Sap Steel

SAP2000
Integrated Finite Element Analysis and Design of Structures
STEEL DESIGN MANUAL
COMPUTERS & STRUCTURES INC.
Computers and Structures, Inc. Berkeley, California, USA
Version 6.1 February 1998
COPYRIGHT
The computer program SAP2000 and all associated documentation are proprietary and copyrighted products. Worldwide rights of ownership rest with Computers and Structures, Inc. Unlicensed use of the program or reproduction of the documentation in any form, without prior written authorization from Computers and Structures, Inc., is explicitly prohibited. Further information and copies of this documentation may be obtained from:
Computers and Structures, Inc. 1995 University Avenue Berkeley, California 94704 USA Tel: (510) 845-2177 Fax: (510) 845-4096 E-mail: info@csiberkeley.com Web: www.csiberkeley.com
Copyright Computers and Structures, Inc., 19781998. The CSI Logo is a registered trademark of Computers and Structures, Inc. SAP2000 is a registered trademark of Computers and Structures, Inc.
DISCLAIMER
CONSIDERABLE TIME, EFFORT AND EXPENSE HAVE GONE INTO THE DEVELOPMENT AND DOCUMENTATION OF SAP2000. THE PROGRAM HAS BEEN THOROUGHLY TESTED AND USED. IN USING THE PROGRAM, HOWEVER, THE USER ACCEPTS AND UNDERSTANDS THAT NO WARRANTY IS EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED BY THE DEVELOPERS OR THE DISTRIBUTORS ON THE ACCURACY OR THE RELIABILITY OF THE PROGRAM. THIS PROGRAM IS A VERY PRACTICAL TOOL FOR THE DESIGN/ CHECK OF STEEL STRUCTURES. HOWEVER, THE USER MUST THOROUGHLY READ THE MANUAL AND CLEARLY RECOGNIZE THE ASPECTS OF STEEL DESIGN THAT THE PROGRAM ALGORITHMS DO NOT ADDRESS. THE USER MUST EXPLICITLY UNDERSTAND THE ASSUMPTIONS OF THE PROGRAM AND MUST INDEPENDENTLY VERIFY THE RESULTS.
Table of Contents
CHAPTER I Introduction 1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Recommended Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CHAPTER II
Quick Tutorial
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Description of the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Starting the Tutorial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Opening the Model Database File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Analyzing the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Selecting the Design Code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Starting Design and Stress Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Modifying Member Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Selecting Sections Automatically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Re-analyzing with Updated Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
CHAPTER III Design Algorithms

Design Load Combinations . . Design and Check Stations . . Element Stress Ratios . . . . . P- Effects. . . . . . . . . . . Element Unsupported Lengths Effective Length Factor (K) . . Choice of Input Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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26 27 27 28 28 30 32
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SAP2000 Steel Design Manual CHAPTER IV Check/Design for AISC-ASD89

Design Loading Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculation of Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculation of Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allowable Stress in Compression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allowable Stress in Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allowable Stress in Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-sections, C-sections, T-sections, Angles and Double angles. Box Sections and Rectangular Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pipe Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rectangular and Round Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allowable Stress in Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculation of Stress Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Axial and Bending Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shear Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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36 36 39 39 39 40 40 40 42 43 43 43 43 44 44 45
CHAPTER V Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

Design Loading Combinations . . . . . . . . Classification of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments . Calculation of Nominal Strengths . . . . . . . Compression Capacity . . . . . . . . . . Tension Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nominal Strength in Bending. . . . . . . Yielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lateral-Torsional Buckling . . . . . Local Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . Shear Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculation of Capacity Ratios . . . . . . . . Axial and Bending Stresses . . . . . . . . Shear Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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50 50 54 55 55 56 57 57 57 59 60 61 61 62
CHAPTER VI Check/Design for CISC94

Design Loading Combinations . . . . . . . . Classification of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments Calculation of Factored Strengths . . . . . . . Compression Strength . . . . . . . . . . Tension Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bending Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . I-shapes and Boxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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66 67 67 67 70 70 71 71
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Table of Contents
Rectangular Bar . . . . . . . . . . Pipes and Circular Rods . . . . . . Channel Sections . . . . . . . . . . T-shapes and double angles . . . . Single Angle and General Sections Shear Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculation of Capacity Ratios . . . . . . . Axial and Bending Stresses . . . . . . . Shear Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 73 73 74 74 74 76 76 78
CHAPTER VII Check/Design for BS 5950

Design Loading Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments . . . . Calculation of Section Capacities . . . . . . . . . . Compression Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . Tension Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moment Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plastic and Compact Sections . . . . . . . Semi-compact Sections . . . . . . . . . . Lateral-Torsional Buckling Moment Capacity . Shear Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculation of Capacity Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . Local Capacity Check. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Under Axial Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . Under Axial Compression . . . . . . . . . Overall Buckling Check . . . . . . . . . . . . Shear Capacity Check. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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82 83 83 85 87 88 89 89 90 90 92 92 92 93 93 93 93
CHAPTER VIII Check/Design for EUROCODE 3
95
Design Loading Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Classification of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Calculation of Factored Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Calculation of Section Resistances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Tension Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Compression Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Shear Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Moment Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Lateral-torsional Buckling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Calculation of Capacity Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Bending, Axial Compression, and Low Shear . . . . . . . . . . 110 Bending, Axial Compression, and High Shear . . . . . . . . . . 111 Bending, Compression, and Flexural Buckling . . . . . . . . . . 111 Bending, Compression, and Lateral-Torsional Buckling . . . . . 112
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SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Bending, Axial Tension, and Low Shear . . . . . . . . . Bending, Axial Tension, and High Shear . . . . . . . . . Bending, Axial Tension, and Lateral-Torsional Buckling Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 113 114 114
CHAPTER IX Design Output

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graphical Display of Design Output Tabular Display of Design Output . . Member Specific Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
115
115 116 117 118
References Index
121 123
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Chapter I
Introduction
Overview
SAP2000 features powerful and completely integrated modules for design of both steel and reinforced concrete structures. The program provides the user with options to create, modify, analyze and design structural models, all from within the same user interface. The program is capable of performing initial member sizing and optimization from within the same interface. The program provides an interactive environment in which the user can study the stress conditions, make appropriate changes, such as revising member properties, and re-examine the results without the need to re-run the analysis. A single mouse click on an element brings up detailed design information. Members can be grouped together for design purposes. The output in both graphical and tabulated formats can be readily printed. The program is structured to support a wide variety of design codes for the automated design and check of steel frame members. The program currently supports the following steel design codes: U.S. ASD and LRFD (AISC 1989, AISC 1994), Canadian (CISC 1995), British (BSI 1990), and European (CEN 1992). The design is based upon a set of user-specified loading combinations. However, the program provides a set of default load combinations for each design code supOverview
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SAP2000 Steel Design Manual ported in SAP2000. If the default load combinations are acceptable, no definition of additional load combination is required. In the design process the program picks the least weight section required for strength for each element to be designed, from a set of user specified sections. Different sets of available sections can be specified for different groups of elements. Also several elements can be grouped to be designed to have the same section. In the check process the program produces demand/capacity ratios for axial load and biaxial moment interactions and shear. The demand/capacity ratios are based on element stress and allowable stress for allowable stress design, and on factored loads (actions) and factored capacities (resistances) for limit state design. The checks are made for each user specified (or program defaulted) load combination and at several user controlled stations along the length of the element. Maximum demand/capacity ratios are then reported and/or used for design optimization. All allowable stress values or design capacity values for axial, bending and shear actions are calculated by the program. Tedious calculations associated with evaluating effective length factors for columns in moment frame type structures are automated in the algorithms. The presentation of the output is clear and concise. The information is in a form that allows the designer to take appropriate remedial measures if there is member overstress. Backup design information produced by the program is also provided for convenient verification of the results. Special requirements for seismic design are not implemented in the current version of SAP2000. English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used to define the model geometry and to specify design parameters.
Organization
This manual is organized in the following way: Chapter II provides a quick tutorial aimed at giving the first time users hands-on experience. Several of the basic features of the SAP2000 steel design modules are explored in this tutorial. Chapter III outlines various aspects of the steel design procedures of the SAP2000 program. This chapter describes the common terminology of steel design as implemented in SAP2000.
Organization
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Chapter I Introduction Each of the subsequent chapters gives a detailed description of a specific code of practice as interpreted by and implemented in SAP2000. Each chapter describes the design loading combinations to be considered; allowable stress or capacity calculations for tension, compression, bending, and shear; calculations of demand/capacity ratios; and other special considerations required by the code. Chapter IV gives a detailed description of the AISC ASD code (AISC 1989) as implemented in SAP2000. Chapter V gives a detailed description of the AISC LRFD code (AISC 1994) as implemented in SAP2000. Chapter VI gives a detailed description of the Canadian code (CISC 1994) as implemented in SAP2000. Chapter VII gives a detailed description of the British code BS 5950 (BSI 1990) as implemented in SAP2000. Chapter VIII gives a detailed description of the Eurocode 3 (CEN 1992) as implemented in SAP2000. Chapter IX outlines various aspects of the tabular and graphical output from SAP2000 related to steel design.
Recommended Reading
It is recommended that first time users follow the steps of the Quick Tutorial in Chapter II and read Chapter III Design Algorithms and the Chapter corresponding to the code of interest to the user. Finally the user should read Design Output in Chapter IX for understanding and interpreting SAP2000 output related to steel design.
Recommended Reading
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C h a p t e r II
Quick Tutorial
Overview
Several of the basic features of the SAP2000 steel design module are explored in this tutorial. This introduction is aimed at giving the first time users hands-on experience. The program allows you to select from several U.S. and international codes to stress check and design a steel structure. It is assumed that you have a working knowledge of steel design procedures and are reasonably familiar with the current codes of practice and their underlying design concepts. A comprehensive on-line Help is included in the program for your quick reference. We will access the SAP2000 commands from both the Toolbar and from the menus. The Toolbars, however, provides quick access to most commonly used features available from the menus. In the assignment sequence, there are two important points you must remember. First, you have to define an entity before you can assign an attribute to it, and second, you have to select member(s) before you can assign new attributes or modify old ones.
Overview
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Description of the Model

The structure is a two-story, two-by-three bay office building. The frame will be designed in accordance with the AISC-LRFD93 code. Earthquake induced force is considered in the analysis and design of this frame. However, special requirements for the design of moment resisting ductile steel frames are not currently implemented in SAP2000. Geometry The moment frame is of structural steel as shown in Figure II-1. The second floor has metal deck and lightweight concrete fill, whereas the roof has metal deck only. Typical story height is taken as13 0 . The initial member sizes are given in Figure II-1. Material Properties Material specifications are: Beams and girders: ASTM A36 (F y = 36 ksi) Columns: ASTM A572 (F y = 50 ksi) Load Cases Four load cases are considered in the analysis C DL, LL, QX, and QY. The dead and live loads are defined as the load cases DL and LL respectively. The lateral seismic loads, in turn, are designated as the load cases QX and QY. The dead and live loads are applied as beam span loads based on the loading intensities given below: Roof Floor Wall Dead load = 30 psf Live load = 20 psf Dead load = 75 psf Live load = 80 psf Dead load = 15 psf
Equivalent static seismic forces are applied as lateral joint loads in the global X and global Y directions, separately. The total base shear in each direction is computed as 51 kips.

