation), test the base stations transmitting level to see if it is stable. (a) Use the spectrum analyzer 8594 and do the test by feeding the signal received through omni-mini antenna to the spectrum analyzer directly, as shown in the following figure:
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spectrum analyzer 8594
Omni-mini antenna
Figure 10-4 Use the mini-antenna to test the base stations transmitting level (b) Use the mobile phone SAGEM and the test software MobileShow to do the test at the place that is within visual distance and is 1 km away. Preserve and test the signal wave by the laptop computer to see weather the transmitting level is stable. By the above test, we can determine if the output power at the amplifier interface is stable. The shortcoming of it is that it cannot obtain the concrete value of the output power in the amplifier interface. It seldom happens that the output power of the base station is unstable.
10.4.2 Cell Reselection (in idle state) or Handover (in conversation state)
Both cell reselection and handover can lead to the fluctuation of the signal. To find the causes, use the following testing methods: (1) Watch and test the mobile phone to see if the cell reselection or handover occur as the signal level changes; (2) Use the test mobile phone SAGEM and software MobileShow to see if the cell reselection and handover occur as the signal fluctuates. By the above tests we can decide if the signal level fluctuation is caused by the cell reselection or handover. This phenomenon normally happens at the edge of the cell. But if the network has serious trans-cell coverage,, frequent cell reselection and handover can also arise, leading to the fluctuation of the signal.
10.4.3 Power Control and DTX

When the power control or DTX is down, the receiving level in the mobile phone fluctuates. If the threshold value for the uplink power control is set too low, the uplink signal from the mobile phone to the base station will be weak, This, together with the normal fluctuation in the radio space, will give rise to handover. During handover, if the adjacent signals quality is not strong to maintain the conversation, call drop will arise. Naturally the Level Indicator in the mobile phone will go down to one scale or zero scale from the previous full scale. Phenomenon: The Level Indicator points to full scale, suddenly the peers voice at the other end of the line cannot be heard in the middle of the conversation; the Level Indicator in the mobile phone points to one scale or zero scale. Call drop happens. After several seconds the conversation is on again. Procedure and Analysis: The Level Indicator pointing to full scale means that mobile phone is in good receiving quality. The level value at this time is about -75dBm. If the downlink level exceeds this value, the level fluctuation cannot be displayed in the mobile phone. So such fluctuation is not easy to be seen when the signal is strong. So when the networks downlink power control is on, it is desirable to set the downlink level control to 8-18
75dBm.One further note: the level indicated in the mobile phone is the mean value of its radio frequency level. So the signal fluctuation of the narrow pulse duration will be partly smoothed away. So the scale change in the Level Indicator is not the real-time performance of the receiving signals strength. It is delayed. During diagnosis, we did the following monitoring and testing: Test the downlink power at the combiners test interface, no fluctuation was found; the downlink power at the drop-off point was measured to be -85dBm by the spectrum analyzer. Though there was a fluctuation of 10-15dB, its minimum level was not enough to drop off the mobile phone; Next we monitored and tested the downlink level of the mobile phone by connecting it to mobile show, we found that starting from a certain time (subject to small differences every time), the level went down from 85dBm along the 60 degree slope, when it went to the middle of the slope, there happened a handover, but the strength of the signal continued to go down, until at last the level was almost the same with that of the other areas (about 105dBm), and maintained at this value for about 10 seconds and then it dropped off. If after 10 seconds it didnt drop off, it went upward along the 60 degree slope after another 10 seconds, and there happened a handover in the middle of the slope. Then it continued to go upward, and maintained some time for conversation at about 85dBm.Then it repeated the above procedure, making its path like a sloped square wave, until it dropped off at some trough. By watching the Um interface from the background, we found that before or after the drop-off and handover, the downlink receiving level was strong and stable, and the uplink level was mostly at 105dBm.So it can be determined that the handover and drop-off were caused by the bad uplink quality, that is to say, because of the effect from the uplink power control, the uplink signal has almost approached the uplink levels minimum threshold value when it reached the base station. That, along with the normal fluctuation under the radio environment, will cause the base station to think that the conversation quality in that cell is poor, so it orders the mobile phone to hand over to the adjacent cell. If the quality in the adjacent cell is good, the conversation goes on, otherwise, there will be a drop-off. In light of the call drop, the level indicated in the mobile phone after the handover is the downlink level of the adjacent cell. And the downlink level of the adjacent cell is quite small, so naturally the mobile phones level goes down to 1 scale or 0 scale. If the signal in the adjacent cell is not sufficient to sustain the conversation or the drop-off, the base station will order the mobile phone to hand over back to the previous cell. If this time it is successful, the conversation can go on, the level in the mobile phone will return to full scale from 0 scale. This is the reason why the conversation suddenly cuts off but doesnt call drop, and after a while, the conversation recovers. When the subscriber is having long time conversation, due to the periodicity of the above square waves, along with the randomness of the environments fluctuation in the radio space, the subscriber will experience intermittent cutoff and recovery, (not necessarily cutoff at every trough, but certainly weakening of the conversation quality), until call drop happens. As the uplink power control makes any level from the mobile phone to the base station very weak, giving rise to drop-off regardless of the distance. Certainly as the radio fluctuation for the mobile phones that are near to the base station is small, so is its chance of call drop. As the indoor radio fluctuation is greater than outdoor radio fluctuation, so is its call drop ratio. In addition, the antenna is usually placed at high tower, , the radiation lobe is in fusiform, so the area right under the tower is blinded. The coverage only reaches to the edge of the lobe. The carriers office is usually located at that area, and they keep performing trial dialing, so the chance for the fluctuation is greater. Solution: First make some brief judgments according to the above analysis. If the situations are likewise, call the uplink power control parameters from the background and set the reasonable threshold value (preferably 80dBm.In addition the parameters concerning the handover need to be set as per the real situation, the reasonableness of which will affect the quality of the network and the fluctuation of the signal. Please do the modifications only after a thorough understanding of the meaning of each parameter, and test the modifications.
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10.4.4 TRX Down

Phenomenon: The mobile phones Receiving Signal Indicator points to the full scale. When the subscriber dials the number and press <OK>, the mobile phone drops out within a few seconds, at the same time the Indicator lowers to one scale or zero scale. This phenomenon happens intermittently. Cause and Analysis: After <OK> key is pressed, BCCH assigns a TCH to the mobile phone through SDCCH. When the TRX where the TCH is located is down, such as no power output or output too small, then the TCH will fail to set up the communication, leading to drop-off, and the Indicator lowering from full scale to 1 scale or 0 scale. After a few seconds it will return to the Wait Status, and the Indicator returns to full scale. As the TCHs assignment is dynamic, that is to say, the first subscriber occupies the first carrier frequency, the first time slot; the second subscriber occupies the first carrier frequency, the second time slot, and so on. After eight subscribers calls, (or one subscribers eight consecutive calls), TCH will switch to the second carrier frequency, thus leading to normal conversation after several calls. As the number of callers is large, the interval for the examiner to encounter such fault may vary. And the more the number of carrier frequencies in the cell, the more difficult for it to discover the cause. On the other hand, there is no fault warning when the carrier frequency is not being used, but the warning of Power Too Small after the assignment. Solution: See if there is any warning in the TRX at the background when the mobile phone is having call test. If yes, replace that TRX with the adjacent carrier frequency amplifier or TRX, decide where the fault is and substitute the standby board for the at-fault board. Furthermore, this method can be one of the effective ways to determine if there are any faults in the carrier frequency channels at the cell. At the opening phase, use two mobile phones and finish continuous testing on all the carrier frequencies at the cell within several minutes.
10.4.5 Interferences
Interferences can lead to signal fluctuations. Interferences can cause the timeout for the DCS counter (90/the multiframes between the same paging) in the mobile phones at the current service area, thus leading to cell reselection, which when reflected on the mobile phone side, is the fluctuation of signals.
10.4.6 Cell Congestion

First let us explain the problem by analyzing the signals: After a call is initiated by the mobile phone, first SDCCH channel is assigned, after the corresponding signaling is finished, a TCH will be assigned to the mobile phone for its use by the network. What is the normal procedure is that BSC activates a TCH channel by sending to BTS in the current cell a signal activation command, and then the channel is assigned to the mobile phone. But what actually happens is that (in times when the current cell is congested) the network gives the mobile phone a command to switch to other cells, whose signal is weaker than the current cell. As a result, the level goes down immediately, leading to the fluctuations of the signal. It is possible that after the penalty time the mobile phone switches to other cell again, whose signal is stronger, in which case the level indicated in the mobile phone goes up. Or after hooking the mobile phone is in IDLE state and receives the BCCH signal from the cell where the mobile
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phone is in, which reflected in the Indicator is the going up of the signal strength. Therefore the essential cause of this problem is too much traffic, causing congestion in the cell.
10.4.7 Multipath Effect

Multipath effect is one of the main causes that lead to the signal fluctuation in the network. The performance of the radio communications system is largely constrained by the radio channel. The propagation path between the transmitter and receiver is very complex, ranging from the simple visual distance propagation to encountering such terrain as buildings, hills and trees. The form the electromagnetic wave takes to propagate is diverse. In the main, it can take the forms of reflection, diffraction, and scattering. Most cellular radio systems operate in the city. There is no visual path between the transmitter and receiver, and whats more, the skyscrapers produce strong scattering loss. Furthermore, as different objects have different multipath reflections, the electro-magnetic waves, after passing paths of different length, interfere to produce multi-path loss. At the same time the strength of the electromagnetic waves attenuates as the distance between the transmitter and receiver increases. The attenuation in the radio environment can be classified into fast attenuation and slow attenuation according to the estimation on the field intensity. In skyscraper cities, as the height of the mobile antenna (mobile phone) is much lower than that of the surrounding buildings, there is in most cases no visual propagation between the mobile station to the base station, thus causing attenuation. Even if there is such a path for visual propagation, multipath effect may still arise due to the reflection of the surface and the surrounding buildings. The incident waves arrive in different directions and have different propagation delay. The signal received by the mobile station at any position in the space consists of many signal waves, which have randomly distributed amplitude, phase, and incident angle. These multipath components are combined in vectors by the receiver, thus giving rise to the attenuation and infidelity of the signal being received. Even when the mobile receiver is static, attenuation can still arise as the signal being received is affected by the propagation medium (the air flow change), or by the moving objects where the radio channel is in. The method the base station uses to solve the fast-attenuation phenomenon is space diversity (polarized diversity), i.e. host diversity antenna. The effectiveness of this host diversity receipt is guaranteed by the irrelevancy of the host diversity antenna receipt. By irrelevancy, it means the signal received by the host antenna doesnt have the simultaneous attenuation feature with the signal received by the diversity antenna. This requires that the gap of the host diversity antenna is 10 times greater than the radio signal wavelength (for GSM 900M the antenna gap must be greater than 4 meters), or that the polarized diversity is used to guarantee the different attenuation features of the signals received by the host diversity antenna. Whereas the single antenna mobile station (mobile phone) is helpless before the fast-attenuation feature under the radio environment. So multipath will lead to the fluctuation of the mobile phones receiving level.
10.4.8 Other causes

(1) Poor antenna feeder connection will lead to ups and downs of the standing wave, which when reflected in the mobile phone, is the fluctuation of the signals (2) Serious propagation flickers will lead to the amplification of the on/off in the base station.
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(3) Some mobile phones will also have fluctuation of the level when doing location area updating. This is especially so when in the location area border of the city. (4) The signal level after the assignment will fluctuate deeply due to the difference of the carrier combination method or the disaccord of transmission channel gain within the cell.
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10.5 Other Main Problems

10.5.1 Poor Voice Quality
(1) Hardware faults, poor propagation and bad grounding will lead to poor voice quality. (2) Worse interference leads to poor voice quality, especially when the frequency is density reuse. (3) Poor coverage, leading to poor receiving level and receiving quality.
10.5.2 Failure to attach the network

Cannot update the location area The CGI table of MSC fails to keep record of the cell, leading to location area update failure and network access failure
10.5.3 Slow to attach the network

Possibly related to the mobile phones access mode. Generally when the mobile phone is opened, it will try to access the network according to the information stored when the mobile phone was closed last time. In cases when the information is invalid or there is no stored information, the mobile phone will try to access the network by scanning for the strongest signal. As the scanning method may differ, so does the access speed. Furthermore as the mobile phone needs to decode the scanned frequency band according to the level, when the cell has a low access priority, it can only access the network after ensuring that there is no higher priority. This will also cause the slow attach speed. As the network access procedure includes authority verification on the mobile phone, the speed is also related to the performance, propagation and system processing of the cell. Notwithstanding the foregoing, many factors shall be considered in an integrated way.
10.5.4 Access slow

Possible causes: (1) Effect on the same number of paging multi-frames. The paging may be delayed for 0-0.235N seconds. Certainly its setting is related to many a factor such as location area. Its parameter change shall be considered in an integrated way. (2) Effect on the number of time slots during propagation extension. In areas where coverage is poor, when the first access request is not decoded successfully, resend may be delayed for 55x0.477 to 1 second. (Subject to the parameters) (3) Related to the system processing performance.
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10.5.5
unilateral connection
The common cause may come from the equipment or transmission. This problem will be introducted in detail in other documents.
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Chapter 11 Development of Network Planning Techology
Chapter 11 Development of Network Planning Technology

11.1 GPRS Basic Principle
11.1.1 GPRS Network Structure
GPRS network has introduced such concepts as packet switching and packet transmission, which enhanced GSM networks support for data services in terms of network system. Figure 11-1 and Figure 11-2 are the composition graphs of the GPRS network from different perspectives. GPRS, in fact, is another network superimposed on the existing GSM network. The GPRS network adds to the original GSM network such entities as Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN), Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN), etc. GPRS shares the BSS system of the existing GSM network, but both the software and hardware need the corresponding update. Meanwhile, the interfaces of all the entities of the GPRS network and the GSM network have to be defined correspondingly. Besides, the MS is required to support the GPRS service. GPRS supports the interconnection with PSPDN via GGSN, and the interface protocol may be X. 75 or X. 25. At the same time, GPRS also supports direct interconnection with IP network.
Figure 11-1 GPRS Network Structure
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SMS-GMSC SMS-IWMSC E Gd MSC/VLR A TE R MT Um BSS Gn Gs Gb SGSN Gn Gp GGSN Other PLMN

