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Lecture 1: Particles, Waves and the Quantum

Learning Outcomes

The expected outcomes of this lecture:
- Use classical concepts of waves and particles.
- Use Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics
- Explain the concept of wave-particle duality, its origin and give
examples
- Use and manipulate deBroglie relations in their various forms
- Explain probabilistic aspects of interference pattern and state
complementarity principle


Classical Physics

Classically, particles = waves







Two theories:
- Newtonian mechanics for particle or system of particles
- Maxwells electromagnetism for electromagnetic waves

More modern formulation put the two theories within common framework
of Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics.

Lagrangian mechanics uses Lagrangian function:


1
2
( , ) ( ) . L L q q T V mq q V q = = =

where q are generalized position vectors and q are generalized velocities.


particle
waves
2
Equations of motion given by (second-order) Euler-Lagrange equations:

.
L d L
q dt q
| |
c c
=
|
|
c c
\ .

Note: Use notation
x y z
e e e
q x y z
c c c c
= + +
c c c c
.

Hamiltonian mechanics uses Hamiltonian function:

( , ) ( ) .
2
p p
H H q p T V V q
m

= = + = +

where p is the generalized momenta conjugate to q. Equations of motion
replaced by two first order differential equations Hamiltons equations:

; .
dq dp
H H
dt p dt q
c c
= =
c c


Later: Hamiltonian formalism is used in quantum mechanics.

Note: both Euler-Lagrange equation and Hamiltons equation reproduces
Newtons second law.


Particle-Wave Duality

Planck-Einstein surprise for electromagnetic waves have particle-like
properties unexplained by classical physics:

- Planck: e-m radiation absorbed & emitted in discrete quantities
- Einstein: e-m radiation themselves are in discrete quantities
- Discrete quantities of e-m radiation = photons (particle-like)
- Compton: scattering of X-ray photons like particles


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deBroglie generalizes this ambiguity universality of wave-particle duality
matter particles have wave characteristics!

Particle characteristics (energy E, momentum p)

Wave characteristics (frequency v , wavelength )


;
E h
h p
v = =


where
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6.626 10 J s Planck's constant h

= = universal constant
characterizing quantum behaviour.


Basis of Relativity for deBroglies Hypothesis

Special case of e-m radiation:


( )
relativistic relation
E h E
c E pc
h p p
v = = = =

Einstein: space-time as four dimensional vector space particles assigned
four-dimensional vectors of position & momentum:

Position 4-vector


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
, , , ; x x y z ict x x x y z c t s

= + +

Momentum 4-vector (propagation vector)


( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0 0 0 0
2
2 2 2 2 2
0
2
, , , , , ,
.
x y z x y z
x y z
iE
p p p p mv mv mv i mc
c
E
p p p p p m c
c

| |
=
|
\ .
= + + =


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where
1/ 2
2
2
1 relativistic factor
v
c

| |
=
|
\ .
.

Special case of photons:
2
2
2
0
E
p pc E
c
= =


Waves in relativity? Consider plane waves














Mathematically,


( )
( ) { }
( , ) exp
i k r t
x y z
r t Ae A i k x k y k z t
e
e

= = + +

where A = amplitude, e = angular frequency
k = wavevector = propagation vector



2
; k k n k
t

= =

and n = unit vector normal to wavefront
phase = coefficient of i in exponent
wavefront = surfaces of constant phase


equal phase
equal phase
n
wave
propagation
u = dr/dt
wavefront
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Phase velocity u: differentiate phase w.r.t. time:

0
dr
k n u
dt k
e
e v = = =


Define four-wavevector:

( ) , , ,
x y z
i
k k k k
c

e
| |

|
\ .



such that phase is rewritten as


( ) ( )
x y z
k x k x k y k z t

e = + +

deBroglie: wave propagation vector particle propagation vector


;
p
E
k e = =



where rationalised Planck constant
2
h
t
= = .



Evidence of Matter Waves

Key evidence differentiating waves from particles:
interference experiments (e.g. double slit) or diffraction experiments.

Particle double slit experiment: two peaks intensities arising from each slit
add up.

Wave double slit experiment: multiple peaks and minimum amplitudes
arising from each slit add up

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1925: Davisson-Germer produced diffraction patterns for electrons




(Source: http://www.physics.brown.edu/Studies/courses/ph56/Lecture8.html)



Similar experiment by G.P. Thomson







\






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More dramatic: Tonomura double slit experiment for electrons


(Source: http://www.hqrd.hitachi.co.jp/em/doubleslit.html)


Other interferometric experiments
- neutron (http://www.tcd.ie/Physics/Schrodinger/Lecture6/lecture6.html)
- atoms (e.g. He, Na, Ca atoms), molecules (e.g. He dimers) & clusters
(e.g. noble gas clusters)
(http://www.europhysicsnews.com/full/22/article1/article1.html)










(Sumber: http://rleweb.mit.edu/ifm/pubs/AAMOP/figure13.html)


- large molecules (e.g. buckyballs C
60
, fluorofullerines C
60
F
48
)
- biomolecules (e.g. tetraphenylporphyrin found in chlorophyll &
haemoglobin) (http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/7/9/4)
- atom condensates
(http://www.aip.org/physnews/graphics/html/alaser3.htm)


Are these interference effects equivalent to that of photons?


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Experiments with single photon sources:












(Source: http://rleweb.mit.edu/ifm/pubs/AAMOP/figure13.html)


Similarities between e-m radiation and matter particles:
- deBroglie relations hold for both
- each wave determines the probability of certain processes to occur
(e.g. reaching the detector)


Complementarity principle (1927): The wave and particle attributes are
complementary to each other. If an experiment shows wave characteristics,
then it is impossible for the same experiment to show simultaneously
particle characteristics.



Review Questions:

1.1. Write the equations of motion for Newtonian mechanics and
electromagnetism. State their similarities and differences.
1.2. State the difference between the two formalisms of Lagrangian
mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics.
1.3. Show that for conservative systems, Euler-Lagrange equation and
Hamiltons equation reproduce Newtonian equation of motion.
1.4. State the key features of Plancks theory of black body radiation and
Einsteins theory of photoelectric effect.
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1.5. Describe another experiment (besides photoelectric effect) that
verifies the particle nature of photons.
1.6. Verify the equality of dimensions in deBroglies relations. What other
quantity has the same dimensions as the Plancks constant?
1.7. Convert the angular form of deBroglies relations (involving k and
e) to their normal forms (involving and v ).
1.8. Verify the equality of dimensions of components in all four-vectors of
position, momentum and wavenumber.
1.9. If the double-slit experiment is performed with classical particles,
what kind of experimental output is expected?
1.10. In crystals, electrons are influenced by a lattice potential ( ) V x . What
happens to the deBroglie wavelength of electrons?
1.11. Extra reading: read about interference or diffraction experiments of
atoms, molecules etc.
1.12. Extra reading: find out about complementarity principle in quantum
erasers.