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Chapter II Quick Tutorial

Secondary Beams (Typ.) 1 A 2 3 4 Moment Connection (Typ.)
25'-0" Pinned Connection
N
C
25'-0"
30'-0"
30'-0"
30'-0"
Framing Plan
W18x50
W18x35
+ 26'-0"
W27x84
W24x68
+ 13'-0"
+ 0'-0"
All columns are W14x132
Transverse Elevation
Loading: Roof Dead load Live load Floor Dead load Live load Exterior Wall = 30 psf = 20 psf = 75 psf = 80 psf = 15 psf Steel Grades: For beams Fy = 36 ksi For columns Fy = 50 ksi
Figure II-1 Description of the Model (Tutorial Example)

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SAP2000 Steel Design Manual Analysis Two diaphragm constraints are applied for the two diaphragms at the two floor levels. These constraints prevent in-plane relative displacements of the nodes at each floor. The lateral earthquake loads are applied at nodal points on the floor levels. A P- analysis is carried out with a load combination of 1.2 DL + 0.5 LL as described in Chapter Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93. The initial unbraced length is taken as the full member length. Design The stress check and design are performed in accordance with AISC-LRFD93. Kip-in units are used. The input data file for this model is EXSTL.SDB. This is supplied as part of the SAP2000 package.
Starting the Tutorial

A step-by-step procedure for the stress check and design of the model is outlined below. It is recommended that you actually perform these steps while reading this chapter. We assume that you have successfully started the program. You can do this by running SAP2000 from the Start Menu of the Windows operating system. In this tutorial we will typically use the Toolbars to access various options quickly. Most of the features available on the Toolbars can also be accessed from the Menu Bar. Use the on-line Help or refer to the SAP2000 Getting Started (CSI 1997a) manual for a detailed description of the SAP2000 screen. The input data file for the model (EXSTL.SDB) is in the EXAMPLES subdirectory under the directory where the program has been installed. A section property file of name SECTIONS.PRO is also required for the tutorial. The SECTIONS.PRO file is also available in the directory where the program has been installed.
Opening the Model Database File

1. Click on the Open button in the File menu. This will display the Open Model File dialog box. 2. In this dialog box: Select the EXSTL.SDB file. Click on the Open button.
Starting the Tutorial

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Chapter II Quick Tutorial The screen will now show two vertically-tiled windows. The left window displays a plan view of the model at level + 312 in. Section labels are displayed in this view. A three-dimensional view of the model is shown in the right window. Element and node IDs are shown in this view. In addition, a floating toolbar is displayed at the bottom of the main window along with the main toolbar at the top of the window.
Note: When working with multiple windows, clicking anywhere in a particular window will activate that window. Before we proceed further, we will make a copy of the data file by saving the model under a new name, say, TUTOR2.SDB. We will use this copy during the tutorial and leave the original file unaltered. 3. From the File menu, choose Save As.... This will display the Save Model File As dialog box. 4. In this dialog box: Enter new filename, Tutor2.SDB. Note: Even if you do not type in the extension .SDB, the program automatically appends this extension to the filename. Click on the Save button. The new name is displayed in the Main Title Bar.
Opening the Model Database File

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Analyzing the Model

We will now analyze the model. Before analyzing the model we need to set the P- force (1.2 DL + 0.5 LL) and other parameters for P- analysis. To do this: 1. Select the Set Options... menu item in the Analyze menu. This will immediately bring up the Analysis Options dialog box. In this dialog box: Click the Include P-Delta check box. Click on the Set P-Delta Parameters button. This will bring up the PDelta Parameters dialog box. In this dialog box: Set maximum iteration to 5. Change the DL scale factor to 1.2 and click Modify. Click on the Load Case drop down arrow. Select LL. Change the LL scale factor to 0.5 and click Add. Click OK to close the P-Delta Parameters dialog box Click OK to close the Analysis Options dialog box. 2. Click on the Run Analysis button from the main toolbar. A top window is opened in which various phases of analysis are progressively reported. When the analysis is complete the screen will display the following:
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Analyzing the Model

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Chapter II Quick Tutorial 3. Use the scroll bar in the top window to review the analysis messages and to check for any error or warning messages. In our case there should be none. 4. Click on the OK button in the top window to close it. This will respond by displaying the deformed shape in the right window for the first load case (DL).
The floating toolbar occupies some of the display area. To get it back, move the floating toolbar below the SAP2000 main window.
Selecting the Design Code

The default design code is AISC-ASD89 for design of steel structures. To choose the AISC-LRFD93 design code, do the following: 1. Click on Preferences... from the Options menu. This will launch the Preferences dialog box. 2. In the dialog box click on the Steel tab. You can see the currently selected steel design code, default section property file, and some other options as shown below. 3. You need to change the default design code (AISC-ASD89) to AISC-LRFD93. to do this: Click on the drop down arrow in the design code box. Select the AISC-LRFD93 design code. Selecting the Design Code
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4. Click on the OK button to close the dialog box. 5. To make sure that SAP2000 will design the steel members, select Steel Design menu item from the Design menu.
Starting Design and Stress Check

With the analysis phase and selection of design code completed, we will now examine member stress ratios using the requirements of AISC-LRFD93. 1. From the Design menu, choose Start Design/Check of Structure. The program now calculates the interaction ratios for each of the steel frame members. (If we had selected some of the frame members, then stress ratios would have been calculated for only the selected frame members). In a few moments the color-coded stress ratios are displayed for each member. By default, these are the axial force-moment interaction ratios which, according to the code, should not exceed 1.0. In the display, the stress ratios are reported for the governing design load combination. Note: Since no load combinations were defined in the model, SAP2000 design automatically provided a set of design load combinations for the selected design code (AISC-LRFD93 for Steel). The default load combinations can be added by any of the three following ways.
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Chapter II Quick Tutorial Clicking Add Default Design Combo in the Load Combinations dialog box launched from the Define menu by clicking Define Load Combinations. Clicking Select Design Combos... from the Design menu when there are no design load combinations defined in the model. Clicking Start Design/Check of Structure from the Design menu when there are no design load combinations defined in the model.
2. Right click on a member, say the beam on gridline A, lines 1-2 (element ID 38). See Figure II-1 on page 7 and the screen above. This will open the Steel Stress Check Information dialog box showing stress ratios at various stations along the element length for different load combinations. The dialog box also shows information regarding the structural section (W18x50) assigned to the member. The largest stress ratio is highlighted in this box. The dialog box also can show information regarding the Details of calculation for design and the element overwrite assignments for ReDesign for the selected member.

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3. In this dialog box: Select a design check station by clicking once (select the default highlighted one by doing nothing). Click on the Details button. This will open the Steel Section Design detailed information window showing the steel section design parameters including the member identification, geometric parameters, material properties, nominal strength values, the factored member forces for the selected load combination, and other design parameters at that particular station.
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Chapter II Quick Tutorial Close the Steel Section Design information window. 4. Click on the ReDesign button on the Steel Stress Check Information dialog box. This will open the Element Overwrite Assignments information dialog box showing the input design factors including the K factors, C m factors, etc. These factors can be edited for redesigning. See screen below. There is also an alternate way of editing the properties of a set of members which will be demonstrated in the next section Modifying Member Properties of a Group. Click on the Cancel button to close the Element Overwrite Assignments information dialog box. Click on the Cancel button to close the Steel Stress Check Information dialog box.
Note: The number of stations (number of segments + 1) used in the design and stress check is set by the user through Frame and Output Segment menu items from the Assign menu prior to the analysis phase. The default number of segments is 4 for beams and 2 for columns. At this point we have analyzed and designed the steel frame and reviewed some of the design information. SAP2000 allows you to interactively change the design code, member properties, remove or add new load combinations, etc. and re-run the analysis and design phases. As a demonstration in the tutorial, we will edit/change a member property for a set of frame members.