D
SM-SC C
HLR Gr Gc Gi GGSN Gf EIR Signalling Interface Signalling and Data Transfer Interface PDN TE
SGSN
Figure 11-2 GPRS Network Composition
11.1.2 GPRS BSS and MS Function Introduction

I. BSC
BSC is the core control part of the GSM/GPRS base station subsystem. One BSC can control several BTSs. For circuit-switched services, the main responsibilities of BSC include: Various kinds of radio resources management The mapping from the radio service channel to terrestrial circuit; Circuit-switched call control; A interface support and Abis interface support. For packet-switched services, the responsibilities of BSC include: Packet radio channel configuration; Controlling the conversion of the radio channel between packetswitched services and circuit-switched services; Providing necessary packet calling control support for cells without PBCCH. Besides, the operation and maintenance commands on BTS via OMC must be controlled or transferred by BSC, and the channel configuration for the PCU and the Pb/G-Abis interface configuration are mainly conducted at BSC.
II. BTS
BTS is the radio part of the BSS, and controlled by BSC, BTS is the radio transceiving equipment serving a specific or several cells. The main responsibilities of BTS include:
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Realizing the radio transmission and the related control function between BTS and MS via the Um interface; Accomplishing the layer 1 and layer 2 functions of the Um interface, and transparently transmitting layer 3 message; Helping BSC accomplish part of the layer 3 function of the Um interface.
III. PCU
PCU is the equipment introduced by BSS to support GPRS, and its main functions include: Most of the packet radio resource management functions; Packet calling control function; Packet data transmission; Supporting the Gb interface, the G-Abis interface, and the Pb interface
IV. GPRS MS
(1) Terminal Equipment Terminal Equipment (TE) is the computer terminal equipment operated and maintained by terminal subscribers. It is used to transceive the packet data of terminal subscribers in the GPRS system.TE can be independent desktop computer. The functions of TE can also be integrated into the hand-held mobile terminal equipment, and become one entity with the mobile terminal (MT). To some extent, all the functions provided by the GPRS network are to set up a packet data transport passageway between TE and external data networks. (2) Mobile Terminal Mobile Terminal (MT) on the one hand communicates with TE; on the other hand, it communicates with BTS via air interface, and the logic link to SGSN can be established. The MT of GPRS must be configured with GPRS function software to access GPRS system services. In the data communications process, from the perspective of TE, the function of MT is equivalent to the Modem connecting TE to the GPRS system. The functions of MT and TE can be integrated into one physical device. (3) Mobile Station Mobile Station (MS) can be viewed as the integrated entity with all the functions of MT and TE. It can be one physical entity or two (TE+MT). MS has three types: Type A: it allows simultaneous packet switching service and circuit switching service. Type B: it can be attached to the GPRS network and the GSM network simultaneously, but it does not allow the simultaneous circuit switching service and packet switching service. Type C: it cannot attach to the GPRS network and the GSM network simultaneously. (4) MS Multiple time slot Capability Level MS can be divided into 29 levels based on the multiple time slot capability, which has been detailed in the following table. MSs at different levels have different packet channels simultaneously available. A handset reports its multiple time slot capability level in the packet resource request information. BSS should comprehensively
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consider such aspects as the MS data traffic, required class of quality of services, available radio channel condition, etc. when assigning radio resources for MS. The multiple time slot capability of MS should try to be met with the observance of the principle of making full use of the radio resources. The multiple time slot capability is usually represented as X (RX)+X (TX), that is the maximum time slot number allowed for the downlink and the maximum time slot number allowed for the uplink. For example, 3+1 GPRS handset refers to the one with three time slots maximally allowed for the downlink reception and one time slot maximally allowed for the uplink transmission.
Multislot class
Maximum number of slots Rx 1 2 2 3 2 3 3 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 5
Multislot class
Maximum number of slots Rx 6 7 8 6 6 6 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 8
Tx
1 1 2 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 4 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Sum 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 NA NA NA
Tx
6 7 8 2 3 4 4 6 2 3 4 4 6 8
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Sum NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
11.1.3 GPRS Signaling Model

The signaling model of GPRS BSS is shown as in Figure 11-3. Its main responsibility is to accomplish the protocol layer function such as RLC/MAC, BSSGP, and NS, as well as the air interface radio frequency related functions.
GMM/SM LLC
Relay
GMM/SM LLC RLC MAC BSSGP BSSGP Network Service L1bis Gb
RLC MAC GSM RF
Network Service GSM RF L1bis Um
MS
BSS
SGSN
GMM: GPRS Mobility Management RLC: Radio Link Control
LLC: Logical Link Control MAC: Medium Access Control
BSSGP: Base Station System GPRS Protocol

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SM: Session Management Figure 11-3 The Signaling Model of GPRS BSS
11.1.4 Radio Packet Channel Configuration

I. Radio Packet Logic Channel Types
The radio packet logic channels include the following four types: (1) Packet Data Traffic Channel (PDTCH) PDTCH is used to transmit subscriber data in the packet switching mode, and the transmission rate ranges from zero to 22. 8kbps. All PDTCHs are unidirectional, either uplink (that is PDTCH/U used for the data transmission form MS to the GPRS network) or downlink (that is PDTCH/D used for the data transmission from the GPRS network to MS). (2) Packet Broadcast Control Channel (PBCCH) PBCCH is to broadcast the necessary parameters resulted from MS access to the network because of packet services. Besides, it also broadcasts circuit switching service parameters, which have already been broadcast by BCCH. MS in the GPRS Attach mode only monitors PBCCH, and pays no attention to BCCH. If there is PBCCH in a cell, BCCH will indicate it. That is to say, via system message, SI13 tells MS that this cell has already been equipped with PBCCH. If there is no PBCCH, BCCH will broadcast parameters that will be used in the packet services. (3) Packet Common Control Channel (PCCCH) PCCCH includes the following types of channels: Packet Paging Channel (PPCH): it is only used in downlink to page MS. Packet Random Access Channel (PRACH): it is only used in uplink to request one or more PDTCHs. Packet Access Grant Channel (PAGCH): it is only used in downlink to assign one or more PDTCHs. Packet Notification Channel (PNCH): it is only used in downlink to notify MS of point-to-multipoint multi-path transmission (PTM-M) calling. If there is no PCCCH in a cell, packet services information can be transmitted via CCCH. If there is PCCCH, circuit switching services information can be transmitted via PCCCH. (4) Packet Dedicated Channel Packet dedicated channels have the following types: Packet Associated Control Channel (PACCH): bidirectional, used to transmit packet signaling in the data transport process. Packet Timing advance Control Channel Uplink PTCCH/U: it is used to transmit random access pulse so as to estimate the timing advance of MS for packet services.
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Packet Timing advance Control Channel downlink (PTCCH/D): it is used to renew transmission timing advance information for several MSs. One PTCCH/D corresponds with several PTCCH/Us. The PCU of Huawei Technologies Co, Ltd. can support all packet channel functions.
II. Packet Logic Channel Combination Types

The combination types include: PBCCH + PCCCH + PDTCH + PACCH + PTCCH PCCCH + PDTCH + PACCH + PTCCH PDTCH + PACCH + PTCCH Where PCCCH = PPCH + PRACH + PAGCH + PNCH When a cell is required to be equipped with PBCCH, the first type will be adopted, and one cell can only have one channel combination of this kind. When there are quite a few MSs in a cell and the PCCCH is relatively busy, one or several channel combinations of the second type can be added. Only when there exists channel of the first combination type can exist the channel of the second combination type in a cell. Channels of the third combination type are mainly used for uplink and downlink packet data transmission. Each cell can be equipped with one or several channels of this combination type. The GPRS PCU system of Huawei Technologies Co, Ltd. supports all of the channel combination types, where the third type can be divided into fixed PDCH and dynamic PDCH. The fixed PDCH is specially used for GPRS packet data transport, and cannot be forcefully occupied by circuit-switched services, while the dynamic PDCH can dynamically switch from TCH and PDTCH according to service requirements. It is TCH in the initial state of the system, and it will switch to PDCH when there is packet service demand, while it will switch from PDCH to TCH when there is circuit service demand.
III. The Mapping from Logic Channel to Physical Channel

GPRS packet channel adopts 52 multiframe structure, and each packet channel has 52 multiframes. Every four frames constitute a radio block. Therefore, each radio channel can be divided into 12 radio blocks and four idle frames. Its structure is shown as in Figure 11-4.
B0 B1 B2 X B3 B4 B5 X B6 B7 B8 X B9 B10 B11
B0~B11
12 radio blocks
X: idle fram es
Figure 11-4 Radio Channel Structure where: PBCCH channel: it can be mapped to such radio blocks as B0, B3, B6, and B9. The specific number is determined by the busy degree of its broadcasting channel, and the mapping sequence is in conformity with the above-mentioned order. PCCCH: PAGCH and PPCH can map to any radio block of the downlink channels except the one occupied by PBCCH. PRACH is the uplink
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frame corresponding with the radio block occupied by PBCCH, PAGCH, PPCH, etc. PDTCH: it can map to all the radio blocks, and it is used for packet data transmission. PACCH: it can map to all the radio blocks, and it is used to transmit the radio signaling of the air interface. PTCCH: the 12th and 38th uplink frame of each 52 multiframe is a PTCCH uplink channel, and the 12th and 38th downlink frame of two consecutive 52 multiframes constitute a PTCCH downlink channel.
11.1.5 Packet Access Mode

When data transport occurs in the upper layer of MS, the RLC/MAC of MS will initiate the packet access. MS packet access mainly includes the following types: short access, one-phase access, two-phase access, single block without establishing TBF access, paging response, cell renewing, and mobility management. When the data to be transmitted are less than eight RLC blocks, the channel request type of MS will be short access, where he number of data packet will be determined by CS-1 coding. When the data to be transmitted are more than eight RLC blocks, and the RLC mode is required to be the confirmed mode, the channel request type of MS will be one-phase access or two-phase access. If what is to be transmitted is the MS measurement report, the channel request type is single block without establishing TBF access. Besides, the channel request type also includes paging response, cell renewing, and mobility management. However, this kind of channel request type is often treated as one-phase or two-phase access. For short access and one-phase access, MS will be assigned radio resources once and for all such as TFI, dynamic assigned USF or fixed assigned radio block bit table, etc. Then MS begins transmitting data. For two-phase access channel request, for the first time only one radio block will be assigned to MS, and MS transmits packet resource request information via the single assigned radio block. After that, MS will undergo resource assignment (including TFI, USF, or radio block bit table) for the second time, and MS begins transmitting data via the assigned resources. Because the packet channel request is only the eight-bit or eleven-bit access pulse, the carried information is very little, whereas the packet resource request is a RLC/MAC signaling packet coded by CS-1. Therefore, it carries comparatively much more information including TLLI of MS, the multiple time slot capability of MS, radio priority, etc. , which is of benefit to the proper resource assignment for MS. The system of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. supports all the access types, where such access types as paging response, cell renewing, and mobility management will be treated as two-phase access treatment.
11.1.6 Paging Processing

In the GPRS/GSM system, paging includes packet paging and circuit paging, which will be introduced in the following.
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I. Packet Paging
When there is downlink data to be transmitted to MS, SGSN should initiate packet paging to accurately locate MS. The paging request message initiated by SGSN will be sent to PCU via Gb interface, and PCU will transform it into packet paging request to be transmitted via Um interface. If there exists PCCCH in the BSS system configuration, the request message transmits directly via PPCH. If there is no PCCCH in the BSS system configuration, PCU will send this message to BSC via Pb interface, and BSC will transmit it via PCH. After MS receives the packet paging message, it will initiate uplink temporary block flow (TBF) to establish a procedure, and then send to PCU the paging response packet as data mode via air interface. PCU then transfers it to SGSN. After SGSN receives the paging response, within a certain processing period, the downlink data will be able to be transmitted.
II. Paging Co-ordination

In the GSM network, when a circuit call reaches the MSC which is expected to locate a certain subscriber, MSC determines the location area the MS has registered in, and sends the circuit paging message to all BSCs in this location area. If there exists Gs interface between SGSN and MSC, the GPRS/GSM system will be run in the Network Operation Mode One. The circuit paging of the GSM service can be sent via GPRS packet channelThat is to say, if an MS is already GPRS attached, its circuit paging will go through Gs interface and Gb interface, and reach SGSN via MSC, and then reach PCU via SGSN. PCU determines which channel will be used for the transmission. In Network Operation Mode One, if the MS has been assigned PDCH, then PACCH will be used for the transmission. If no PDCH has been assigned, and the system has been configured with PCCCH, then PPCH will be used for the transmission. If no PDCH has been assigned and the system has not been configured with PCCCH, then PCU transfers the paging message to BSC via Pb interface, and BSC will transmit this circuit paging via PCH. If there is no Gs interface between SGSN and MSC, and the GPRS/GSM system can only run in the Network Operation Mode Two and Three, the circuit paging message will be transmit via CCCH. MS connects to RACH on the reception of this circuit paging message, and initiates circuit connection establishing process. If the MS is currently engaged in the GPRS service, it will initiate GPRS SUSPEND process to suspend the GPRS service. The MS will not resume the GPRS service until the circuit is released. The PCU of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. supports the above-mentioned packet paging and circuit paging functions.
11.1.7 Discontinuous Reception (DRX)