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Modifying Member Properties

With the analysis and stress check successfully completed, we will now modify the lateral unsupported length of all the beams and girders because the stress ratios are greater than 1 for some of the beams and girders and l r > 200 for many of the beams. Initially, in the design check, the unbraced length of each member was taken to be the member full length in both the major and minor directions, i.e. l = l = L. However, the secondary beams of the floor structure provide restraints against lateral displacement of the compression flange. Referring to Figure II-1 (page 7) we will take the minor direction unbraced length, l , of every beam spanning N-S (Y-Y) as 33% of the actual length. Likewise, for beams spanning E-W (X-X), l is assumed to be 25% of the actual length. In order to make these modifications we will change the view in the right window to make all the beams visible for selection. Notice that this window is currently showing the stress ratios from the previous check in a 3D view.
22 33 22 22
1. Click on the 2D View (xy) button on the main toolbar. 2. Click on the Perspective Toggle button on the main toolbar.
Now, with all the beams visible, we can select beams and modify their lateral unbraced lengths. 3. To select the N-S (Y-Y) beams do the following: Click the Set Intersecting Line Select Mode button on the Floating Toolbar.
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Chapter II Quick Tutorial Move the pointer to the left of the beam on line 1, bay A-B. Click and hold down the left mouse button. While holding, move the pointer to the right intersecting all the beams in the bay between lines A and B. A rubber-band line in the Y-Y direction will show the intersecting line. Release the left mouse button to select all members that intersect this line. The message area at the bottom-left corner of SAP2000 responds by showing that 8 Frames Selected. Note: To select all the N-S beams we have to do this operation (Step 3) twice; once, for all the beams between lines A and B, and once for beams spanning between lines B and C. The selection of all N-S beams is now complete. The selected members appear as dashed lines.
4. From the Design menu, choose the menu item ReDefine Element Design Data.... This will display the Element Overwrite Assignments dialog box. In this dialog box: Check the Unbraced Length Ratio (Minor LTB) box in the Assignment Options area. Replace 1 by 0.33.

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Note: The Assignment Options shown in this dialog box are code-dependent. Click on the OK button to accept the unbraced length ratio. Click on the Refresh Window button from the main toolbar. Notice that as a result of using shorter unsupported lengths, the stress ratios in these particular members have decreased significantly. 5. Repeat Steps 3 and 4 to modify all the E-W (X-X) beams, except enter the unbraced length ratio as 0.25. 6. The stress ratios after redefining the unbraced member length can be made more visible in the 3D display. Click 3D View button on the main toolbar. Compare the following display with the one on page 13.
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Chapter II Quick Tutorial
Selecting Sections Automatically

After changing the unbraced length, most of the beam members are found to be understressed except only 3 members which are overstressed. These three overstressed members are color coded with red. As an exercise, we will select sections for some of these overstressed members automatically. These three overstressed beams are identified by element numbers 31, 33, and 35. Currently all of these members have a W18x35 section. If we gradually replace these sections with larger ones, the stress ratio can be made close to 1 but less than 1. W18x50 section will satisfy the requirements. Instead we will do an exercise showing automatic selection of members. In the right side window, where the steel stress ratios are displayed in a 3D view: Select these three overstressed members, which are color coded with red, by clicking on them one by one. Unlock the model by clicking on the Lock/Unlock Model from the main toolbar. This will prompt a dialog box asking Unlocking model will delete analysis results! OK to delete?. Click OK. Click on the Frame Sections... in the Define menu. This will bring up a Define Frame Sections dialog box. This dialog box shows the available sections in the model. We will make some more sections available for the model so that the Selecting Sections Automatically
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SAP2000 Steel Design Manual program can choose the automatically selected section from a wider group. Since the W18x35 is too big for some members, we will add some smaller sections, especially wide flange sections with 12 inch depth, for the domain of AUTO section. To achieve this, in this dialog box: Click on the Import pull down arrow. Scroll through the sections and choose Import I/Wide Flange. This will bring a Section Property File dialog box. In this dialog box, the default section property files are listed. Select the default section property file Section.pro. Click Open to open the file Sections.pro. This will show a list of available Wide Flange sections. Scroll down through the sections and select W12x96 by clicking. Scroll down through the sections again and select W12x14 by holding down the Shift Key and clicking. This will select all the sections ranging from W12x96 to W12x14. Click OK to close the Sections.pro file. The response will be a display of information in the I/Wide Flange Sections dialog box about the last selected section, i.e., W12x14. Click OK in the I/Wide Flange Sections dialog box. This will complete importing the newly selected sections into the model from the database. The imported sections are added to the Frame Sections list in the Define Frame Sections dialog box. Click on the Add pull down arrow in this dialog box. Scroll through the sections and choose Add Auto Select. This will bring an Auto Selection Sections dialog box. In this dialog box, the default domain of the Auto Sections is listed. You can edit the list by adding and deleting new sections. Scroll through the sections down to W14x132 and select it by clicking. The Remove button is highlighted. Click on the Remove button to remove this specific section from the domain of the auto section because the W14x132 is specifically used in this model for columns. The default name of the auto section is given as AUTO1. Click OK to accept the default name and the list of sections. Click the OK button to close the Define Frame Sections dialog box. Click on the Assign menu, select the Frame menu item, and then select Sections... . This will open the Define Frame Sections dialog box. In this dialog
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Chapter II Quick Tutorial box you select AUTO1 and then click OK. This will change the display recognizing that the selected members have AUTO1 section. Reanalyze the model by clicking on the Run Analysis button on the main toolbar. Click OK to close the top window. Recalculate the stress ratio by clicking on the Start Design/Check of Structure menu item in the Design menu. This will respond by displaying new stress ratios on a 3D View in the right window.
Notice that as a result of changing the section, the stress ratios for those particular beams are changed. To see the difference, compare this display with the one on page 19. To see the newly selected sections, click on the Display Design Info... menu item in the Design menu. This will bring up the Display Design Results dialog box. In this dialog box, select the Design Input option button, accept the Design Sections from the Design Input drop down list item, and click OK. This will show the newly selected sections on the 3D view at the right window.

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21
Note: The displayed sections are the design sections. Analysis sections can also be displayed by clicking on the Set Elements button on the main toolbar and clicking on the Sections check box for Frames on the Set Elements dialog box.
Re-analyzing with Updated Elements

It is important to realize that changes made to member section properties in the stress/design phase are not automatically reflected in the analysis results. These changes are only local to the post-processing phase unless a re-run of the analysis, with updated elements, is requested by the user. In other words, overwriting the section properties only affects the stress values and not the factored element forces obtained in the analysis preceding such changes. The redistribution of member forces due to change of stiffness (revision of section properties) is effected in a rerun of analysis. The redistribution of member forces due to change of stiffness (revision of section properties) is effected in a re-run of analysis. The section properties can only be updated on a set of selected elements. We need to refresh the analysis model, reanalyze the model, and redesign the structure. To do this: Click on the Restore Previous Selection from the floating toolbar to re-select the previously selected frame elements. In the Design menu click on the menu item Update Analysis Sections. This will prompt a dialog box asking Updating Analysis Section will unlock model! OK to update?. Click OK.
22

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Chapter II Quick Tutorial From the Analyze menu, choose Run. This will immediately start the analysis procedure. A top window is opened in which various phases of analysis are progressively displayed. The results will obviously differ from those produced in the initial analysis because of the change of section properties we made in the design stage. Click OK to close the top window. Click on the Start Design/Check of Structures from the Design menu. This will redesign the structure and display the new stress ratios. Now replace auto sections with optimal sections. To do this: Click on the Restore Previous Selection from the floating toolbar to reselect the previously selected frame elements. Click on the Replace Auto w/Optimal Sections menu item from the Design menu. This will ask Replacing Analysis Sections with Auto-Selected Sections will unlock model! OK to replace?. Click OK to replace. Note: Once you are satisfied with the selected sections, selecting the Replace Auto w/Optimal Sections menu item will permanantly replace the auto sections with the current design sections. This effectively replaces the analysis sections with the optimal design sections and removes the auto tag. So selecting this menu item is one of the last things you should do. You can see the difference after re-running the design based on the latest analysis results.

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Concluding Remarks
We have come to the end of this tutorial on the SAP2000 steel design options. The intent has been to highlight and demonstrate a few of the basic features in order to open up the path for you to explore and use the more advanced options. For more information on various topics consult the on-line Help provided.
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Concluding Remarks
32
C h a p t e r III
Design Algorithms
This chapter outlines various aspects of the steel check and design procedures that are used by the SAP2000 program. The steel design and check may be performed according to one of the following codes of practice. American Institute of Steel Constructions Allowable Stress Design and Plastic Design Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, AISC-ASD (AISC 1989). American Institute of Steel Constructions Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, AISC-LRFD (AISC 1994). Canadian Institute of Steel Constructions Limit States Design of Steel Structures, CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 (CISC 1995). British Standards Institutions Structural Use of Steelwork in Building, BS 5950 (BSI 1990). European Committee for Standardizations Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures C Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, ENV 1993-1-1 (CEN 1992). Details of the algorithms associated with each of these codes as implemented in SAP2000 are described in subsequent chapters. However, this chapter provides a background which is common to all the design codes.
25
33
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual It is assumed that the user has an engineering background in the general area of structural steel design and familiarity with at least one of the above mentioned design codes. For referring to pertinent sections of the corresponding code, a unique prefix is assigned for each code. For example, all references to the AISC-ASD89 code carry the prefix of ASD. Similarly, References to the AISC-LRFD93 code carry the prefix of LRFD References to the Canadian code carry the prefix of CISC References to the British code carry the prefix of BS References to the Eurocode carry the prefix of EC3
Design Load Combinations

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the load cases for which the structure needs to be designed/checked. The load combination factors to be used vary with the selected design code. The load combination factors are applied to the forces and moments obtained from the associated load cases and are then summed to obtain the factored design forces and moments for the load combination. For multi-valued load combinations involving response spectrum, time history, moving loads and multi-valued combinations (of type enveloping, square-root of the sum of the squares or absolute) where any correspondence between interacting quantities is lost, the program automatically produces multiple sub combinations using maxima/minima permutations of interacting quantities. Separate combinations with negative factors for response spectrum cases are not required because the program automatically takes the minima to be the negative of the maxima for response spectrum cases and the above described permutations generate the required sub combinations. When a design combination involves only a single multi-valued case of time history or moving load, further options are available. The program has an option to request that time history combinations produce sub combinations for each time step of the time history. Also an option is available to request that moving load combinations produce sub combinations using maxima and minima of each design quantity but with corresponding values of interacting quantities. For normal loading conditions involving static dead load, live load, wind load, and earthquake load, and/or dynamic response spectrum earthquake load, the program
26
Design Load Combinations

34
Chapter III Design Algorithms has built-in default loading combinations for each design code. These are based on the code recommendations and are documented for each code in the corresponding chapters. For other loading conditions involving moving load, time history, pattern live loads, separate consideration of roof live load, snow load, etc., the user must define design loading combinations either in lieu of or in addition to the default design loading combinations. The default load combinations assume all static load cases declared as dead load to be additive. Similarly, all cases declared as live load are assumed additive. However, each static load case declared as wind or earthquake, or response spectrum cases, are assumed to be non additive with each other and produce multiple lateral load combinations. Also wind and static earthquake cases produce separate loading combinations with the sense (positive or negative) reversed. If these conditions are not correct, the user must provide the appropriate design combinations. The default load combinations are included in design if the user requests them to be included or if no other user defined combination is available for steel design. If any default combination is included in the design, then all default combinations will automatically be updated by the program any time the design code is changed or if static or response spectrum load cases are modified. Live load reduction factors can be applied to the member forces of the live load case on an element-by-element basis to reduce the contribution of the live load to the factored loading. The user is cautioned that if moving load or time history results are not requested to be recovered in the analysis for some or all frame members then the effects of these loads will be assumed to be zero in any combination that includes them.
Design and Check Stations

For each load combination, each element is designed or checked at a number of locations along the length of the element. The locations are based on equally spaced segments along the clear length of the element. The number of segments in an element is requested by the user before the analysis is made. The user can refine the design along the length of an element by requesting more segments.
Element Stress Ratios

For each element, the axial force/biaxial moment stress ratios as well as shear stress ratios are calculated for each station along the length of the member for each load combination. The actual member stress components and corresponding allowable Design and Check Stations
35
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SAP2000 Steel Design Manual stresses are calculated. Then, the stress ratios are evaluated according to the code. The controlling compression and/or tension stress ratio is then obtained, along with the corresponding identification of the station, load combination, and codeequation. A stress ratio greater than 1.0 indicates an overstress or exceeding a limit state.
P- Effects
The SAP2000 design algorithms require that the analysis results include the P- effects. The P- effects are considered differently for braced or nonsway and unbraced or sway columns or frames. For the braced columns, the effect of P- is limited to individual member stability. For unbraced frames, lateral drift effect should be considered in addition to individual member stability effect. For the individual member stability effects, the moments are magnified with moment magnification factors as in the AISC-LRFD code or are considered directly in the design equations as in the Canadian, British, and European codes. For lateral drift effects of unbraced or sway frames, SAP2000 assumes that the amplification is already included in the results because P- effects are considered. Users should be aware that the default analysis option in SAP2000 is OFF for P- effect. The default number of iterations for P- analysis is 1. The user should turn the P- analysis ON and set the maximum number of iterations for the analysis. For further reference, the user is referred to SAP2000 Reference Manual (CSI 1997b). The user is also cautioned that SAP2000 currently considers P- effects due to axial loads in frame members only. Forces in other types of elements do not contribute to this effect. If significant forces are present in other types of elements, for example, large axial loads in shear walls modeled as shell elements, then the additional forces computed for P- will be inaccurate.
Element Unsupported Lengths

To account for column slenderness effects the column unsupported lengths are required. The two unsupported lengths are l and l . See Figure III-1. These are the lengths between support points of the element in the corresponding directions. The length l corresponds to instability about the 3-3 axis, and l corresponds to instability about the 2-2 axis. The length l is also used for lateral-torsional buckling
33 22 33 22 22
28
P- Effects
36
Chapter III Design Algorithms caused by major direction bending (i.e., about the 3-3 axis). See Figure III-2 for correspondence between the SAP2000 axes and the axes in the design codes. Normally, the unsupported element length is equal to the length of the element, i.e., the distance between END-I and END-J of the element. See Figure III-1. The program, however, allows users to assign several elements to be treated as a single member for design. This can be done differently for major and minor bending. Therefore, extraneous joints as shown in Figure III-3 that affect the unsupported length of an element are automatically taken into consideration.
Axis 2
l 33
End j
Axis 1
l 22
End I Axis 3
Figure III-1 Major and Minor Axes of Bending
In determining the values for l and l of the elements, the program recognizes various aspects of the structure that have an effect on these lengths, such as member connectivity, diaphragm constraints and support points. The program automatically locates the element support points and evaluates the corresponding unsupported element length.
22 33
Therefore, the unsupported length of a column may actually be evaluated as being greater than the corresponding element length. If a beam frames into only one direction of the column, the beam is assumed to give lateral support only in that direction. Element Unsupported Lengths
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SAP2000 Steel Design Manual The user has options to specify the unsupported lengths of the elements on an element-by-element basis.
2
2
y y
SAP2000
y AISC (ASD89 & LRFD95)
y CISC95
y BS5950
z EUROCODE 3
Figure III-2 Correspondence between SAP2000 Axes and Code Axes
Effective Length Factor (K)

The column K-factor algorithm has been developed for building-type structures, where the columns are vertical and the beams are horizontal, and the behavior is basically that of a moment-resisting nature for which the K-factor calculation is relatively complex. For the purpose of calculating K-factors, the elements are identified as columns, beams and braces. All elements parallel to the Z-axis are classified as columns. All elements parallel to the X-Y plane are classified as beams. The rest are braces. The beams and braces are assigned K-factors of unity. In the calculation of the K-factors for a column element, the program first makes the following four stiffness summations for each joint in the structural model: S cx = S cy x E I = c c L c y
Ec I c Lc
S bx = S by
x E I = b b L b y
Eb I b Lb
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Chapter III Design Algorithms where the x and y subscripts correspond to the global X and Y directions and the c and b subscripts refer to column and beam. The local 2-2 and 3-3 terms EI l and
22 22
EI l are rotated to give components along the global X and Y directions to form the ( EI / l ) x and ( EI / l ) y values. Then for each column, the joint summations at END-I and the END-J of the member are transformed back to the column local 12-3 coordinate system and the G-values for END-I and the END-J of the member are calculated about the 2-2 and 3-3 directions as follows:
33 33
GI GI
22
33
SIc SIb SIc = I S b =
22
GJ GJ
22
22
33
33
33
SJc SJb SJc = J S b =
22
22
33
33
Figure III-3 Unsupported Lengths are not Affected by Intermediate Nodal Points If a rotational release exists at a particular end (and direction) of an element, the corresponding value is set to 10.0. If all degrees of freedom for a particular joint are deleted, the G-values for all members connecting to that joint will be set to 1.0 for the end of the member connecting to that joint. Finally, if GI and GJ are known for a particular direction, the column K-factor for the corresponding direction is calculated by solving the following relationship for :

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SAP2000 Steel Design Manual G G 36

2 I J
6( G +G )
I J
tan
from which K = / . This relationship is the mathematical formulation for the evaluation of K factors for moment-resisting frames assuming sidesway to be uninhibited. For other structures, such as braced frame structures, trusses, space frames, transmission towers, etc., the K-factors for all members are usually unity and should be set so by the user. The following are some important aspects associated with the column K-factor algorithm: An element that has a pin at the joint under consideration will not enter the stiffness summations calculated above. An element that has a pin at the far end from the joint under consideration will contribute only 50% of the calculated EI value. Also, beam elements that have no column member at the far end from the joint under consideration, such as cantilevers, will not enter the stiffness summation. If there are no beams framing into a particular direction of a column element, the associated G-value will be infinity. If the G-value at any one end of a column for a particular direction is infinity, the K-factor corresponding to that direction is set equal to unity. If rotational releases exist at both ends of an element for a particular direction, the corresponding K-factor is set to unity. The automated K-factor calculation procedure can occasionally generate artificially high K-factors, specifically under circumstances involving skewed beams, fixed support conditions, and under other conditions where the program may have difficulty recognizing that the members are laterally supported and K-factors of unity are to be used. All K-factors produced by the program can be overwritten by the user. These values should be reviewed and any unacceptable values should be replaced.
Choice of Input Units

English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the codes are based on a specific system of units. All equations and descriptions presented in the subsequent chapters correspond to that specific system of units unless otherwise noted. For example, AISC-ASD code is published in kip-inch-second units. By default, all equations and descriptions presented in the chapter Check/Design for AISC ASD89 correspond to kip-inch-second units. However, any system of units can be used to define and design the structure in SAP2000.
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Choice of Input Units