In order to reduce the power consumption when the MS is idle, MS should adopt DRX. The MS supporting DRX only receives the paging message (packet paging and circuit paging) from its corresponding paging group in the paging channel, whereas the MS not supporting DRX has to interpret all the paging messages in the paging channel. Obviously, MS will greatly reduce its power consumption if it can support DRX. The algorithm adopted by MS to determine the paging group is the same with that of PCU or BSC.
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During the MS ATTACH/GPRS ATTACH process, it should be informed whether the GPRS/GSM network supports DRX and the other DRX parameters or not.
11.1.8 Radio Resource Distribution

I. Medium Access Control Mode
There are three kinds of Medium Access Control (MAC) modes: fixed distribution, dynamic distribution, and extended dynamic distribution. Fixed Distribution The radio block used by the MS has been allocated by PCU before hand. If the radio block has been used up and there are still data to be transmitted, PCU has to distribute radio blocks for a second time. Dynamic Distribution The radio block used by the MS has been allocated by PCU temporarily. When PCU distributes radio resources to MS, it will assign MS several radio channels and the uplink state flag (USF) value for each radio channel. After the MS receives the assignment message, it will monitor the USF value of the downlink radio block of the assigned channel. If this value is the same with the assigned USF value, then MS will transmit data in the corresponding uplink radio block. Extended Dynamic Distribution The resource distribution mechanism is the same with that of dynamic distribution. The only difference lies in that the number of time slot used by the MS may exceed its multiple time slot capability. After MS receives the USF value of one of the channels, it can transmit data in this channel and the other channels with a bigger number. The BSS system of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd has realized the dynamic distribution function. It can choose MAC mode according to the subscriber configuration within the cell or the TRX range.
II. MS Multiple Time Slot Capability

The multiple time slot capability of MS can be divided into 29 grades, which can be referred to ETSI GSM 05. 02 Standard. MS with different grade may have different number of packet channels that can be used concurrently. When PCU distributes radio resources to MS, it should take into consideration the MS data transmission quantity, the required quality grade of services, available radio channels, etc. The MS multiple time slot capability should try to be satisfied while observing the principle of making full use of radio resources. The PCU system of Huawei Technologies at present supports MS with 1~12 grade multiple time slot capability, and can make the best resource distribution based on the MS multiple time slot capability and the radio resources.
11.1.9 Packet System Message

The packet system message is mainly used to broadcast the parameters necessary for MS to access network because of service demand in a cell. When the cell supports the GPRS service, BCCH should add new SI13 message. Otherwise, SI13 message will not be broadcast if GPRS is not supported. The cell can be configured with PBCCH, or not be configured. MS will be notified whether there is PBCCH in the cell
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via SI13. PBCCH mainly broadcast the packet system message dedicated to the GRPS service. The packet system message includes the following types: PSI1, PSI2, PSI3, PSI3bis, PSI4, PSI5, and PSI13. PSI1 mainly includes information like cell selection, PRACH control,, control channel description, and power control parameters. PSI2 mainly includes reference frequency list, cell allocation table, GPRS mobile allocation table, and PCCCH description. PSI3 mainly includes the BA table of the adjacent cells, serving cell/nonserving cell selection parameters, etc. PSI3bis mainly includes the BA table of the adjacent cells, nonserving cell selection parameters, etc. PSI4 mainly includes the PDCH list used in the MS measurement in the serving cell. PSI5 mainly includes measurement report, network control cell reselection information, etc. PSI13 is the same as the SI13 which is broadcast via the BCCH, and it mainly includes the access-related information which is unique of the GPRS cell. PSI1~PSI4 can be broadcast both via PBCCH and via PACCH. PSI5 can be broadcast only via PBCCH. PSI13 can be broadcast only via PACCH. When there is PBCCH in a cell, the PSI13 message then will not be broadcast via PACCH, which will however cyclically broadcast PSI1. When there is no PBCCH in a cell, PACCH can only cyclically broadcast PSI13 message. The BSS system of Huawei Technologies, Co, Ltd. can perform the transmission of all the system messages related to the GPRS service, and it can realize the control retransmission, fast retransmission, low-speed retransmission of the system messages. It can also control the system message transmission via PACCH based on the PBCCH/PCCCH configuration of the cell.
11.1.10 Radio Link Control

Radio Link Control (RLC) layer is mainly responsible for the LLC-PDU packet disassembling and assembling. It uses a kind of slide-window protocol and ensures that data are transmitted between the corresponding layers by employing confirmed or unconfirmed mode. The size of the GPRS RLC slide-window is 64. When confirmed mode is adopted, each transmitted data block of Temporary Block Flow (TBF) needs the confirmation from the receiver. Otherwise, it has to be retransmitted. The TBF cannot be released until all the data have been transmitted and the confirmation by the receiver has been received. When the unconfirmed mode is adopted, the transmitted data block needs no confirmation from the receiver. The lost data or the error data can be replaced by filling bits. TBF can be released once the data transmission is finished. The PCU system of Huawei Technologies, Co. Ltd. supports both the confirmed and unconfirmed modes. It can specify the uplink data transmission RLC mode according to the MS request information, and determine the downlink data transmission RLC mode according to the downlink LLC-PDU packet type.
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11.1.11 Channel Code and CS Change Control

GPRS has four types of channel coding modes. The transmission rate and the number of transmitted RLC/MAC packet bytes of each coding mode are as follows:
Channel Coding Mode CS-1 CS-2 CS-3 CS-4 RLC/MAC Data Block Size (octets) 23 33 39 53 Rate (kbps) 9. 05 13. 4 15. 6 21. 4
Different channel code modes have different transmission rates and different requirement for air transmission quality. The higher the transmission rate is, the higher the requirement for transmission quality is. In the data transmission process, BSS can dynamically adjust channel code mode according to the changes of radio transmission quality so as to realize the purpose of trying to improve transmission rate on the principle of making full use of radio resources and guaranteeing the transmission quality. The PCU system of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd. at present supports four code modes: CS-1~CS-4. It can dynamically change between these four modes according to the radio transmission quality.
11.1.12 Radio Link Monitoring

In order to enhance the transmission efficiency in the GPRS system, several kinds of link monitoring methods have been applied to the Um interface. The PCU system of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd. has realized the following kinds of link monitoring functions as specified in the protocol:
I. Link Monitoring in the Uplink Dynamic Distribution Mode

When MAC is in the dynamic distribution mode, PCU assigns resources for each TBF via USF. MS determines its uplink usage right by detecting its USF value on the assigned channel. Once MS detects its assigned USF, it will transmit data block on the corresponding uplink channel. If the radio link quality is bad, and MS cannot properly receive its USF value, it will not be able to transmit data block to the network in the corresponding uplink block. According to the protocol requirement, PCU detects the validity of the links by monitoring the size of N3101. N3101 is initialized to be zero when the TBF is established. PCU each time assigns one block to one TBF. After that, it will expect to receive the information of this TBF. If no corresponding data block has been received, then N3101 will be added one. During this process, once the MS data block is received, N3101 will return to zero. If the value of N3101 reaches its maximum value N3101_max, PCU will activate timer T3169. When T3169 spills, TBF will be released, and the corresponding resources can be used again.
II. Downlink Monitoring

For the downlink TBF, PCU assigns uplink signaling channel for MS by setting the RRBP on the downlink data block. PCU monitors this signaling channel via N3105 counter so as to test the validity of TBF. N3105 is initialized to be zero when the TBF is established. PCU each time sets RRBP on downlink data block of TBF. After that, it will expect to receive the control information of this TBF on the corresponding uplink block. If no corresponding data block is received, then N3105 will be added one. If correct reception occurs, then N3105 will return to its original state. If the value of N3105 is larger than or the same as its maximum value N3105_max, PCU will activate timer T3195. Once T3195 spills, TBF will be released, and the corresponding resources can be used again.
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III. Uplink Release Monitoring

PCU ensures the normal release of the uplink TBF via 3103 counter according to the protocol. N3103 is initialized to be zero when the TBF is established. After PCU has correctly received all the uplink TBF data, it will send Packet Uplink Ack/Nack (FAI=1 indicates the last confirmation) to MS, and set RRBP in hope that MS will confirm this message. If PCU does not receive correct packet control Ack/Nack information in the corresponding uplink block, then N3103 will be added one. If N3103 exceeds the preset maximum value, PCU will activate T3169. When T3169 spills, TBF will be released, and the corresponding resources can be used again.
11.1.13 Radio Frequency Power Control

I. Uplink Power Control
The PCU system of Huawei Technologies, Co, Ltd. provides uplink open loop power control algorithm. The detailed formula can be referred to in the ETSI GSM 05. 08 protocal. The basic idea of the open loop power control is that supposing the uplink and the downlink have the same path loss, MS therefore can adjust the output power based on the received signal level. In the GPRS cell there will be SI13 message broadcast, in which exists a parameter named ALPHA, which will be used by MS to calculate the output power value of its uplink PDCH (PCH). That is to say, the power value actually adjusted by MS results from the calculated adjustable power value multiplied by the ALPHA coefficient. ALPHA ranges from 0. 0 to 1. 0. At present values except 1. 0 are not used. They are reserved. When the value is 0. 0, it means that the handset does not perform power control.
II. Downlink Power Control

At present, the PCU of most companies does not support downlink power control. It should be explained that the above-mentioned condition refers to that in which handsets perform packet data communications. When voice communication is needed, it will return to the normal GSM control flow.
11.1.14 Cell Reselection Control

I. Cell Reselection Network Control Mode
There are three kinds of GPRS network control modes: NC0, NC1, and NC2. The meaning of each network control mode is as follows: NC0: MS performs cell selection automatically, and does not send measurement report. NC1: MS performs cell selection automatically, and sends measurement report. NC2 network control: MS sends measurement report and accepts the cell reselection of the network control. The BSS system of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd can determine network control mode according to the subscriber data configuration. At present, NC0 mode is supported.
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II. Cell Automatic Reselection

MS monitors the PBCCH/BCCH carrier of the adjacent cell at any time, and determines the best cell to attach based on the information such as the carrier signal intensity, the base station color code in the carrier, etc. Meanwhile, it informs the system of its own route area by initiating the route area update flow.
III. Cell Change Control

MS regularly submits measuring report to BSS according to the cell system message broadcasting parameters. BSS takes full consideration of the MS measurement report, the load of each adjacent cell, etc. and sends cell change command to MS, requiring the MS to attach to a specific cell.
11.1.15 Flow Control and QoS Guarantee

I. Flow Control
Due to the different physical medium and transmission protocol between Gb interface and Um interface, the transmission rate of these two kinds of interfaces is different. The transmission rate of Gb interface is higher than that of Um interface. Besides, in the downlink data transmission, data transmission via Um interface is limited by such factors as MS multiple time slot capability, radio quality, available radio channels in the cell, etc. Therefore, the transmission rate is not constant, and the downlink data needs flow control. In the normal work of a cell, the PCU system should activate flow control program, and regularly reports the bucket size and bucket flow speed of this cell according to the radio packet channel condition. Meanwhile, it also reports the bucket size and the bucket flow speed of MS based on the MS occupied radio resource condition (the bucket of a cell refers to the maximum packet data quantity saved that this cell allows. It changes as the number of packet channels in the cell changes. The bucket of MS refers to the maximum packet data quantity this MS allows. It changes as the number of assigned MS channels changes. The bucket flow speed refers to the data transmission rate). SGSN appropriately adjusts the downlink data flow speed of the cell and each of the MS according to the reported parameters so as to realize the flow control on the downlink data. The PCU system of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. can realize the downlink data flow control, and is able to regularly report the bucket size and bucket flow speed of the active cell and the active MS to the SGSN. It is also able to adjust the parameters to be reported according to the cell packet resources and the variation of the MS occupied resources.
II. QoS Guarantee

The quality of service (OoS) of GPRS mainly includes the following indexes: priority, delay grade, reliability grade, peak load grade, and average load grade. Each index can be divided further into several grades. Because these indexes are the point-topoint requirements for the entire packet data transmission, and it involves many factors like the air interface radio resources, Gb interface frame relay link resources, GPRS backbone network transmission bandwidth, and various kinds of GPRS equipment processing capabilities, the QoS requirement is met all according to the Best Effort grade at present. That is to say, data will be transmitted as soon as possible according to the principle of making the best use of resources.
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Because services with different QoS occupy different system resources, and the subscriber service quality is also different, carriers can differentiate subscribers according to the different QoS grades and adopts flexible charge policies, which is beneficiary for the spread of the GPRS service. The PCU of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd can assign MS radio resources based on the radio priority required by the data transmission, peak load grade, and average load grade. The MS with higher radio priority and higher load grade will be granted priority in the radio resources distribution. The QoS requirement will be met according to the Best Effort grade.
11.1.16 Mobility Management and Communication Management

I. Mobility Management
The mobility management is used in PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network) to support the function of tracing the current location of MS. The mobility management function of the GPRS network is similar to that of the current GSM system. One or several cells form a route area (a subset of a location area), and one SGSN provides services for one or several route areas. The MS location tracing is determined by the MS mobility management status. GPRS mobility management mainly includes GPRS Attach/Detach, cell/route area update, joint route area/location area update, paging, etc. After an MS accomplishes GPRS Attach, SGSN will establish mobility context for the MS and store the current location and status information of the subscriber. When the MS roams between different cells and route areas in the future, it will activate cell/route area update flow, and SGSN will also store the latest information of this MS so as to realize the location tracing for the MS. When MS performs such flows as joint GPRS Attach/IMSI Attach, joint cell/route area update, SGSN will communicate with MSC about MS location information via Gs interface. In this way only once mobility management flow can realize the MS location tracing by the packet switching service and circuit switching service. The detailed flow can refer to ETSI GSM 03. 60 protocol. Because the layer-by-layer encapsulation feature of packet data, in the mobility management all the flow signaling except the paging flow is transmitted as data in BSS. That is to say, BSS is only related to the paging function of the mobility management. After BSS gets the paging packet from SGSN, it selects the necessary information and sends the paging information via the air interface.
II. Communication Management

GPRS communication management mainly includes conversation management, billing management, etc. However, because the upper layer signaling is transmitted as packet data, BSS almost does not participate in the conversation management process except transmitting signaling data. In addition, the billing information collection is mainly performed in SGSN and GGSN. BSS does not participate in the billing management.
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11.2 GPRS Network Planning

11.2.1 GPRS Capacity Planning
The voice traffic calculation already has mature mode, that is the Erlang table. Traffic (A), channel number (N) and call loss rate (B) have the following relation. If any two out of the three parameters are known, the third one can be worked out by the following formula.
AN N = An n!
The packet data traffic can not directly employ the Erlang B table, which is due to the unique features of the packet data. The packet traffic of the fixed network has a calculation solution, which is very difficult to be used in the mobile environment. GPRS data traffic model has something to do with application occasions such as Email, web browsing, online games, etc. Different types of application have different data quantity, which is determined by the byte number, packet number, delay class, and service type.
I. The Calculation of Subscriber Average Access Rate

In the real application planning, the busy hour average traffic for each subscriber should be estimated. Before the estimation, we should first estimate the average subscriber access rate, which is determined by the CS1-CS2 ratio (the GPRS channel coding at the initial stage generally employs CS1-CS2), subscribers multiple time slot capability, BLER, header, and the average load factor. Before the calculation of subscriber average access rate, we should make a series of hypothesises: There is no SNDCP compression or decompression, nor segmentation or recombination (such an IP packet is transmitted as a single LLC PDU at the LLC layer) The LLC frame format is: LLC header (9-byte)+SDNCP header (4 byte) + IP data +FCS (3 byte). Each packet occupies one RLC length of indication byte. LLC employs unconfirmed transmission mode; while RLC employs confirmed mode and considers 10% retransmission rate. The average IP packet length is 150 bytes. The IP data stream should be continuous at least within the range of ten IP packets. In the RLC confirmed transmission mode, each comparatively long time interval of IP packets means a TBF connecting and releasing process. Normaly during each TBF connecting and releasing process, the consumption of RLC/MAC control block occupies 20% of that of the total radio block. And also includes the processing time for connecting and releasing TBF. Besides, we already know
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Every 20ms one radio block will be transmitted; The RLC/MAC header usually occupies three bits. In this condition, except the tail bit, in such coding methods as CS1, CS2, CS3, and CS4, the number of the LLC PDU bits transmitted by each RLC data packet is 20 bytes, 30 bytes, 36 bytes, and 50 bytes respectively. The protocol header of the FR, NS, BSSGP, LLC, and SNDCP of the Gb interface is 53 bytes. The following formula can be used to estimate the average data rate of the IP layer in various kinds of CS coding methods. M T VIP VGb A1 / B (M A2 / T VIP (150 53) / 150 1. 327 VIP M 0. 2 M 0. 1 ) 20
Where: M is the minimum RLC data block number necessary to transmit n LLC PDUs A1 is the total number of all the bytes in n LLC PDUs A2 is the total number of all the bytes of n IP packets B is the total number of all the LLC PDU bytes supported by each RLC data block T is the time necessary to transmit n LLC PDUs, that is n IP packets VIP is the estimated IP layer carrying rate of each PDCH VGb is the estimated carrying rate at the Gb interface layer of each PDCH X represents the upper round-off for X, while X for X. The result of the calculation is as follows: represents the lower round-off
CS-1 (Kbps) U interface physical layer speed IP carrier speed Carrier speed needed at the Abis interface physical layer Carrier speed needed at Gb interface physical layer 9.05 5.42 16 7.19
CS-2 (Kbps) 13.4 8.14 16 10.79
CS-3 (Kbps) 15.6 9.77 32 12.96
CS-4 (Kbps) 21.4 13.63 32 18.09
Suppose the proportion of the CS1 and CS2 in the designed network is 1:9. The average IP layer rate per time slot in the network is: 5. 42*10% 8. 14*90%=7. 868Kbps.
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Suppose the future mainstream MS type is 3+1, and the subscriber multiple time slot capability is employed by 60%. The average access rate for each subscriber will be 7. 868*3*60%=14. 162Kbps.
II. The Calculation of Subscriber Average Traffic

At present, the estimation for the subscriber average data rate generally adopts the following method: The fixed IP Model (from ChinaNet) will be referred to, and with the consideration of the mobile data characteristics, the average bandwidth for each subscriber in the GPRS field can be worked out: S = r1 r2 (A n V = S/A = r1 r2 where: S stands for the local network traffic V is the network busy hour subscriber average traffic A stands for local subscriber number n stands for the average network access times of a subscriber in a month T stands for the average communication duration each time r1 stands for the busy day concentration coefficient, which refers to the percentage of the traffic in the busiest day agaist the traffic in a whole month. It has nothing to do with the service type, and usually is set to be 1/20 or so. r2 stands for the busy hour concentration coefficient, which refers to the percentage of the traffic in the busiest hour agaist the traffic in a whole day. It has much to do with the service type. r3 stands for idle-seizure ratio, which refers to the ratio between the data downloading period and the whole online period. It is set to be 1/4. R stands for the subscriber access rate According to the above method, China Mobile has conducted an estimation on the average traffic for each GPRS subscriber during 2001-2002, and the result is 180bps. After the average traffic for each subscriber has been estimated, it will not be hard for us to plan the capacity of the whole network. n T r3 R / 3600) T r3 R / 3600
11.2.2 GPRS Coverage Planning

The coverage area of the GPRS is determined by the channel coding scheme. In a certain coverage area, E/N is a restriction factor. For interference restriction areas, C/I is the major restriction factor. In the GPRS system, various GPRS voice channel correction coding schemes should be in conformity with standard requirement. BLER(Block Error Rate)=10%
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In the condition that BLER=10%, the required C/I value has been worked out by simulating the four GPRS channel coding schemes (CS1, CS2, CS3, CS4) in some reference. The simulation condition aims at the RLC/MAC layer. The result is shown in Table 11-1:
Table 11-1 GPRS Channel Coding Scheme~C/I Channel Coding CS-1 CS-2 CS-3 CS-4 C/I (dB, with FH) 7. 1 11. 5 13. 6 20. 8 C/I (dB, without FH) 10. 8 12. 8 13. 7 17. 2
The coverage area estimation still adopts Okumura-Hata Model (for the distance longer than one kilometer) and Walfish-Ikegami Model (for small base stations). Suppose the interference in the serving area is constant and there is no frequency hopping, it stands for the serving area in different channel coding condition. Compared with voice and circuit-switched data subscribers, it theoretically refers to the serving area when the C/I is 9dB.
Table 11-2 The Percentage of the Serving Area with the GPRS Channel Coding Compared with Voice Subscriber Serving Area (%) Channel Coding CS-1 CS-2 CS-3 CS-4 Okumura-Hata 79 61 54 34 Walfish-Ikegami 80 63 57 37
The channel coding scheme of data subscribers based on circuit-switching corresponds to 4. 8kbps and 9. 6kbps. We can compare them with the 14. 4kbps GPRS data subscribers serving areas. For the voice serving area, the GPRS 14. 4kbps data subscriber serving area reduces to 85%; for the 9. 6kbps circuit-switched data subscribers, GPRS data subscriber serving area reduces to 92%. Figure 11-5 illustrates the coverage of various GPRS channel coding.
cs-1 cs-2 cs-3 cs-4
Figure 11-5 GPRS Various Channel Coding Schemes Coverage Graph The real GPRS network coverage planning, which is based on the voice coverage serving area, should determine the GPRS coverage area according to the corresponding scale, and also determine whether the GPRS network is capable of continuous coverage or not. At present, in the GPRS performance estimation, the related performance curve can be worked out by simulation tools. Figure 11-6 illustrates the relationship between C/I and distance. The result shows that in the normal GSM busy hour traffic condition, when the cell peripheral C/I=9dB, 90% coverage can be realized. Once the GPRS load functions, C/I will decrease with the increase of the GPRS load. When the GPRS load is 100%, the GPRS coverage area will reduce to the 88% of the original.
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Figure 11-6 The relationship between C/I and distance (GPRS load 0--100%) Figure 11-7 illustrates the relationship between C/I distribution probability and GPRS load. The curve also shows that C/I decreases with the increase of the GPRS load. On the other hand, when the C/I is 9dB, the coverage rate falls from 90% to 86%.
Figure 11-7 The relationship between C/I distribution and GPRS load (0
100%)
Figure 11-8 illustrates the relationship between C/I and multiplexing factor, where k ranges from seven to nineteen. k=7 is not the best condition for the GPRS. The bigger the multiplexing factor is, the more powerful it will be to support comparatively heavy GPRS load.
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Figure 11-8 The relationship between noncoverage rate and K (GPRS load from 0-100%)
11.2.3 GPRS Frequency Planning

The GPRS network frequency planning should consider the network data rate. Different channel coding schemes should be adopted for different data rates. Just as what has been mentioned above, different channel coding requires different C/I. The frequency multiplexing mode is determined by the requirement for C/I. The classical analysis method can still be used in the study of frequency multiplexing modes. Suppose the serving cell is represented by the symmetric regular hexagon and the co-channel interference cell is calculated with the six cells at the first layer. The following formula can be worked out:
C I
Q 6
D R
(1)
= 3&N
. Q=
(2)
Where C stands for carrier; I stands for co-channel interference; g stands for path radio transmission factor, whose value is often set to be 2~5; D stands for multiplexing distance; R stands for the cell radius; N stands for the number of the cells in a multiplexing family. The first formula has considered Rayleigh attenuation environment rather than the effect of the log-normal attenuation. Corrections with a certain dB will be made to get the number of frequency multiplexing families required by different channel coding in the GPRS network.
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Chapter 11 Development of Network Planning Techology Table 11-3 GPRS Frequency Multiplexing Family
Channel Coding Scheme Voice CS-1 CS-2 CS-3 CS-4
C/I Threshold (dB) 9 10. 8 12. 8 13. 7 17. 2
N 7 9 9 12 13 >19
The frequency close multiplexing technology of the current GSM network, which targets the improvement of the frequency efficiency and has a low requirement for error code for the voice service, can be used in the GPRS network. But the data communication has a high requirement for error code, and the dense multiplexing technology cannot meet the data transmission requirement. Generally, the data service and the voice service will exist together. The channels required by the GPRS data services and voice services are dynamically distributed. Therefore, all the channels which are used by the GPRS services should be guaranteed to satisfy the C/I requirement in the design. The fixed GPRS channels should choose the frequencies whose multiplexing distance can meet the C/I requirement. The GPRS channels which are not fixed should start choosing the frequencies from those that have longer multiplexing distance. Compared with voice channels, they have an option mechanism.
11.2.4 Summary
The GPRS network planning should try to guarantee the QoS of the existing voice services, and try to reduce the unfavorable effect on the voice services caused by the GPRS services. At the initial stage, in order to simplify the network planning work, a location area can include only one routing area. After the GPRS service has been developed, a location area should be divided into several routing areas according to the geographic distribution condition and GPRS service distribution condition. Frequency hopping has no obvious advantage for the GPRS service. It can improve the CS-1 performance, has no obvious influence for CS-2/3, and lower the CS-4 performance. At the initial stage of the GPRS introduction, in order to avoid network planning complexity, the original frequency hopping parameters should not be changed. In order to make full use of the GPRS coding technology advantage and to reduce the effect on the voice services, independent frequency planning should be taken for the GPRS network. It is recommended that at the beginning only the uplink power control be adopted, and the downlink power control be gradually introduced. Frequent change of the channel coding method should be avoided. Otherwise, the concussion effect will be present. GPRS is a new planning subject. The unsolved problems require further study in the future.
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11.3 WCDMA System Overview

Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems (UMTS) is the third generation mobile communication system adopting the WCDMA air interface. The UMTS system is also called WCDMA communication system. The UMTS system uses the same structure as that of the second generation mobile communication system. It includes some logic network units. Different network units can be divided into groups according to functions, or subnetworks they respectively belong to. From the functional view, network units can be divided into radio access network (RAN) and core network (CN). RAN deals with the functions related to radio access, while CN deals with all the voice calls, data connection, the switching and routing with the external networks within the UMTS system. The two units and user equipment (UE) jointly form the whole UMTS system. Its system structure is shown as in Figure 11-9:
UE RAN
MSC
3G CN
3G CS
VLR GMSC gsmSSF
EXTERNAL
PSTN
UTRAN
SERVICE APPLICATION
HLR, SCP
3G PS
SGSN,GGSN
Internet
Figure 11-9 The System Structure of the UMTS System From the perspective of the GPP R99 standard, UE and UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) have completely new protocol composition, whose design is based on the WCDMA radio technology. CN adopts the GSM/GPRS definition, which can realize the smooth transition of the network. Besides, at the beginning phase of the 3G network construction, the global roaming can be realized.
11.3.1 UMTS System Network Composition

Uu Node B USIM Cu ME RNC Node B lub Node B RNC Node B SGSN GGSN
INTERNET
External Networks
lu
MSC/ VLR HLR
GMSC
PLMN PSTN ISDN,etc
lur
UE
UTRAN
CN
Figure 11-10 UMTS Network Unit Composition
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Figure 11-10 illustrates that the UMTS network unit includes the following part:
I. User Equipment (UE)

UE is the subscriber terminal equipment. It mainly includes radio frequency processing unit, baseband processing unit, protocol stack module, and application layer software module. UE transceives data to and from network equipment via Uu interface so as to provide subscribers with circuit-switched or packet-switched services including POTS, broadband voice, mobile multimedia, and Internet applications such as Email, WWW browsing, FTP, etc. UE includes two parts: The Mobile Equipment (ME) provides application and services. The UMTS Subscriber Module (USIM) is responsible for the identification of the subscriber identity
II. The UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