40
C h a p t e r IV
Check/Design for AISC-ASD89

This chapter describes the details of the structural steel design and stress check algorithms that are used by SAP2000 when the user selects the AISC-ASD89 design code (AISC 1989). Various notations used in this chapter are described in Table IV-1. The design is based on user-specified loading combinations. But the program provides a set of default load combinations that should satisfy requirements for the design of most building type structures. In the evaluation of the axial force/biaxial moment capacity ratios at a station along the length of the member, first the actual member force/moment components and the corresponding capacities are calculated for each load combination. Then the capacity ratios are evaluated at each station under the influence of all load combinations using the corresponding equations that are defined in this section. The controlling capacity ratio is then obtained. A capacity ratio greater than 1.0 indicates overstress. Similarly, a shear capacity ratio is also calculated separately. English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the code is based on Kip-Inch-Second units. For simplicity, all equations and descriptions presented in this chapter correspond to Kip-Inch-Second units unless otherwise noted.
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41
A A A A ,A A C C C D E F F F ,F F
f g v2 w b m w a b b 33 cr
v3
b 22
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
F F
v
Cross-sectional area, in2 Area of flange , in2 Gross cross-sectional area, in2 2 Major and minor shear areas, in Web shear area, dt , in2 Bending Coefficient Moment Coefficient Warping constant, in6 Outside diameter of pipes, in Modulus of elasticity, ksi Allowable axial stress, ksi Allowable bending stress, ksi Allowable major and minor bending stresses, ksi Critical compressive stress, ksi 12 E
w 2
e 33
23 ( K l
33
33 2
r r
33
) )
e 22
= = = = = = = = = = = =
23 ( K l
22
12 E
22 22
F F K K ,K
y 33 33
22
Allowable shear stress, ksi Yield stress of material, ksi Effective length factor Effective length K-factors in the major and minor directions Major and minor bending moment moments in member, kip-in Axial force in member, kips Euler buckling load, kips 3 Section modulus, in Major and minor section moduli, in3 Shear forces in major and minor directions, kips Nominal dimension of longer leg of angles, in ( b 2t ) for welded and ( b 3t ) for rolled BOX (TS) sections, in Flange width, in Overall depth of member, in
f w f f
M ,M P P S S ,S V ,V b
e 33 2 3
22
22
b d
= =
Table IV-1 AISC-ASD Notations
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Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-ASD89
f f f ,f f f ,f h
a b b 33 v v2 c
b 22
v3
= = = = = =
k k
= =
l ,l l r r ,r r t t t
33 c 33 z f w
22
22
= = = = = = = = =
Axial stress either in compression or in tension, ksi Normal stress in bending, ksi Normal stress in major and minor direction bending, ksi Shear stress, ksi Shear stress in major and minor direction bending, ksi Clear distance between flanges less fillets, in assumed ( d 2k ) for rolled sections and ( d 2t ) for welded sections Distance from outer face of flange to web toe of fillet , in Parameter used for classification of sections, 4 if h t > 70 , [h t ] 1 if h t 70 . Major and minor direction unbraced member lengths, in Critical length, in Radius of gyration, in Radii of gyration in the major and minor directions, in Minimum Radius of gyration for angles, in Thickness, in Flange thickness, in Web thickness, in Slenderness parameter
f . 0 46 w w w
Table IV-1 AISC-ASD Notations (cont.)
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Design Loading Combinations

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the prescribed load cases for which the structure needs to be checked. For the AISC-ASD89 code, if a structure is subjected to dead load (DL) and live load (LL) only, the stress check may need only one load combination, namely DL + LL (AISC A.4). However, if in addition to the dead and live loads, the structure is subjected to wind (WL) and earthquake (EL) induced loads, and considering that wind and earthquake forces are reversible, then the following load combinations may have to be considered for the design of steel frames (ASD A4): DL DL + LL DL WL DL + LL WL DL EL DL + LL EL (ASD A4.1) (ASD A4.1) (ASD A4.1)
These are also the default design load combinations in SAP2000 whenever the AISC-ASD89 code is used. When designing for combinations involving earthquake and wind loads, allowable stresses is increased by 33% of the allowable value (ASD A5.2). Live load reduction factors can be applied to the member forces of the live load case on an element-by-element basis to reduce the contribution of the live load to the factored loading.
Classification of Sections
The allowable stresses for axial compression and flexure are dependent upon the classification of sections as either Compact, Noncompact, or Slender. SAP2000 classifies the individual members according to Table IV-2 (ASD B5.1). The variables related to the section dimensions are shown in Figure IV-1 and the nomenclature of the other variables is shown in Table IV-1. If the section dimensions satisfy the limits shown in the table, the section is classified as either Compact or Noncompact. If the limits for Noncompact sections are not met, the section is classified as Slender. Currently SAP2000 does not check stresses for Slender sections.
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Section Description
GENERAL RECTANGLE
Ratio Checked
bB 2t B ( rolled) bB 2t B (welded)
Compact Section
Noncompact Section
Assumed Noncompact Assumed Compact
Noncompact (Compression)
65 65
FO FO
95 95
FO FO / k ?
95 95
FO FO
I-SHAPE d tM
640 f (1 3.74 = ) FO FO
for f= FO 0.16; 257/ FO for f= / FO > 0.16 190 FO (rolled)
253
FO
h b BOX d h bB bB h bB d b
tM tB tM tM tB tB tM 2t B tM t
760 238
F> FO
253 253 FO FO
As for I-shapes As for I-section, for P 0 Not applicable, for P = 0 Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable
As for I-shapes 95 95 FO FO
CHANNEL
95
FO
As for I-shapes 95 127 76 FO FO FO 95 127 76 FO FO FO
T-SHAPE
ANGLE ROUND BAR PIPE DOUBLE ANGLES
D b t t 3300 FO
Assumed Compact 76 FO 3300 76 FO FO
Not applicable
Table IV-2 Classification of Sections According to AISC-ASD Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Compression Elements Classification of Sections
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bf bf
tw tf b
d tw tf b
tw
h tf bf
bf
bf
b h tw tf b = bf - 3tf d d t = tw = tf
tf tw
tf b
AISC-ASD89 : Axes Conventions 3-3 is the cross-section axis parallel to the flanges or the smaller leg in angle sections. 2-2 is the cross-section axis perpendicular to the flanges or the smaller leg in angle sections.
2, y 3, x
z
3, x
2, y
Figure IV-1 AISC-ASD Definition of Geometric Properties
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Calculation of Stresses
The stresses are calculated at each of the previously defined stations. The member stresses that are calculated for each load combination are: f a = P/A f b = M /S f b = M /S f v = V /Av f v = V /Av
33 33 22 22 2 2 2 3 3 3
33
22
Calculation of Allowable Stresses

The allowable stresses in compression, tension, bending, and shear are computed for Compact and Noncompact sections according to the following subsections. For Slender sections and any singly symmetric and unsymmetric sections requiring consideration of flexural-torsional and torsional buckling, a reduction factor in the allowable stress may be applicable. The user must separately investigate this reduction if such elements are used. If the user specifies nonzero allowable stresses for one or more elements in the SAP2000 Redefine Element Design Data , those values will override all the allowable stresses calculated by the program as defined in the following subsections.
Allowable Stress in Compression

The allowable axial compressive stress value, Fa , for compact or non-compact sections, depends on the slenderness ratio Kl r and a corresponding critical value, C c . K l K l Kl and and C c = (2 E ) F y . Fa is evaluis the larger of r r r ated as follows:
33 33 32 23 2 33 32
If
Kl Cc, r (Kl/r) 1.0 F y 2C c Fa = 3 ( Kl/r ) ( Kl/r ) 5 + 3 8 Cc 8C c

2 2 3
(ASD E2-1)
Calculation of Stresses
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SAP2000 Steel Design Manual Kl > Cc, r Fa = 12 E . 23 ( Kl r )

2 2 22 33
If
(ASD E2-2)
For single angles r z is used in place of r and r . For members in compression, if Kl is greater than 200, a message is printed. r
Allowable Stress in Tension

The allowable axial tensile stress value Fa is assumed to be 0.60 F y . It should be noted that net section checks are not made. For members in tension, if l r is greater than 300, a message to that effect is printed. Fa = 0.6 F y (ASD D1)
Allowable Stress in Bending

The allowable bending stress depends on the following criteria: the geometric shape of the cross-section, the axis of bending, the compactness of the section, and a slenderness parameter.
I-sections, C-sections, T-sections, Angles and Double angles

For all I-sections, C-sections, T-sections, Angles, and Double angles, the slenderness parameter is taken as the laterally unbraced length, l, measured compared to a critical length, l c . The critical length is defined as 76b f 20000A f l c = min , dF y Fy Major Axis of Bending If l
33
(ASD F1-2)
is less than l c , the major allowable bending stress is taken as

33
Fb Fb
= 0.66 F y (For Compact section), = 0.60 F y (For Noncompact section),
(ASD F1-1) (ASD F1-5)
33
40

48
Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-ASD89 is greater than l c , then for both Compact and l ratio. Noncompact I-sections the allowable bending stress depends on the rT
33 33
and if the unbraced length l
For
102 10 C b l Fy rT
3 33 2
510 10 C b , Fy
3
Fb
33
2 F y ( l / rT ) = F y 0.60 F y , 3 1530 10 C b
33 3
(ASD F1-6)
and for
l 510 10 C b , > rT Fy
3 33
Fb
33
170 10 C b = 0.60 F y , ( l / rT )
3 2 33
(ASD F1-7)
and Fb Fb
33
is not less than that given by the following formula: = 12 10 C b

3
33
33
(d / A )
f
0.6 F y
(ASD F1-8)
For C-sections, only formula ASD F1-8 is used. In all the above cases, rT is the radius of gyration of a section comprising the compression flange and 1 3 the compression web taken about an axis in the plane of the web, M C b = 1.75 +1.05 a + 0.3 M b Ma M 2.3, b
2
(ASD F1.3)
M a and M b are the end moments of any unbraced segment of the member and M a is numerically less than M b ; M a M b being positive for double curvature bending and negative for single curvature bending. Also, if any moment within the segment is greater than M b , C b is taken as 1.0. Also, C b is taken as 1.0 for cantilevers and frames braced against joint translation (ASD F1). SAP2000 defaults C b to 1.0 if the unbraced length, l, of the member is redefined by the user (i.e. it is not equal to the length of the member). The user can overwrite the value of C b for any member by specifying it.