UTRAN can be divided into base station (Node B) and radio network controller (RNC). Node B Node B is the base station of the WCDMA system (radio transceiver), which includes radio transceiver and baseband processing parts. It can interconnect with RNC via the standard Iub interface to accomplish the. Uu interface physical layer protocol processing. Its major functions include: spectrum spread, modulation, channel coding, and dispread, demodulation, channel decoding, and the mutual conversion between baseband signals and radio frequency signals. Node B is composed of the following logic function modules: RF transceiving amplification, radio frequency transceiving system (TRX), baseband part (BB), transmission interface unit, and base station control part. Radio Network Controller (RNC) RNC is radio network controller, mainly responsible for the connection establishment and disconnection, handoverhandover, macro diversity combination, radio resources management, etc. The detailed functions are as follows: (1) The function of system message broadcast and system access control. (2) The mobility management function of handoverhandover and RNC transfer. (3) The radio resources management and control function of macro diversity combination, power control, and radio load distribution.
III. CN Core Network

CN is responsible for the connection to other networks and the communication and management of UE. The major function modules are as follows: (1) VMSC/VLR VMSC/VLR is the WCDMA core network CS domain function node. It connects to UTRAN via Iu CS interface, connects to external networks such as PSTN, ISDN, and other PLMN via PSTN/ISDN interface, connects to HLR/AUC via C/D interface, connects to VMSC/VLR or SMC via E interface, connects to SCP via CAP interface, and connects to SGSN via Gs interface. The major function of VMSC/VLR is to
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provide CS domain call connection, mobility management, authentication, and encryption. (2) GMSC GMSC is the gateway node between WCDMA mobile network CS domain and external networks. It is a selectable function node. It connects to external networks such as PSTN, ISDN and other PLMN via PSTN/ISDN interface, connects to HLR via C interface, and connects to SCP via CAP interface. Its major function is to accomplish the incoming and outgoing calling routing function of the VMSC functions. (3) SGSN SGSN is the WCDMA core network PS domain function node. It connects to UTRAN via Iu_PS interface, connects to GGSN via Gn/Gp interface, connects to HLR/AUC via Gr interface, connects to VMSC/VLR via Gs interface, connects to SCP via CAP interface, connects to SMC via Gd interface, connects to CG via Ga interface, and connects to SGSN via Gn/Gp interface. The major functions of SGSN is to provide PS domain functions such as routing transfer, mobility management, conversation management, authentication and encryption. (4) GGSN GGSN is the gateway GPRS support node. It connects to SGSN via Gn interface and connects to external networks (Internet /Intranet) via Gi interface. GGSN provides data packet routing and encapsulation between WCDMA mobile network and external data networks. The major function of GGSN is the interface function for the external IP packet networks. GGSN should provide the gateway function for UE to access external packet networks. From the perspective of external networks, GGSM functions as all the subscribers IP router of the addressable WCDMA mobile network. It needs to exchange routing information with external networks. (5) HLR HLR is the home location register of the WCDMA mobile network. It connects to VMSC/VLR or GMSC via C interface, connects to SGSN via Gr interface, and connects to GGSN via Gc interface. The major function of HLR is to provide functions like subscriber signature information storage, new service support, and enhanced authentication.
IV. OMC
OMC function entities include equipment management system and network management system. The equipment management system performs the independent network element maintenance and management, which include performance management, configuration management, fault management, billing management, and security management. The network management system can realize the unified maintenance and management for all the network elements in the network. The detailed functions also include performance management, configuration management, fault management, billing management, and security management.
V. The external networks

The external networks can be divided into two kinds:
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Circuit-switched networks (CS networks) support circuit-switched connection service such as POTS service. ISDN and PSTN belong to CS networks. Packet-switched networks (PS networks) support connection service. Internet belongs to PS networks. data packet
11.3.2 System Interface

Figure 2-2 shows that the WCDMA system has the following interfaces:
I. Cu Interface
Cu interface is the electric interface between USIM card and ME. Cu interface adopts standard interface.
II. Uu Interface
Uu interface is the radio interface of WCDMA. UE connects to the fixed network part of the UMTS system via Uu interface. It can be said that Uu interface is the most important open interface in the UMTS system.
III. Iu Interface
Iu interface between UTRAN and CN. It is similar to the A interface and Gb interface of the GSM system. Iu interface is an open standard interface. This enables the UTRAN and CN connected by Iu interface to be provided by different equipment manufacturers.
IV. Iur Interface

Iur interface is between RNCs. Iur interface is a unique interface of the UMTS system. It is used for the mobility management of MS in the RAN. For example, in the soft handoverhandover between different RNCs, all the data of MS are transmitted from the working RNC to the candidate RNC via Iur interface. Iur is an open standard interface.
V. Iub Interface
Iub interface connects Node B and RNC. Iub interface is also an open standard interface. This also enables the RNC and Node B connected by Iub interface to be provided by different equipment manufacturers.
11.3.3 Basic Principle of Spread Spectrum Communication

Because the mobile subscribers are expected to be randomly moving all the time, the multiple access technology which can be used to differentiate and identify dynamic subscribers address must be introduced in establishing the connection between them. It is the same with the signal multiplexing technology in the fixed communications. In fact, both of these technologies belong to the signal quadrature partitioning and designing technology. The difference lies in that the signal multiplexing aims at differentiating multipath, while multiple access technology aims at differentiating multiple dynamic addresses. The multiplexing technology realizes in base band or intermediate frequency part, whereas the multiple access technology realizes in radio frequency. It makes use of the electronic wave radiated by the radio frequency to identify dynamic mobile addresses. The familiar multiple access modes include FDMA
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and TDMA. When signals are differentiated by quadrature codes, it is CDMA. CDMA has two major types: DS-CDMA and time slot coding/frequency hopping. The vivid explanation of DS_CDMA is that the spectrum is spread by multiplying the positive negative binary base band data wave by the pseudo-random positive negative binary wave with code snippet rate much higher than the signal rate. As far as energy is concerned, wave spectrum intensity is reduced to a very low level, which is similar to the noise. In the DS-CDMA, all subscribers occupy the same frequency band and the same time slot. The addresses are identified not by the quadrature parameters or the time slot, but by the self-correlation function of different address signal code groups. The DS-CDMA has become the most important multiple access mode in 3G. The DSCDMA communication is frequency spread communication. To be more accurate, it should be called spectrum spread communication, because it is the signal spectrum bandwidth that has been spread. It is a kind of broadband communication system. Its major feature is the signal code bandwidth before the spread is far less than the spread code series (chip) bandwidth.
I. Narrowband and Broadband Communication System

(1) Definition: suppose R stands for the rate of the signal code element to be transmitted; T stands for the duration of signal code element; F stands for the bandwidth occupied for the transmission of signal spread code series. If R*T=F*T 1, that is when F=R or F=2R, it is called ordinary narrowband communication system. In digital communication system, frequency shift and phase shift all belong to the narrowband communication system. When F R, that is when F/R=10-10 6 (10-60dB), then the system is broadband communication system. (2) The broadband communication system is realized by the narrowband communication system via spectrum spread. The CDMA communication system is a typical broadband communication system.
II. The Basic Principle of Spread Spectrum Communication System

Following the principle of communication and the famous Shannon formula of the information theory, C=F*T*lg(1+) as is shown in Figure 11-11: In the formula, F stands for the frequency-limit bandwidth; T stands for time-limit time slot, which is usually set to be 1 in the communication principle;
S
stands for the power signal/noise ratio;
C stands for channel capacity. This formula shows a time-limit (T), frequency-limit (F), power-limit (S) continuous white Gaus channel, whose capacity can be vividly represented by the volume, which is determined by three most important parameters.
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Figure 11-11 Channel Capacity C These three parameters F, T, and lg(1+ S ) forms the volume C. when the volume is invariant, the three variables can be mutually changed. The revelation of this dialectical relationship facilitates multiple new communication mechanism establishment. The spread spectrum communication is a typical example. (3) In the mobile communications, S is the most important contradiction. The improvement of S/N can be at any cost. Shannon formula indicates that S/N can be improved by sacrificing frequency band F. When C is invariant, the increase of F can reduce the receiving S/N threshold value of the receiver lg(1+). This is the basic principle of spread spectrum communication: bartering F for S/N.
III. The Major Technical indexes of DS-CDMA

Compared with the traditional communication system, the spread spectrum system adds spread spectrum modulation at the transmitting end and dispread at the receiving end. The major technical indexes of the DS_CDMA system include processing gain G and interference tolerance M. (1) Processing Gain G It refers to the S/N improvement degree after the dispread by the spread system. Additionally, there are two kinds of equivalent definitions: code element spread multiple at the transmitting end or signal bandwidth spread multiple. It can be represented in the following formula:
N=
(S/N) OUT (S/N) IN
R PN R
NR R
F PN B
NB B
where,
stand for pseudo code rate and information code rate respectively; stand for pseudo code bandwidth and information code bandwidth.
G (dB)=10 lg(N)(dB). The processing gain will be represented by decibel.
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(2) Interference Tolerance M It refer to the decibel value of the interference higher than the signal the input end of the receiver can tolerate in the normal working condition: M = G [L S + 10 lg S/N OUT ] L S stands for the actual transmission path loss (dB); M explicitly shows the maximum interference receiving value (in decibel) allowed by the receiver of the spread spectrum system. For example, In the WCDMA system, the 12. 2kbps voice service requires the typical value of Eb/No to be 5. 0dB or so for the base band demodulation. In the condition that the code snippet rate is 3. 84Mcps, the processing gain G is 10lg(3. 84M/12. 2k)= 25dB. Therefore, M=5dB-5dB=20dB, that is, C/I>-20dB, which is far smaller than the GSM required C/I >9dB. The reason that the capacity of CDMA is larger than the previous cell system mainly is the lower requirement for C/I and shorter frequency multiplexing distance, which is 1*1 multiplexing.
IV. The Major Advantages and Disadvantages of Spread Spectrum Communication

Advantages: (1) Strong anti-interference capability, and the larger the G is, the stronger the antiinterference capability is. (2) For digital communication system, the physical interpretation of the antiinterference capability of the spread system:
E/T P E l f(E/N 0 ) = f( N 0 $F % FT) = f(S/N % FT)
It illustrates that When
is in direct proportion with the power S/N and signal base FT.
is invariant, S/N is in inverse proportion with FT. Therefore, when FT=10-
10 6 , and is invariant, communication can continue in very low S/N. That is to say, very strong interference is allowed. (3) It has good security. No matter it is direct spread or frequency hopping, after spread, it will be similar to white noise. Therefore, it has a good security performance. Digitalized subscribers can have further encryption. (4) Low power spectrum density. Because the spread belongs to the broadband system, the wider the frequency spectrum is, the lower the power spectrum intensity will be. Therefore, it has good concealment performance. At the same time, it has little interference for other communication systems and human bodies. (5) It is easy to realize large capacity multiple access communication. Time and frequency two-dimension address division increases the number of potential addresses. Strong anti-interference capability and low power intensity means more subscribers allowed for interference-limit systems. (6) It is easy to realize accurate timing and distance measurement. It is suitable for the parametric variation channel radio communication. The spread system is more likely to realize diversity reception in various forms and improve the anti-interference capability. Disadvantages:
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(1) It will occupy signal frequency bandwidth. The code series (chip) bandwidth after spread is far wider than the information code series bandwidth before the spread. (2) The system realization is complicated. (3) It is difficult to realize synchronization on time variation channels. (4) At present, it is difficult to realize large capacity communication due to the limitation of detecting the number of address codes.
11.3.4 Some of the Key Technologies in the WCDMA System

I. WCDMA Channel Coding Scheme
The WCDMA channel coding scheme includes the following parts: correcting coding/decoding (including speed adaptation), interleaving/deinterleaving, transmission channel mapping to/separating from physical channel. Besides, some service combinations may require certain degree of service multiplexing, which will also be embodied in the design of the channel coder and decoder. Figure 11-12 illustrates that channel coding scheme is not merely a matter about correction selection, codec algorithm, and interleaving algorithm. It is also involved in the communication with the high layer messages, in the acquisition of service quality instruction from the high layer, and in the acquisition of service multiplexing mode so as to realize different coding and multiplexing schemes for different services and provide various kinds of service combinations in the highest efficiency. In order to get adapted to the transmission in various rates, the channel coding scheme includes the rate adaptation function. The WCDMA proposes a rate adaptation algorithm aiming at adapting various service rates to a standard rate.
Si
CRC
Channel coding
Speed matching and inner-frame crossing
DPDCH1 Inter reuse frame crossing and physical channel mapping
DPDCH2
Sj
CRC
Channel coding
Speed matching and inner-frame crossing
DPDCHL
Pilot labels TPC labels Other bit control labels MUX DPCCH
Figure 11-12 WCDMA Channel Coding and Service Multiplexing
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Of course, what determines the channel coding performance is still its error control scheme. In the WCDMA proposal, there are three kinds of forward error correction codes: convolution code, Turbo code, and service specific code. The convolution code follows the second generation technology. The restriction length is 9, and the common code rate is 1/3 and 1/2. The decoding is the Viterbi algorithm based on the maximum likelihood. Turbo code is a new technology able to provide higher service quality. Turbo code is a new cascading recursion system convolution code. It is made of two recursive system convolution (RSC) coders with the same structure, by the cascading of internal interleaver. The major advantage of Turbo code is that among the AWGN channels, its error correction capability can be close to Shannon limit. The above analysis shows that the convolution coding and decoding technology similar to the second generation mobile communication system is still used for low rate and low performance requirement in WCDMA, while for high rate and high performance requirement, Turbo code codec scheme will be used. At present, Turbo code codec technology develops fast, and it has developed into an FEC technology branch including many kinds of codec methods.
II. Space-time Code

With the increase of mobile subscribers, and the mobile communication service demand tendency from ordinary voice service to multimedia service, frequency spectrum resources become scarce. Therefore, the pursuit for the highest frequency utilization ratio has become a challenging problem for the present and in the future. This challenge has stirred people to develop highly efficient coding technology, modulation technology, and signal processing technology to improve the efficiency of radio frequency. The space-time code is one of the most important solutions proposed in recent years, aiming at improving radio frequency utilization ratio. In the research of the space-time code, on the one hand, Da-shan Shiu, Joseph M. Kahn, G. D. Golden and Foschini have done much work on the layered space-time (LST) code; on the other hand, Tarokh from AT&T, based on the summary of the previous research on the transmission diversity, has done some innovative research on the space-time code based on the transmission diversity. All the analysis and simulation indicates that the utilization ratio of the two space-time codes above-mentioned can reach 20-40bps/Hz, which means they can achieve good frequency band utilization ratio. It can be anticipated that the future mobile communication system featured by the space-time code will have extremely large system capacity, excellent communication quality, and extremely high frequency utilization ratio. (1) Layered Space-time Code. The layered space-time code is first proposed by Foschini. It divides the signal source data into several sub data stream and performs coding and modulation independently. Therefore, it is not based on transmission diversity. The basic structure of the layered space-time code is as follows: the transmitter has n transmitting antennae, while the receiver has m receiving antennae (m n). In the transmitter data from the channel coding will be divided into n directions, and flow to n antennae. The m receiving antennae at the receiving end simultaneously receive the signals sent by the n transmitting antenna, and then perform demodulation, channel estimation, and decoding. The layered space-time code has the following features: (a) n antennae use the same frequency band. The sign is in synchronization. The same constellation graph will be used. (b) The signals sent by n antenna are independent. This is why the layered space-time code is not based on transmission diversity. (c) The total power of the transmission unit antennae is constant, which has nothing to do with the number of the transmitting antennae n.
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(d) The single channel with high SNR will be divided into n overlapping channels with low SNR so as to improve the frequency spectrum efficiency. (e) The advantage of layered space-time code is that when m n, it can be proven that the system capacity is almost in direct proportion with the number of the transmitting antennae n. (f) The channel gain between different receiving antennae has no relationship. (2) The space-time code based on transmission diversity. In mobile communication system, diversity is one of the most important methods to provide reliable communication. The ordinary diversity modes include: time diversity such as channel coding, interleaving, which are very effective for fast attenuation, but not effective for slow attenuation; frequency diversity such as spread spectrum; and space diversity. Multiple antennae receiving diversity and transmitting diversity both belong to space diversity. In the actual mobile communication system, because of the limitation of MS size, the battery energy, and the asymmetry of media services, the best mode is that the base station uses multiple antennae to realize receiving diversity and transmitting diversity, while MS should not be required to use multiple antennae. Based on this, Tarokh and other people from AT&T, based on the transmission delay diversity, formally proposed the space-time code based on transmission diversity. Generally, the transmitting diversity is considered to be an important technology to enhance the radio link performance. The space-time code based on transmission diversity can be divided into Space-time block code and Space-time trellis code according to different coding modes.
III. High-speed Power Control

A typical problem for the CDMA network is the near and far effect. Because all the subscribers in the cell use the same frequency, it is important for the whole system to ensure that every subscriber uses the minimum power to transmit signals. The quality of the power control mainly determines the CDMA system capacity. It is also far more complicated than that of GSM.The power control of GSM only considers signal strength, but the power control of CDMA must be based on S/I. The power control of CDMA includes forward and backward. The forward power control includes measurement report power control, EIB power control, and forward fast power control, which are the three forward power control algorithm gradually developed. The power control rate develops from 2 times per second, to 50 times per second, to 800 times per second. It becomes higher and higher, and the performance is also becoming better and better. The backward power control includes open loop and closed loop. The open loop means that MS based on the received power estimates the necessary transmitting power. Because the attenuation feature of the forward and backward links is different, the estimation can only get an average transmitting power. The transmitting power of the backward channel should be determined both by the estimation result and by the adjustment of the closed loop power control. The closed loop power control means that the base station judges the transmission quality on the backward channel, and sends it to the MS to make the transmitting power adjustment.
IV. RAKE Reception

In the WCDMA system, the multi-path propagation is no longer a negative factor. Instead, it is an ideal result, because RAKE receiver can combine the signals with the delay of at least 1 Chip (the data transmission rate of the WCDMA network is 3. 84 Mbps, that is 1Chip=0. 26 microseconds, equivalent to 78 meters) into useful signals. The working principle of the RAKE receiver is that it demodulates several signals with different time delay respectively, and then algebraically combines them to improve reception performance.
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V. Multi-subscriber Detection Technology

In the year 1979 and the year 1983, K. S. Schnedier and R. Kohno respectively proposed the multi-subscriber receiver (multi-subscriber detection) idea, which means realizing the multi-subscriber detection without multiple access interference by making use of other subscribers known information to get rid of the multiple access interference, and they also pointed out some research directions. This is the earliest multi-subscriber detection document. In 1986, S. Verdu developed the multisubscriber detection theory. He proposed the asynchronous CDMA best detection with adaptation filter group and Viterbi decoding. After that, the multi-subscriber detection has achieved great development and has formed several comparatively clear thoughts. Although there are many kinds of multi-subscriber detection algorithm, the basic idea of the algorithm is the same: trying to make use of the whole subscriber signal resource to suppress multiple access interference and to avoid near and far effect. The following part is the brief introduction to various kinds of multi-subscriber detectors. (1) Linear Multi-subscriber Detector The linear multi-subscriber detector is based on certain judgment principle, and makes judgment of the output series after adding a linear factor to the adaptation filter whose subscriber number is linear. This kind of detector mainly includes two types: decorrelation linear multi-subscriber detector and minimum mean-square error multisubscriber detector. (2) Nonlinear Multi-subscriber Detector It is a hot problem to eliminate multiple access interference by making use of effective nonlinear multi-subscriber detector. The nonlinear multi-subscriber detector can mainly be divided into the following kinds: judgment feedback multi-subscriber detector, serial/parallel interference suppressor, multi-group multi-subscriber detector, the multi-subscriber detector based on neural network. The serial/parallel interference suppressor is developed from the traditional CDMA detector. It first restore interference signal and then takes out the useful signal. The idea is to arrange the demodulated subscriber signal into order by the signal intensity. That is to make the signal intensity of the first subscriber greater than that of the second subscriber, and the rest can be done by analogy. At first the normal demodulation method will be used to demodulate the first subscribers signal, and the information bit can be acquired after judgment. Making use of the first subscribers demodulated signals, the second subscribers interference signal can be restored. Judgment will be made after subtracting the second subscribers signal by the first subscribers interference. In the same way, subtracting the third subscribers signal by the first and second subscribers interference. The rest can be conducted by analogy. The advantage of this treatment is dual. First, the judgment is made for the strongest signal. Because it suffers least from the multiple access interference, the judgment can be most accurate. Secondly, the judgment of other subscribers has already subtracted the strongest multiple access interference signals. The serial interference suppressor has simple structure and it greatly improves the performance of the traditional detector. The requirement for it is that the calculation speed should be great so as to avoid bringing big time delay for weak subscribers. If the energy of two subscribers is similar, the serial interference suppressor can be replaced by the parallel interference suppressor. Good performance can be achieved even without ordering subscribers. The interference risk device is most likely to get applied in the WCDMA system due to its simple structure.
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In recent years the integration of various technologies has attracted wide attention of researching people. It includes the following kinds: space-time two perspective signal processing technology, multi-subscriber detection and channel codec integration technology, and multi-subscriber detection and power control integration technology.
VI. Soft Handover

GSM only has hard handover, which means connecting to new base stations after disconnecting the original connection. The soft handover of CDMA refers to the fact that a handset can connect to several base stations at the same time. Therefore, the handover from the serving cell to the adjacent cells will not cause any effect. Meanwhile, in the uplink, the soft handover can bring diversity gain (in fact, in the downlink there also may be gain, which is determined by the macro diversity gain and the resultant interference). Soft handover can reduce the undesirable disconnection and improve the cell peripheral service. The design should take into consideration of the feature that a cell has soft capacity. In a cell softer handover may occur. CDMA also have hard handover like GSM between different frequency points, MSC, and different systems.
VII. Code Planning

In the TDMA system, the frequencies used by one cell cannot be used in the adjacent cells. But the CDMA frequency multiplexing coefficient is 1. Compared with the current TDMA, CDMA frequency planning is simple, but it has introduced the code planning. The code planning at the initial stage of the network construction is very simple. However, with the frequent use of repeaters, the network will become complicated and the code planning will also become quite complicated.
VIII. Others
Some of the key technologies in the WCDMA system have been discussed. Research has indicated that space-time code, intelligent antenna, multi-subscriber detection are all effective tools to improve the spectrum utilization ratio, and will be used widely in the future WCDMA mobile communications system. However, there is much to be improved for the systematic theoretical analysis of the space-time code, and there is much work to do to combine the space-time code technology with intelligent antenna technology, multi-subscriber detecting technology, and equilibrium technology. There is some distance to cover for the real application of the intelligent antenna and multisubscriber detecting technology. Besides, there exists a dynamic relationship between the coverage and the capacity of the CDMA system. Therefore, the capacity and coverage design of CDMA system is much more difficult than that of TMDA, and CDMA can provide more service types. In the 3G phase, it can provide high-speed data service.
11.3.5 The Receive Sensitivity of the WCDMA System

I. Receiver Sensitivity
In the WCDMA system, sensitivity is related to many indexes such as service rate, noise coefficient, and interference threshold. Assuming there is 50% load: For 12.2kbps channel, the typical value of the uplink sensitivity is -121dBm, while that of the downlink sensitivity is -117dBm.
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For 144kbps channel, the typical value of the uplink sensitivity is -114dBm, while that of the downlink sensitivity is -111dBm. For 384kbps channel, the typical value of the uplink sensitivity is -111dBm, while that of the downlink sensitivity is -108dBm.
II. The Related Factors of the Receiver Sensitivity

1Receiver sensitivity is jointly determined by receiver noise level and baseband demodulation performance. It is to ensure the lowest signal level of the connection quality. (1) Receiver Noise Level. The base station receiver noise is the minimum noise threshold that communication system must overcome. Receive heat noise = KTF*BW
23 K: Bridgman Constant (= 1.38 % 10 J/K)
T: Kelvin temperature: 290K in normal temperature The result is: KT= -174dBm/Hz F: receiver noise coefficient. According to Huawei NodeB1. 1 actual measurement data, in normal temperature the value is 2. 3dB, 3dB should be guaranteed within the full range of temperature. UE receiver noise coefficient is set to be 7. 0dB (the protocol requires it be no more than 9.0dB). BW: receiver noise bandwidth. Considering the fact that the entire receiving channel includes baseband matching filter function, the noise bandwidth should be set to be 3. 84MHz. (2). Baseband Demodulation Performance The baseband demodulation performance is influenced by many factors such as transmission environment, UE moving speed, diversity, and the adopted demodulation algorithm. A. Basic Performances Regulated in the Protocol In the static channel condition, 12. 2kbps voice channel demodulation should be Eb/N0. The protocol regulates it should be no more than 5. 1dB. The simulation works out that the baseband demodulation needs 2. 8dB. With the channel physical realization deterioration 1. 5dB, the demodulation threshold of NodeB is calculated to be 4. 3dB. B. The Demodulation Performance under the Power Control Condition The demodulation performance regulated in the protocol is measure under the condition that there is no closed loop power control. In the real system, the closed loop power control is functioning. In this condition, the above demodulation performance cannot be used directly in the link estimation. Because the closed loop power control speed is limited, it does little good, sometimes even bad, to the closed loop power control for the fast moving UE, whose speed is larger than 50km/h according to the 5. 15. 4 clause of the Wideband CDMA for Third Generation Mobile Communications protocol. Therefore, the link estimation in highspeed environment can directly use the demodulation performance in with the condition that there is no power control.
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The base station baseband demodulation performance in the condition that the power control is started is as follows: CASE 1 Channel The fixed-point simulation shows that the baseband demodulation needs 4. 49dB. With the consideration of physical realization deterioration 0. 5dB, the demodulation threshold of NodeB is calculated to be 4. 99dB. The baseband demodulation threshold in suburb/rural areas adopts CASE1 channel condition. CASE 2 Channel The fixed-point simulation shows that the baseband demodulation needs 4. 71dB. With the consideration of physical realization deterioration 0. 5dB, the demodulation threshold of NodeB is calculated to be 5. 21dB. The baseband demodulation threshold in urban areas adopts CASE2 channel condition.
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11.4 WCDMA System Network Planning