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SAP2000 Steel Design Manual Minor Axis of Bending The minor direction allowable bending stress Fb Fb
22 22
is taken as (ASD F2-2)
= 0.60 F y ,
except in the case of Compact I-sections, where it is taken as Fb

22
= 0.75 F y .
(ASD F2-1)
Box Sections and Rectangular Tubes

For all Box sections and Rectangular tubes, the slenderness parameter is taken as the laterally unbraced length, l, measured compared to a critical length, l c . The critical length is defined as b 1200 b l c = max (1950 + 1200 M a /M b ) , Fy Fy (ASD F3-2)
where M a and M b have the same definition as noted earlier in the formula for C b . 1200 b If l is specified by the user, l c is taken as in SAP2000. Fy Major Axis of Bending If l is less than l c , the allowable bending stress in the major direction of bending is taken as:
33
Fb = 0.66 F y
33
(for Compact section) (for Noncompact section)
(ASD F3-1) (ASD F3-3)
Fb
33
33
= 0.60 F y
If l exceeds l c , the allowable bending stress in the major direction of bending is taken, irrespective of compactness, as: Fb
33
= 0.60 F y
(ASD F3-3)
Minor Axis of Bending For box sections and rectangular tubes, the allowable bending stress about the minor axis of bending is the same as that about the major axis of bending. The allowable stresses are given by ASD equations F3-1 and F3-3 which are described earlier.
42

50
Pipe Sections
For Pipe sections, the allowable bending stress for both major and minor axes of bending is taken as Fb = 0.66 F y Fb = 0.60 F y (for compact section), and (for noncompact section). (ASD F3-1) (ASD F3-3)
Rectangular and Round Bars

For solid square and round bars, the allowable bending stresses are the same in both major and minor directions of bending. The allowable stress for both the major and minor axis of bending of square and round bars and minor axis of bending of rectangular bars is taken as, Fb = 0.75 F y . (ASD F2-1)
For solid rectangular bars bent about their major axes, the allowable stress is given by Fb = 0.66 F y . (ASD F1-1)
General sections
For General sections the allowable bending stress in both major and minor directions is taken as, Fb = 0.60 F y .
Allowable Stress in Shear

For webs with h tw 380 Fy , the allowable shear stress Fv is assumed to be (ASD F4-1).
Fv = 0.40 F y . For webs with
h 380 , a reduction in the allowable shear stress applies and > tw Fy
must be separately investigated by the user.

51
43
Calculation of Stress Ratios

In the calculation of the axial and bending stress capacity ratios, first, for each station along the length of the member, the actual stresses are calculated for each load combination. Then the corresponding allowable stresses are calculated. Then, the capacity ratios are calculated at each station for each member under the influence of each of the design load combinations. The controlling capacity ratio is then obtained, along with the associated station and load combination. A capacity ratio greater than 1.0 indicates an overstress. During the design, the effect of the presence of bolts or welds is not considered. Also, the joints are not designed.
Axial and Bending Stresses

With the computed allowable axial and bending stress values and the factored axial and bending member stresses at each station, an interaction stress ratio is produced for each of the load combinations as follows: If f a is compressive and f a Fa > 0.15, the combined stress ratio is given by the larger of Cm fa + Fa f 1 - a F' e
33
fb
33
33
Fb
+
33
Cm
22
fb
22
f 1 - a F' e
22
Fb
, and
22
(ASD H1-1)
f fa + b 0.60 F y Fb
33 22
33
33
fb Fb
22
, where
(ASD H1-2)
22
f a , f b , f b , Fa , Fb , and Fb
33 33 22
22
are defined earlier in this chapter,
C m and C m are coefficients representing distribution of moment along member length and are assumed to be 1.0 for all cases except for columns in unbraced frames when they are taken as 0.85. However, users can specify overriding values and Fe = 12 E
2
23 ( Kl / r )
If f a is compressive and f a Fa 0.15 , a relatively simplified formula is used for the combined stress ratio.
44

52
Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-ASD89 f fa + b Fb Fa + fb Fb
33
22
(ASD H1-3)
33
22
If f a is tensile or zero, the combined stress ratio is given by fa Fa

33
fb Fb
22
33
33
fb Fb
33
22
, where
(ASD H2-1)
22
f a , f b , f b , Fa , Fb , and Fb are defined earlier in this chapter. However, either Fb or Fb need not be less than 0.6 F y .
22 33 22
For circular sections, an SRSS combination is first made of the two bending components before adding the axial load component, instead of the simple addition implied by the above formulae.
Shear Stresses
From the allowable shear stress values and the factored shear stress values at each station, shear stress ratios for major and minor directions are produced for each of the load combinations as follows: fv , Fv
2
and
fv . Fv
3

53
45
54
Chapter V
Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

This chapter describes the details of the structural steel design and stress check algorithms that are used by SAP2000 when the user selects the AISC-LRFD93 design code (AISC 1994). Various notations used in this chapter are described in Table V-1. The design is based on user-specified loading combinations. But the program provides a set of default load combinations that should satisfy requirements for the design of most building type structures. In the evaluation of the axial force/biaxial moment capacity ratios at a station along the length of the member, first the actual member force/moment components and the corresponding capacities are calculated for each load combination. Then the capacity ratios are evaluated at each station under the influence of all load combinations using the corresponding equations that are defined in this section. The controlling capacity ratio is then obtained. A capacity ratio greater than 1.0 indicates exceeding a limit state. Similarly, a shear capacity ratio is also calculated separately. English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the code is based on Kip-Inch-Second units. For simplicity, all equations and descriptions presented in this chapter correspond to Kip-Inch-Second units unless otherwise noted.
47
55
A A A ,A A B B C C C D E F F
g v2 w 1 2 b m w cr r y
v3
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
F G I J K K ,K L L L
22 33 b p r
22
M M M M M M M M P P P P
e
cr
lt
nt
n 33
p 33
r 33
,M ,M ,M ,M
n 22
p 22
r 22
u 33
u 22
Cross-sectional area, in2 Gross cross-sectional area, in2 2 Major and minor shear areas, in Shear area, equal dt per web, in2 Moment magnification factor for moments not causing sidesway Moment magnification factor for moments causing sidesway Bending coefficient Moment coefficient Warping constant, in6 Outside diameter of pipes, in Modulus of elasticity, ksi Critical compressive stress, ksi Compressive residual stress in flange assumed 10.0 for rolled sections and 16.5 for welded sections, ksi Yield stress of material, ksi Shear modulus, ksi Minor moment of inertia, in4 4 Torsional constant for the section, in Effective length factor Effective length K-factors in the major and minor directions Laterally unbraced length of member, in Limiting laterally unbraced length for full plastic capacity, in Limiting laterally unbraced length for inelastic lateral-torsional buckling, in Elastic buckling moment, kip-in Factored moments causing sidesway, kip-in Factored moments not causing sidesway, kip-in Nominal bending strength in major and minor directions, kip-in Major and minor plastic moments, kip-in Major and minor limiting buckling moments, kip-in Factored moment in member, kip-in Factored major and minor moments in member, kip-in Euler buckling load, kips Nominal axial load strength, kip Factored axial force in member, kips A F , kips
w g y
Table V-1 AISC-LRFD Notations
48
56
Chapter V Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93
S S V V Z Z b b d h k k
33
n2
u2
,S ,V ,V ,Z
22
n3
u3
33
22
= = = = = = = = = =
= =
Section modulus, in3 3 Major and minor section moduli, in Nominal major and minor shear strengths, kips Factored major and minor shear loads, kips 3 Plastic modulus, in 3 Major and minor plastic moduli, in Nominal dimension of longer leg of angles, in b 2t for welded and b 3t for rolled BOX (TS) sections Flange width, in Overall depth of member, in Clear distance between flanges less fillets, in assumed d 2k for rolled sections and d 2t for welded sections Distance from outer face of flange to web toe of fillet, in Parameter used for section classification, 4 , 0.35 k 0.763 h t
f w f w f c w
l ,l r r ,r r t t t
33 33 z f w c p r s b c t v
22
22
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Major and minor direction unbraced member lengths, in Radius of gyration, in Radii of gyration in the major and minor directions, in Minimum Radius of gyration for angles, in Thickness, in Flange thickness, in Thickness of web, in Slenderness parameter Column slenderness parameter Limiting slenderness parameter for compact element Limiting slenderness parameter for non-compact element Limiting slenderness parameter for seismic element Resistance factor Resistance factor for bending, 0.9 Resistance factor for compression, 0.85 Resistance factor for tension, 0.9 Resistance factor for shear, 0.9
Table V-1 AISC-LRFD Notations (cont.)
49
57

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the load cases for which the structure needs to be checked. For the AISC-LRFD93 code, if a structure is subjected to dead load (DL), live load (LL), wind load (WL), and earthquake induced load (EL), and considering that wind and earthquake forces are reversible, then the following load combinations may have to be defined (LRFD A4.1): 1.4 DL 1.2 DL + 1.6 LL 0.9 DL 1.3 WL 1.2 DL 1.3 WL 1.2 DL + 0.5 LL 1.3 WL 0.9 DL 1.0 EL 1.2 DL 1.0 EL 1.2 DL + 0.5 LL 1.0 EL (LRFD A4-1) (LRFD A4-2) (LRFD A4-6) (LRFD A4-4) (LRFD A4-4) (LRFD A4-6) (LRFD A4-4) (LRFD A4-4)
These are also the default design load combinations whenever the AISC-LRFD93 code is used. The user should use other appropriate loading combinations if roof live load is separately treated, if other types of loads are present, or if pattern live loads are to be considered. Live load reduction factors can be applied to the member forces of the live load case on an element-by-element basis to reduce the contribution of the live load to the factored loading. When using the AISC-LRFD93 code, SAP2000 design assumes that a P- analysis has been performed so that moment magnification factors for moments causing sidesway can be taken as unity. It is recommended that the P- analysis be done at the factored load level of 1.2 DL plus 0.5 LL (White and Hajjar 1991).
The nominal strengths for axial compression and flexure are dependent on the classification of the section as Compact, Noncompact, or Slender. SAP2000 classifies individual members according to the width/thickness ratio quantities given in Tables V-2 and V-3 (LRFD B.5.1). The definition of the section properties required in these tables are given in Figure V-1 and Table V-1. In SAP2000, a section is classified as Compact or Noncompact. Moreover, special considerations are required regarding the limits of width-thickness ratios for Compact sections in Seismic zones and Noncompact sections with compressive force as given in Table V-3. If
50

58
Chapter V Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93 the limits for non-compact are not met, the section is classified as Slender. Currently SAP2000 does not check stresses for Slender sections.
Description of Section
GENERAL RECTANGULAR
Check ()
bB 2t B (rolled) bB 2t B (welded)
COMPACT ( p )
NONCOMPACT ( r )
Assumed Noncompact Assumed Compact 65 65 FO FO 141 162 FO - 10.0 (FO - 16.5) k?
I-SHAPE h? tM
For PK > PO 0.125, 640 1 - 2.75PK > PO FO For PK 191 FO > PO > 0.125
970 PK 1- 0.74 > PO FO
2.33 - PK 253 > PO FO FO (rolled) 238 253 FO (rolled) FO (welded)
BOX
b b h? bB h? bB d b
tB tB tM tB tM 2t B tM t
190
N/A for welded section As for I-shapes As for I-shapes As for I-shapes As for I-Shapes Not applicable Not applicable
As for I-shapes As for I-shapes As for I-shapes As for I-Shapes 127 FO 76 FO
CHANNEL T-SHAPE ANGLE ROUND BAR PIPE DOUBLE-ANGLE (Separated)
D b t t 2070 FO
Assumed compact 8970 76 FO FO
Not applicable
Table V-2 Limiting Width-Thickness Ratio for Flexure Classification of Sections According to AISC-LRFD Classification of Sections
59
51
WidthThickness Ratio ()
bB 2t B (rolled) bB 2t B (welded)
COMPACT (SEISMIC ZONE) ( s )
NONCOMPACT (Uniform Compression) (M 22 = M 33 = 0) ( r )
GENERAL RECTANGULAR
Assumed Noncompact Assumed Compact 52 52 For PK 520 FO For PK 191 FO FO FO 95 95 FO FO
I-SHAPE h? tM
> PO 0.125, 1 - 1.54 PK > PO > PO > 0.125
253
FO
2.33 - PK 253 > PO FO 238 253 FO FO
BOX
b h? bB h? bB d b
tB tM tB tM 2t B tM t
Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable
CHANNEL
As for I-shapes As for I-shapes 95 127 76 3300 76 FO FO FO FO FO
T-SHAPE ANGLE ROUND BAR PIPE DOUBLE-ANGLE (Separated)
D b t t
Not applicable Not applicable
Table V-3 Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Classification of Sections According to AISC-LRFD
52
60
Chapter V Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

bf k bf
K
hc tw tf b
d tw tf b
hc
tw
hc tf bf
bf
bf b b = bf - 3tf tw tf d d t = tw = tf tf
bf b
b h
tw
tf b
AISC-LRFD93 : Axes Conventions 3-3 is the cross-section axis parallel to the flanges or the smaller leg in angle sections. 2-2 is the cross-section axis perpendicular to the flanges or the smaller leg in angle sections.
2, y
3, x
z
3, x
2, y
Figure V-1 AISC-LRFD Definition of Geometric Properties Classification of Sections

61
53
Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments

The factored member loads that are calculated for each load combination are Pu , M u , M u ,V u andV u corresponding to factored values of the axial load, the major moment, the minor moment, the major direction shear force and the minor direction shear force, respectively. These factored loads are calculated at each of the previously defined stations.
33 22 2 3
For loading combinations that cause compression in the member, the factored moment M u (M u and M u in the corresponding directions) is magnified to consider second order effects. The magnified moment in a particular direction is given by:
33 22
M u = B M nt + B M lt , where
1 2
(LRFD C1-1)
B = B = M nt = M lt =
1 2
Moment magnification factor for non-sidesway moments, Moment magnification factor for sidesway moments, Factored moments not causing sidesway, and Factored moments causing sidesway.
The moment magnification factors are associated with corresponding directions. The moment magnification factor B for moments not causing sidesway is given by
1
B =
1
Cm 1.0 , where (1 - Pu Pe ) Ag F y
2
(LRFD C1-2) Kl r Fy E
Pe is the Euler buckling load (Pe = C m = 0.6 0.4 Ma , where Mb
, with =
), and (LRFD C1-3)
M a M b is the ratio of the smaller to the larger moment at the ends of the member, M a M b being positive for double curvature bending and negative for single curvature bending. For compression members with transverse load on the member, C m is assumed as 1.0. When M b is zero, C m is taken as 1.0. The program defaults C m to 1.0 if the unbraced length, l, of the member is redefined by the user (i.e. it is not equal to the length of the member). The user can overwrite the value of C m for any member. The magnification factor B , must be a positive number. Therefore Pu must be less than Pe . If Pu is found to be greater than or equal to Pe , a failure condition is declared.
1
54

62
Chapter V Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93 SAP2000 design assumes the analysis includes P- effects, therefore B is taken as unity for bending in both directions. It is suggested that the P- analysis be done at the factored load level of 1.2 DL plus 0.5 LL (LRFD C2.2). See also White and Hajjar (1991). If the program assumptions are not satisfactory for a particular structural model or member, the user has a choice of explicitly specifying the values of B and B for any member.
2 1 2
Calculation of Nominal Strengths

The nominal strengths in compression, tension, bending, and shear are computed for Compact and Non-compact sections according to the following subsections. The strength reduction factor, , is taken as follows (LRFD A5.3): t c b v = = = = Resistance factor for tension, 0.9 Resistance factor for compression, 0.85 Resistance factor for bending, 0.9 Resistance factor for shear, 0.9 (LRFD D3) (LRFD E2) (LRFD F1) (LRFD F2)
For Slender sections and any singly symmetric and unsymmetric sections requiring consideration of local buckling (LRFD Appendix B5), flexural-torsional and torsional buckling (LRFD Appendix E3), or web buckling (LRFD Appendix G), reduced nominal strengths may be applicable. The user must separately investigate this reduction if such elements are used. If the user specifies nominal strengths for one or more elements in the Redefine Element Design Data, these values will override all above the mentioned calculated values for those elements as defined in the following subsections.
Compression Capacity
The nominal axial compressive strength, Pn , depends on the slenderness ratio, and its critical value, c . =
c
K l Kl is the larger of r r
33 33
33
and
22
Kl , r
22
, and
22
Kl r
Fy E
(LRFD E2-4)
Pn for compact or non-compact sections is evaluated for flexural buckling as follows:

63
55
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual Pn = Ag Fcr , where Fcr = 0.658

2
(LRFD E2-1) for 1.5, and

c c
)F ,
y
(LRFD E2-2) (LRFD E2-3)
0.877 Fcr = Fy ,
c
for > 1.5.
For single angles rZ is used instead of r and r . For members in compression, if Kl is greater than 200, a message to that effect is printed (LRFD B7). r
33 22
Pn for flexural-torsional buckling of Double-angle and T-shaped compression members whose elements have width-thickness ratios less than r is given by Pn = Ag Fcrft , where 4 Fcr Fcrz H F + Fcrz Fcrft = cr 1 1 , where 2H ( Fcr + Fcrz ) GJ , Fcrz = Ar
2 2 2 2 2 0
(LRFD E3-1) (LRFD E3-1)
r = Polar radius of gyration about the shear center,

0
x +y H =1 r
2 0 2 0
2 0
x ,y
0
are the coordinates of shear center with respect to the centroid, x = 0 for double-angle and T-shaped members (y-axis of symmetry),
0
Fcr
is determined according to the equation LRFD E2-1 for flexural Kl F y . buckling about minor axis of symmetry for c = r E
22
For double-angles and T-shaped members with width-thickness ratios greater than r or other symmetric and unsymmetric columns, the user is advised to separately perform a complete check for lateral-torsional buckling.
Tension Capacity
The nominal axial tensile strength value Pn is based on the gross cross-sectional area and the yield stress.
56

64
Chapter V Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93 Pn = Ag F y (LRFD D1-1)
It should be noted that no net section checks are made. For members in tension, if l r is greater than 300, a message to that effect is printed (LRFD B7).
Nominal Strength in Bending

The nominal bending strength depends on the following criteria: the geometric shape of the cross-section, the axis of bending, the compactness of the section, and a slenderness parameter for lateral-torsional buckling. The nominal bending strength is the minimum value obtained from yielding, lateral-torsional buckling, flange local buckling, and web local buckling, as follows:
Yielding
For laterally braced compact (and seismic) members with Lb L p , M p = Z F y 1.5 S F y , where Lb = Lp = Laterally unbraced length, l
22
(LRFD F1-1) and
Limiting laterally unbraced length for full plastic capacity, 300 r for I-shapes and channels, and (LRFD F1-4) Fy
22
3 750 r Mp
33
22
JA for boxes and rectangular bars.
(LRFD F1-5)
Lateral-Torsional Buckling
Doubly Symmetric Shapes and Channels For I-shapes, channels, boxes and rectangular bars bent about the major axis, if Lb Lr Mn
33
= C b M p
33
-(M p
33
L - L p Mp - M r ) b L - L r p
33
33
(LRFD F1-2)
and if Lb > Lr , Mn
33
= M cr
33
Mp
33
, where
(LRFD F1-12)

65
57
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual Mn Mp Mr = = = Nominal major bending strength, Major plastic moment, Z F y 1.5 S F y ,
33 33
33
33
33
M cr
33
Major limiting buckling moment, ( F y Fr )S for I-shapes and channels, and F y S for rectangular bars and boxes, Critical elastic moment,
33 33
(LRFD F1-7) (LRFD F1-11)
C b EI GJ + Lb
22
E L I Cw b for I-shapes and channels, and

22
(LRFD F1-13) (LRFD F1-14)
Lb Lp
= =
57 000 C b JA for boxes and rectangular bars, Lb r Laterally unbraced length, l ,

22 22
Limiting laterally unbraced length for full plastic capacity, 300 r for I-shapes and channels, and (LRFD F1-4) Fy
22
3 750 r Mp
33
22
JA for boxes and rectangular bars,
(LRFD F1-5)
Lr
Limiting laterally unbraced length for inelastic lateral-torsional buckling, r X 1 + 1 + X ( F - F ) y r F y Fr