11.4.1 The Content of the WCDMA Network Planning
The WCDMA system uses different RTT technology with the GSM system, and the WCDMA system introduces vast support for data service, and carries out the control based on the QoS of services. Therefore, there exist obvious differences between the system design methods of the WCDMA and GSM systems. Take a vivid example first: In a party there are many guests. Many people speak together, which makes difficult to figure out what the speaker is saying. If you can speak with your friend at the other side of the room at the beginning, it will be impossible for you to hear clearly when the noise rises to a certain degree. This means the radius of the conversation area has shortened. In this situation you can still talk with your friend as long as you and your friend speak loudly. This will cause the noise in this room even greater. What the CDMA network planning engineers are facing now is a similar dynamically varying network. The WCDMA system adopts 1*1 frequency multiplexing mode. Cells and subscribers are differentiated by scrambling and orthogonal codes. The capacity and coverage are directly influenced by the network interference. The design personnel in design should take into full consideration how to reduce the unnecessary noise. On the contrary, the GSM system adopts TDMA technology, and different subscribers are differentiated by frequency and time slot. Therefore, the factors that affect GSM system capacity are mainly frequency resource and frequency multiplexing technology. The WCDMA system is a noise restrained system, whose coverage depends not only on the maximum transmission power, but also on system load. The greater the system load is, the higher the noise base rises, and the smaller the system coverage is;and vice versa. But the coverage of the GSM network, on the condition that the frequency planning is good and there is no off-net interference, is only related to the maximum transmission power, and the capacity is only related to the available service channels. There is no relationship between coverage and capacity. Therefore, in the WCDMA design, the relationship between coverage and capacity should be taken into full consideration to ensure the necessary system performance indexes. In the WCDMA system, the corresponding relationship between the transmission power and the cell capacity is in a gradual mode. Network planning engineers must reduce network full load rate, because it is easy for a cell to get fully loaded. The detailed parameters depend on various kinds of services. Of course, it is also related to the risks the carriers want to bear. Generally speaking, in the design, the full load factor is preset to be 60%. Here the cell breathing effect is applied. The adjacent cells can share the load mutually, which is called soft load. Due to cost consideration, network capacity cannot be expanded on a large scale. The mathematic reasoning for the 3Gservice which has high requirement for data transmission illustrates that the probability for the serving cell to borrow load capacity from the adjacent cells increases as the data transmission quantity increases. Because there exists a dynamic balance relationship between coverage and capacity, there is a great difference between their planning mode in the radio network estimation phase. For the WCDMA system, there exists a mutual adjustment process between coverage estimation and capacity estimation:
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In the coverage estimation, the traffic (interference threshold) a cell supports should be assumed first. The coverage of the base station should be worked out by making use of link estimation result and appropriate transmission model in different typical environment. Based on the result, the number of base stations necessary in the whole coverage area and the base station configuration can be worked out. In the capacity estimation, the traffic (or interference threshold) a cell supports should also be assumed. The capacity can be estimated according to the traffic distribution condition (real-time service: Erl/Km2; none real-time service: kbps/Km2) in the coverage area. The number of base stations necessary to meet the network capacity requirement and the base station configuration can be worked out. On the other hand, when a subscriber is far away from the base station, he has to get a large part of the transmission power so that it may cause power shortage for other subscribers. This means the cell capacity has something to do with the actual distribution condition of subscribers. When the subscriber density is very large, this problem can be solved by conducting statistics on the mean value; whereas when there are few subscribers, simulation method has to be adopted to conduct a dynamic analysis on the network. What is worth explaining is that the WCDMA network needs to support services with different QoS and rates, and the actual coverage of a cell is restricted by the coverage probability of the services that need to be supported. Therefore, in the radio network planning, different coverage probability requirement for various kinds of services the network supports should be determined. Generally, UMTS network planning engineers start from the radius of the intermediate-level services. Thus the actual effective range of a cell can only partially meet the requirement of advanced services. The traffic of the UMTS network is asymmetric; that is to say, the data transmission on the uplink and the downlink of the network is different. Network planning engineers should at first work out the value in both directions, and then combine them properly. In this way, the network planning work will be very complicated. The uplink is a typical restraint factor of the UMTS cell effective area, or it can be said that in a certain load condition the uplink is coverage limited, while the downlink is capacity limited. The transmission power in the uplink is provided by the handset, while the transmission power in the downlink is provided by the base station. The radius of the forward and backward cell is the same. Compare the number of base stations generated by the two methods according to coverage and capacity respectively. If they are not the same, that means there exist coverage-limited or capacity-limited conditions. Because in the WCDMA system, there exists a dynamic relationship between coverage and capacity, and the cell coverage is worked out based on the cell load. Therefore, if the number of base stations generated by the two methods is not the same, the cell load should be adjusted once again, and the above coverage and capacity estimation process should be performed again. The ultimate result should be that the estimated number of base stations based on the links and the number of base stations based on the capacity analysis should be the same so that minimum number of base stations will be used to fully meet the coverage and capacity requirements. For the GSM network, the focus of the network estimation is on the available frequency points of carriers and the frequency planning method which can determine the maximum number of carrier frequencies a cell can support. The cell coverage
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change has nothing to do with the network load. Therefore, the coverage and capacity estimation can be finished once. There is no repetition process necessary. Due to the unique features and complexity of the WCDMA network, the planning phase needs a simulation testing process. Normally, based on the coverage prediction, the Monte Carlo system simulation will be further used to appraise the network performance. At the same time, the statistic result of the system simulation will be analyzed, and parameter will be adjusted based on the initial result of the system simulation until the simulation result meets the design and system performance requirement. Finally, the number of base stations, base station configuration and location, the height of the antenna, the leaning angle of the antenna, and the system capacity can be determined so as to generate a detailed radio network planning solution. In the WCDMA system, the power resource is very limited. Therefore, the purpose of both the power control and the RRM algorithm is to save network resource and reduce the transmission power of the service channels as many as possible on the premise that the quality is guaranteed. Therefore, the configuration principle of cell parameters should take all these factors into consideration. In the WCDMA system, the pilot pollution is a significant factor, which affects the network performance. In the GSM system, this kind of problem may not occur, because the BCCH frequency points normally employ very loose multiplexing mode (such as 5*3) and they are planned carefully. In the CDMA system, it is a common problem. The main feature of pilot pollution is that there is no leading cell. To be more specific, terminals receive pilot signals from multiple cells with the similar power, which causes the activation set to renew frequently. The pilot pollution increases network interference and causes handover algorithm not able to work efficiently. The reasons for pilot pollution generally include: 1. Bad system design; for example, the transmission power of the pilot channel is too big. 2. Inappropriate choice of the base station location and the antenna leaning angle; 3. Complicated geographic environment and lack of full consideration in design From the above analysis, it can be known that the WCDMA network planning cost is much higher than the current mobile communication network planning. 3G network planning is very complicated, because many system parameters are closely related to each other, and have to be calculated at the same time, whereas the current mobile communication network planning calculate these parameters separately. The complexity of the WCDMA network planning requires us to possess new technologies and new knowledge at all levels. The first is the well-trained professional network planning engineers, who are good at system technology. The second is managers who are familiar with the business and have accurate foresight. At the beginning phase, they can know exactly the UMTS network expansion condition and cost. The last is the outstanding planning software tool, which is absolutely necessary for the 3G network planning.
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11.4.2 WCDMA Radio Capacity Calculation

The mobile communications system has three major factors: coverage, capacity, and quality, which are influenced and controlled by each other.
Figure 11-13 The three Factors in Mobile Communications
I. The GSM System

The capacity is basically determined by hardware resources. One carrier contains eight time slots, and the number of the available carriers and the multiplexing method determine the maximum simultaneous connection number. The coverage is determined by uplink and downlink transmission power (link balance problem) The conversation quality is determined by the interference condition. Interference can be controlled by network design (multiplexing method, multiplexing distance, frequency hopping, etc. ) to ensure high quality. In GSM system, there is no direct relationship between these three factors. Each of them can be independently analyzed and designed. The difficulty of network design lies in frequency planning.
II. The WCDMA System

The WCDMA system is self-interference system. There is close relationship between capacity, coverage, and quality.
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The relationship between capacity and coverage;If the designed load increases, the capacity increases, interference increases, and coverage decreases, such as the cell breathing. The relationship between capacity and quality is that the system capacity can be improved by lowering part of the connection quality requirement, such as by decreasing target BLER value via external loop power control; The relationship between coverage and quality is that the system coverage capability can be improved by lowering part of the connection quality requirement, such as by decreasing data rate via AMRC for connections with great path loss;
Figure 11-14 The WCDMA is a Self-interference System
III. WCDMA Uplink Capacity Analysis

(1) Uplink Interference Composition is:
I TOT = I own + I other + PN

Where, Iown: refers to the interference from subscribers of the local cell ITOT - Pj refers to the interference each subscriber has to overcome, and Pj refers to the reception power of the subscriber j. -Assuming the power control is ideal, then
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(Eb / No ) j =
hence, Pj:
Pj I TOT
W 1 Pj R j v j
Pj =
I TOT W 1 1 1+ (Eb / No ) j R j v j
The interference of the subscribers of the same cell is the sum of the power with which all the subscribers reach the receiver:
I own = Pj
1
Iother: refers to the interference from subscribers of adjacent cells. Adjacent cell subscriber interference is hard to analyze theoretically, since it relates to so many factors such as subscriber distribution, cell layout method, antenna direction, etc. . -The adjacent cell interference factor can be defined as:
i=
I other I own
When the subscriber distribution is even, for an omnidirectional cell, the typical value of the adjacent cell interference factor is 0. 55; for a directional cell with three sectors, the typical value of the adjacent cell interference factor is 0. 65.
PN: receiver noise base PN = 10lg(KTW) NF 10-23 J/K
-K: Bridgman constant = 1. 38
-T: Kelvin temperature, the normal temperature is 290 K -W: signal bandwidth, WCDMA signal bandwidth 3. 84MHz -NF: receiver noise coefficient We can get the result: 10lg(KTW) = -108dBm/3. 84MHz NF = 3dB (typical value for macro cell base station) PN = 10lg(KTW) + NF = -105dBm/3. 84MHz Therefore, the uplink interference gets
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I TOT = I own + I other + PN = (1 + i )

1 N
I TOT + PN W 1 1 1+ (Eb / No ) j R j v j
and
I TOT = I TOT (1 + i ) L j + PN
1
We can get:
I TOT = PN
1 1 (1 + i ) L j
1 N
Suppose All the subscribers are 12. 2kbps voice subscribers, and the demodulation threshold is EbvsNo = 5dB Voice activation factor vj = 0. 67 Adjacent cell interference factor i = 0. 55 The uplink carrier factor is defined as:
UL = (1 + i ) L j = (1 + i )
1 1
1 1+ 1 W 1 (EbvsNo) j R j v j
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Figure 11-15 The relationship between capacity and uplink interference When the carrier factor equals one, ITOT reaches infinitely great, and the capacity in this situation is called maximum capacity. In the above hypothesis, the maximum capacity is 96 subscribers illustrated by Figure 11-15. We can also get the relationship formula between carrier factor and interference. Based on the above relationship, the noise increase formula is as follows, based on which Figure 11-16 can be generated:
Noise Rise =
1 ITOT = P N 1 ( +i ) 1
L
1
1 1 UL
Figure 11-16 The relationship between noise and carrier factor It can be judged from the figure that when the load is 50%, the noise rises 3dB; when the load is 60%, noise rises 4dB; when the load is 75%, the noise rises 6dB. (2) Analysis The above theoretical analysis has explicitly or implicitly employed the following abbreviation: Soft handover has not been taken into consideration, because subscribers in soft handover state generate less interference than normal subscribers; AMRC and combined service effects have not been taken into consideration, because AMRC reduces the voice service rate of part of subscribers so as to decrease the interference they generate. This also enables the system to support more subscribers at the cost that the conversation quality of these subscribers may decrease.
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Different services have different data rates and demodulation threshold. Although theoretically the above method can still be used for the analysis, it will make the computing process much more complicated. Due to the time-varying feature of mobile environment, even if it is the same service, the demodulation threshold varies in terms of time. Ideal power control hypothesis. The power control commands of the real system have some error codes, which makes the power control not ideal and decreases system capacity. Suppose the subscriber distribution is balanced, and the adjacent cell interference is constant. If all the above factors have been taken into consideration, the system simulation is a more accurate method: static simulation method Monte_Carlo and dynamic simulation. (3) Capacity Design In order to ensure the system stability, network design cannot be done based on the maximum capacity, because the maximum capacity corresponds to the maximum noise rise. In the real system, UE has no such powerful transmission power to overcome the noise. Besides, the greater the carrier factor is, the greater noise rise caused by the access of new subscribers will be, sometimes the noise can even break the existing connection. Finally, due to the time-varying feature of mobile environment, the network will be less stable if the load is too heavy. Therefore, the designed load for macro cells normally does not exceed 75%. For example, if the load is designed to be 60%, then the corresponding noise rise will be 4dB.
IV. Downlink Capacity Analysis

(1) Downlink Interference Composition
I TOT = I own + I other + PN

PN: receiver noise base PN = 10lg(KTW) + NF -K: Bridgman constant = 1. 38*10-23 J/K -T: Kelvin temperature, the normal temperature 290 K -W: signal bandwidth, WCDMA signal bandwidth 3. 84MHz -NF: receiver noise coefficient The result can be: 10lg(KTW) = -108dBm/3. 84MHz NF = 7dB (UE typical value) PN = 10lg(KTW) + NF = -101dBm/3. 84MHz Iown Interference within the local cell Downlink subscribers can be differentiated by the mutually orthogonal OVSF codes. In static condition without multipath transmission, there is no mutual interference;
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In multipath transmission, part of energy cannot be received by the Rake receiver and can be defined to describe becomes interference signals. Orthogonalization factor this phenomenon:
(I own ) j = (1 j )
PT PL j
In this formula, PT is the total transmission power of the base station, including the private channel transmission power and common channel transmission power.
PT = PCCH + Pj
1
Adjacent Cell Interference Iother The signals transmitted by the adjacent cell base stations will cause interference for the subscribers in the local cell. Because different scrambling is used, these interferences are non-orthogonal. Suppose service distribution is even, and the transmission power of all the base stations is equal. There are k adjacent cell base stations, and the path loss from the No. k base station to subscriber j is PLk,j. We then can get:
(I other ) j = PT
1
1 PLk , j
Therefore,
I TOT = I own + I other + PN = (1 j )

K PT 1 + PT + PN PL j 1 PLk , j
Assume again that power control is ideal, we then can get:
(EbvsNo ) j =
And
PL j W 1 (ITOT ) j R j v j
Pj
Pj = (EbvsNo ) j
Since
Rj W
v j (I TOT ) j PL j
PT = PCCH + Pj
1
Hence,
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N Rj PT = PCCH + (EbvsNo ) j v j (I TOT ) j PL j W 1 N K Rj P 1 + PN = PCCH + (EbvsNo ) j v j PL j (1 j ) T + PT W PL j 1 1 PLk , j K PL N Rj j = PCCH + (EbvsNo ) j v j (1 j ) PT + PT + PN PL j W 1 1 PLk , j
The value of PT can be worked out:

N R PCCH + PN (EbvsNo ) j j v j PL j W 1 PT = N Rj 1 (1 j + i j ) (EbvsNo ) j v j W 1
Where ij is the adjacent cell interference factor of subscriber j, which can be defined as:
ij =
1
PL j PLk , j
Based on the above analysis, carrier factor can be defined.

N R DL = (1 j + i j ) (EbvsNo ) j j v j W 1
When the downlink carrier factor reaches 100%, the transmission power of base stations can reach infinitely great, and the corresponding capacity is maximum capacity. (2) Analysis Different from the calculation of uplink capacity, the variables j and ij in the downlink capacity calculation formula are both related to the subscribers location. That is to say, the downlink capacity is related to subscribers space distribution, and can only be determined by the system simulation. The following are the simulation parameter table and simulation result graph 11-17.
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Parameter MCL macro (including antenna again) Antenna gain (including losses) Log Normal fade margin PC MODELLING #PC steps per snapshot step size PC PC error HANDOVER MODELING Handover threshold for candidate set active set Choice of cells in the active step Combining NOISE PARAMETERS noise figure noise power TX POWER Maximum BTS power Common channel power Maximum TX power speech DL value 70 dB 0 dBi 11 dBi 10 dB > 150 perfect PC 0%

Parameter Power control range HANDLING of DOWNLINK maximum TX power Random and uniform across the network non orthogonality factor macrocell 0,4 COMMON CHANNEL Orthogonal ORTHOGONALITY DEPLOYMENT SCENARIO Hexagonal with BTS Macrocell in the middle of the cell BTS type omnidirectional Cell radius macro 577 macro > 19 with wrap # of macro cells around technique) bit-rate speech 8 kbps Activity factor speech 100% Multipath environment macro Outdoor micro Eb/N0 target 6,1 dB USER DISTRIBUTION DL value 25 dB
Maximum ratio combining 9 dB -99 dBm proposed 43 dBm 30 dBm 30 dBm
Figure 11-17 Downlink Capacity Analysis Simulation Result Analysis: When the base station transmission power is 43dBm (20W), it can support 114 subscribers at the most.
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Usually, in order to ensure the stability of the system, the average transmission power of the base station is not allowed to be greater than 75% of the maximal transmission power, that is 41. 7dBm, and in this condition it can support 111 subscribers. Compared with the uplink capacity, this result is much greater. Therefore, in this condition, the capacity of WCDMA is restricted in the uplink, which is completely different from that of the IS95. It is generally accepted that the coverage uplink of the IS95 system is restricted, while the system capacity is restricted in the downlink.
V. Summary
The capacity analysis of the WCDMA system should take more factors which are more complicated into consideration: The downlink capacity is related with subscriber space distribution, which makes the analysis difficult; The system simulation is en effective tool for the capacity analysis of the WCDMA system.
11.4.3 WCDMA Service Description and Calculation

I. Service Type
In the WCDMA system, services can be divided into four types based on different QoS: Conversational Class Streaming Class Interactive Class Background The features and typical examples of these four types of services are shown in the following table:
Service QOS Type Conversational Streaming Interactive Background Basic Feature Information data time relationship should be kept Conversational mode with little time delay and strict requirement for time delay jitter. Information data time relationship should be kept. Request response mode Data completeness should be preserved Target has high tolerance for data delay. Data completeness should be preserved. Typical Example Voice Video telephone Multimedia data stream Network browsing Network games Email downloading at the background
II. The Calculation Method of the Blocking Rate for Different Types of Services
(1) Conversational Services Conversational services have strict requirement for point-to-point time delay. For example, it is usually required to be less than 150ms for voice services, and it cannot exceed 400ms at the most. Otherwise, it will cause difficulty for listening. The parameters for the typical conversational services are shown in the following table.
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Conversational services are usually carried in the CS domain. The system can process conversational services without conducting the calling queuing treatment. In this situation, the traditional Erlang B formula or the extended Erlang B formula can be adopted to do the calculation. The extended Erlang B formula is recommended here, and it is assumed that 50% of the blocked subscribers will retry immediately. (2) Streaming Services Compared with conversational services, streaming services have lower requirement for point-to-point time delay. The parameters for the typical streaming services are shown in the following table.
Streaming services are also usually carried in the CS domain. Streaming services have high tolerance for call waiting, and calling queuing mechanism can be provided. In this situation, the Erlang C formula is adapted to do the blocking probability (defined as the probability of call waiting exceeding a certain period of time) calculation for this kind of subscribers. (3) Interactive Services Interactive services refer to the type of services that subscribers request data from servers. It is described by the terminal subscriber request response mode. Therefore, round-trip time is the most important index for this kind of services. The parameters for the typical interactive services are shown in the following table
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Interactive services are usually carried in the PS domain. Interactive services have certain tolerance for call waiting, and the system can provide queuing mechanism. The Erlang C formula is adopted to do the blocking rate calculation. (4) The Calculation of the Background Services Background services have the largest tolerance for time delay, which can reach up to the hour level. Because of so large tolerance, the system can store such requests when it is busy, and respond to it while it is idle. Meanwhile, this kind of service can terminate any time when a request with higher QoS comes in. Since background services can be initiated and terminated any time by the system, both of the above-mentioned Erlang B formula and Erlang C formula do not work. The usual calculation method is to work out the background services traffic that can be supported according to the result of the maximal channel number of the system less busy hour average occupied channel number. With the consideration of the signaling overhead caused by the transmission startup and temporary termination, the worked out traffic should be multiplied by an efficiency factor such as 0. 8. If the calculated traffic value cannot meet the design requirement, the corresponding needed channels should be added to ensure enough busy hour traffic.
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Conclusion
Conclusion
To date, mobile communications technology has developed to the extent that the border of the many related technologies have blurred: the cross infiltration of base station and base station controller, (radio) network planning, network optimization, and the combination of radio side products, etc. The purpose is to improve the radio products market adaptability, the radio network quality, and expansion of the radio network services. So network planning today is not the one it used to be referred to before. Its not confined to a department, but in the context of a technology and service, and one that denotes broader range. It involves participation and system-formation from all the radio products departments. It also includes personnel-training mechanism as well as shift mechanism. The characteristics of radio system lie in the mobility of the subscribers and the cellular networking as well. The mobility dictates that the designers have profound understanding on the complexity and connectivity of the macro radio cellular networking, that they perceive the demands from the switch office side and analyze the potential uncertainty of the radio network. One obvious feature is that many radio personnel in big companies must receive the training on the theory of radio propagation and practical activities on network drive test and background analysis before they are to be engaged in any concrete research or project engineering. The purpose of doing so is to strengthen their understanding on the characteristics of mobility and cellular networking. In the following sections we will discuss the duties and responsibilities of network planning from four perspectives: research on network planning technology, brief design and participation involved in radio products, radio products marketing strategy, and turnkey radio products marketing plan preparation.
1 Research on the Network Planning Technology

Research on the network planning technology includes: planning methods and software implementation, optimization methods and software implementation, the focus of which in on research, simulation, and experimentation of planning optimization methods. As for the software implementation, secondary development of cooperation-aided core algorithm module can be used to save the cost and enhance the competitiveness. In addition, another important aspect is the good interface between the planning optimization software and OMC database, as well as good management on the project. Thus most of the practical project planning optimization can be done by using the platform that is based on the software to free the front-line project engineers from the repetitive handiwork to make them focus on how to improve the network quality. Broadly speaking, the ultimate purpose of network planning optimization is to establish a radio network that has good coverage, good quality, good capacity, and good dynamic adaptability to meet users demands on voice and data service. For the reason hereof, research on planning optimization is the research on networking that is market-oriented and market-driven. The result of the research can be on the one hand a planning optimization method for the general mobile system, on the other hand, can accelerate the development and perfection of the product to meet the networking demands, or can even present new algorithm, standards, or protocols. The research topics that can be derived now include: The propagation characteristics of some mobile communications frequency bands, layered net structure (including the
i
Conclusion
structure inside the system and between the system), new technologies (air interface coding, voice speed, transceiver diversity technology, multiple access, multiple users detection, spread spectrum technology, multiple carrier propagation, soft handover, fast power control, intelligent antenna, new radio frequency devices, etc.), evaluation on the effect of, and contribution from radio network performance, frequency utilization ratio and the evolution trend of capacity, traffic module, and data throughput module and their effect on the network performance, algorithm module in the planning optimization tools.
Participation in the Primary Design of Radio Products

The purpose of networking research is to serve the product development to improve their market competitiveness. Both the result and the procedure of networking research have significant guide in the product development. The result of the networking research can directly be the algorithm of some base station controllers (channel management, power control, handover management, and traffic analysis, etc.); It can give advices and assessment on the project establishment, new function development, and new version concerning the base station controller, base station, and OMC products from the perspective of networking. A project team can be set up to co-solve the problems from online that have common features. Before the primary design of the products, it is very necessary to take the many complex networking requirements into account. Though the implementation of detailed functions can be carried out step by step, the overall frame must be far-sighted and scalable. This can prevent the later non-marketability of the product and inability to improve the network quality.
Radio Products Marketing and Marketing Plan Preparation

The marketing concerned here is the network marketing, what is sold is solution strategy, including providing solution strategy according to the switch offices requirements or even providing solution strategy for market creation for the switch office. The essence of it is to provide a competitive networking philosophy to meet carrier and users demands in light of technology, cost, and user group. It is especially competitive and practical if the decision-makers join the practical networking analysis when deciding the whereabouts of the product according to the market analysis. On the other hand, when preparing a concrete marketing plan, especially when concerned with new carrier or new frequency band network, former network being blank, the manufacturer needs to present whole set of networking plan. The planning personnel need to construct the future network structure taking into account the radio side equipment and mature networking. This demands not only the future network quality and scalability, but also consideration of the radio cost to enhance the tender competitiveness. For the sake of reaching the best balance between the network indexes and quotation (investment), the number of base stations, the base configurations, antenna-feeder selection, frequency spectrum requirement, and networking are strictly related to the equipment and mature planning methods as well. This is especially important when concerned with the key project expansion. For overseas TURNKEY project, tender cost is especially eye-catching. Radio networking directly demands a series of investment such as equipment house, tower, power supply, and propagation. The planning personnel need to decide the appropriate networking in light of the equipment performance, and mature planning methods and to reduce the radio cost at the prerequisite of ensuring the later network indexes. A simple example is, the higher the frequency utilization ratio, the greater the
ii
Conclusion
base station configuration, and the fewer the number of base stations, thus reducing the total cost significantly.
4 Radio Project Implementation

Project implementation is that part of the cycle that finally turns over the network to the users. At this phase, the planning personnel, as well as the project manager, perform thorough coordination and communication in light of project progress, turnover method, and quality control. In the field where the project is being implemented, the planning personnel, as the persons in charge of the network quality, must assist in setting up the pre-warning mechanism for the network quality, report to the leader of the switch office, and take part in the training, and planning optimization. Meantime, the planning personnel must prepare the next-phase expansion new construction plan according to the implementation progress and actively guide the switch office. It is very important for the project manager to familiarize himself with the planning optimization service. It helps the project manager to consider the project implementation in all directions of networking, and to allocate the resources effectively according to the urgency in case urgent situations arise. The characteristics of radio products fully explain the importance of networking research for market survival. But it takes a lot of efforts to train successfully a professional networking researcher or a team with such spirit in mind. Department barriers must be broken, abundant opportunities must be available, and managerial convenience must be given to such personnel for them to participate in the whole flow and get experienced in all parts of the cycle. This is the steps that we take to nurture our personnel in the field of radio network: practical installation and test of radio equipment optimization/planning of the network participation in technical support and IPD requirement management and analysis, exercise, experience summarization, theoretical improvement output to the departments or become a professional network researcher. Personnel of other radio-related departments can also take part in some of the practices to improve their understanding on networking.
Author October 2001
iii
Reference Documents
Reference Documents
1. Related protocols of GSM and WCDMA 2. Related product technical Manuals of Huawei 3. Communication Principles by Fan Changxing by Wu Weiling by Li Shihe
4. Key Technologies in Mobile Communications
5. Principle and Implementation of Intelligent Antenna 6. Key Technologies of WCDMA by Zhang Ping
7. Data Configuration Specifications of GSM BSS&PCU Network Planning Network Planning 8. Related special material and antenna manufacturers material 9. And so on
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Huawei RNP User Manual v1.0

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Radio Network Planning

Radio Network Planning

Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. October, 2001

Radio Network Planning

Copyright 2001 by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.

All Rights Reserved

, HUAWEI, C&C08, EAST8000, HONET, ViewPoint, INtess, ETS, DMC, SBS,

Radio Network Planning

Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.

Radio Network Planning

, HUAWEI(R), (R), C&C08(R), EAST8000(R), HONET(R), (R), ViewPoint(R),

INtess , ETS(R), (R), DMC(R), SBS(R), TELLIN(R), InfoLink(R), Netkey(R),

Quidway(R), SYNLOCK(R), Radium(R), (R),

Radio Network Planning

Preface 1 Version Description

Radio Network Planning

Radio Network Planning

Radio Network Planning

Radio Network Planning

Radio Network Planning

Radio Network Planning

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

1.2 Network Pre-planning

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

1.2.2 Pre-planning Foundation

II. Information of the Adjacent Network

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

III. Landform and Field Object Data

1.2.3 Pre-planning Process

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

II. Network Structure Analysis

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

III. Capacity Analysis

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

IV. Station Address Planning

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

V. Parameter Design of the Base Station Engineering

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

VI. Coverage Prediction

VII. Frequency Planning

Radio Network Planning

Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview

VIII. LAC Planning

IX. Cell Data Making

1.2.4 Pre-planning Difficulties

Radio Network Planning