22 1
for I-shapes and channels, and 57 000 r JA for boxes and rectangular bars, Mr
22 33
(LRFD F1-6) (LRFD F1-10) (LRFD F1-8) (LRFD F1-9) (LRFD F1-3)
X X
= = =
S 4
33
EGJA , 2
2 33
Cb
Cw S , I GJ 12.5 M max , and 2.5 M max + 3 M A + 4 M B + 3 M C

22
M max , M A , M B ,and M C are absolute values of maximum moment, 1/4 point, center of span and 3/4 point major moments respectively, in the member. C b should be taken as 1.0 for cantilevers. However, the program is unable to detect whether the member is a cantilever. The user should overwrite C b for cantilevers. The program
58

66
Chapter V Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93 also defaults C b to 1.0 if the unbraced length, l, of the member is redefined by the user (i.e. it is not equal to the length of the member). The user can overwrite the value of C b for any member. For pipes and circular bars bent about any axis, M n = M p = Z F y 1.5 S F y . For all sections bent about their minor axis, Mn
22
= Mp
22
= Z F y 1.5 S F y .
22 22
T-sections and Double Angles For T-shapes and double angles the nominal major bending strength is given as, Mn B = EI GJ B + 1 + B Fy S Lb
22 2
33
33
, where
(LRFD F1-15)
= 2.3
d Lb
I . J
22
(LRFD F1-16)
The positive sign for B applies for tension in stem of T or outstanding legs of double angles (positive moments) and the negative sign applies for compression in stem (negative moments). For T-shapes and double angles the nominal minor bending strength is assumed as, Mn
22
= S Fy .
22
For single angles and for GENERAL sections the nominal major and minor direction bending strengths are assumed as, M n = S Fy .
Local Buckling
For non-compact I-shapes, channels and boxes, the nominal bending strengths are given by the lowest value calculated in the formulas below for the various local buckling modes possible for these sections. The nominal flexural strength M n for the limit state of flange and web local buckling is: Mn = Mp (M p - p - M r ) - p r
33
33
33
33
(LRFD A-F1-3)

67
59
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual for major direction bending, and Mn = Mp (M p - p - M r ) - p r

22
22
22
22
(LRFD A-F1-3)
for minor direction bending, where Mn Mn Mp Mp Mr

33
22
33
22
33
= = = = =
Mr p r
22
= = = =
Nominal major bending strength, Nominal minor bending strength, Major plastic moment, Z F y 1.5 S F y , Minor plastic moment, Z F y 1.5 S F y , Major limiting buckling moment, (LRFD Table A-F1.1) ( F y Fr )S for flange buckling of I-shapes and channels, F y S for web buckling of I-shapes and channels, and F y S for flange and web buckling of boxes, Minor limiting buckling moment, (LRFD Table A-F1.1) F y S or flange buckling of I-shapes, channels and boxes, Controlling slenderness parameter, Largest value of for which M n = M p , and Largest value of for which buckling is inelastic.
33 33 22 22 33 33 33 22
For Noncompact pipe sections the nominal major and minor direction bending strength is Mn = Mn 600 = D t + Fy S . (LRFD Table A-F1.1)
33
22
Shear Capacities
Major Axis of Bending The nominal shear strength, V n , for major direction shears in I-shapes, boxes and channels is evaluated as follows:
2
For
h tw
2
418 Fy
, (LRFD F2-1) 523 Fy ,
V n = 0.6 F y Aw , for 418 Fy < h tw
60

68
Chapter V Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93 V n = 0.6 F y Aw

2
418 Fy
h , and tw
(LRFD F2-2)
for
523 Fy
<
h 260 , tw
V n = 132000
2
[h t w ]
Aw
(LRFD F2-3 and A-F2-3)
The nominal shear strength for all other sections is taken as: V n = 0.6 F y Av .
2 2
Minor Axis of Bending The nominal shear strength for minor direction shears is assumed as: V n = 0.6 F y Av
3 3
Calculation of Capacity Ratios

In the calculation of the axial force/biaxial moment capacity ratios, first, for each station along the length of the member, the actual member force/moment components are calculated for each load combination. Then the corresponding capacities are calculated. Then, the capacity ratios are calculated at each station for each member under the influence of each of the design load combinations. The controlling compression and/or tension capacity ratio is then obtained, along with the associated station and load combination. A capacity ratio greater than 1.0 indicates exceeding a limit state. During the design, the effect of the presence of bolts or welds is not considered. Also, the joints are not designed.

Pu . If Pu is tensile, Pn is the Pn nominal axial tensile strength and = t = 0.9 ; and if Pu is compressive, Pn is the nominal axial compressive strength and = c = 0.85 . In addition, the resistance factor for bending, b = 0.9. The interaction ratio is determined based on the ratio

69
61
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual Pu 0.2 , the capacity ratio is given as Pn Pu 8 Mu + Pn 9 bMn For
33
For
33
Mu bMn
22
22
(LRFD H1-1a)
Pu < 0.2 , the capacity ratio is given as Pn Mu Pu + 2Pn b M n

33
33
Mu bMn
22
22
(LRFD H1-1b)
For circular sections an SRSS (Square Root of Sum of Squares) combination is first made of the two bending components before adding the axial load component instead of the simple algebraic addition implied by the above formulas.
Shear Stresses
Similarly to the normal stresses, from the factored shear force values and the nominal shear strength values at each station for each of the load combinations, shear capacity ratios for major and minor directions are produced as follows: Vu , and vV n
2 2
Vu , vV n
3 3
where v = 0.9 .
62

70
C h a p t e r VI
Check/Design for CISC94

This chapter describes the details of the structural steel design and stress check algorithms that are used by SAP2000 when the user selects the CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 design code (CISC 1995). Various notations used in this chapter are described in Table VI-1. The design is based on user-specified loading combinations. But the program provides a set of default load combinations that should satisfy requirements for the design of most building type structures. In the evaluation of the axial force/biaxial moment capacity ratios at a station along the length of the member, first the actual member force/moment components and the corresponding capacities are calculated for each load combination. Then the capacity ratios are evaluated at each station under the influence of all load combinations using the corresponding equations that are defined in this section. The controlling capacity ratio is then obtained. A capacity ratio greater than 1.0 indicates exceeding a limit state. Similarly, a shear capacity ratio is also calculated separately. English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the code is based on Newton-Millimeter-Second units. For simplicity, all equations and descriptions presented in this chapter correspond to Newton-Millimeter-Second units unless otherwise noted.
63
71
A A A ,A A C C C C C D E F G I J K K ,K
g v2 w e f r w y y 22 33
v3
22
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
L M ,M M ,M M ,M M M ,M S ,S T T U
f 33 p 33 r 33 u y 33 33 22 f r 1
f 22
p 22
r 22
y 22
V ,V V ,V Z ,Z
f 2 r2 33
f 3
r3
22
= = =
Cross-sectional area, mm2 Gross cross-sectional area, mm2 2 Major and minor shear areas, mm 2 Shear area, mm Euler buckling strength, N Factored compressive axial load, N Factored compressive axial strength, N Warping constant, mm6 Compressive axial load at yield stress, A F , N Outside diameter of pipes, mm Modulus of elasticity, MPa Specified minimum yield stress, MPa Shear modulus, MPa 4 Minor moment of inertia, mm 4 Torsional constant for the section, mm Effective length factor Effective length K-factors in the major and minor direcions (assumed as 1.0 unless overwritten by user) Laterally unbraced length of member, mm Factored major and minor bending loads, N-mm Major and minor plastic moments, N-mm Factored major and minor bending strengths, N-mm Critical elastic moment, N-mm Major and minor yield moments, N-mm Major and minor section moduli, mm3 Factored tensile axial load, N Factored tensile axial strength, N Moment magnification factor to account for deformation of member between ends Moment magnification factor ( on sidesway moments) to account for P- Factored major and minor shear loads, N Factored major and minor shear strengths, N Major and minor plastic moduli, mm3
g y
Table VI-1 CISC 94 Notations
64
72
Chapter VI Check/Design for CISC94
b d h k k l l ,l r r ,r r t t t
f 33 33 z f w
22
22
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
12
Nominal dimension of longer leg of angles ( b 2t ) for welded ( b 3t ) for rolled box sections, mm Flange width, mm Overall depth of member, mm Clear distance between flanges , taken as ( d 2t ), mm Web plate buckling coefficient, assumed as 5.34 (no stiffeners) Distance from outer face of flange to web toe of fillet , mm Unbraced length of member, mm Major and minor direction unbraced member lengths, mm Radius of gyration, mm Radii of gyration in the major and minor directions, mm Minimum Radius of gyration for angles, mm Thickness, mm Flange thickness, mm Web thickness, mm Slenderness parameter
f w f f f
Resistance factor, taken as 0.9 Moment Coefficient Major and minor direction moment coefficients Bending coefficient
,
13 2
= =
Table VI-1 CISC 94 Notations (cont.)
65
73

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the load cases for which the structure needs to be checked. For the CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 code, if a structure is subjected to dead load (DL), live load (LL), wind load (WL), and earthquake induced load (EL), and considering that wind and earthquake forces are reversible, then the following load combinations may have to be defined (CISC 7.2): 1.25 DL 1.25 DL + 1.50 LL 1.25 DL 1.50 WL 0.85 DL 1.50 WL 1.25 DL + 0.7 (1.50 LL 1.50 WL) 1.00 DL 1.00 EL 1.00 DL + 0.50 LL 1.00 EL (CISC 7.2.2)
(CISC 7.2.2) (CISC 7.2.6)
These are also the default design load combinations whenever CISC Code is used. In generating the above default loading combinations, importance factor is taken as 1. The user should use other appropriate loading combinations if roof live load is separately treated, other types of loads are present, or if pattern live loads are to be considered. Live load reduction factors can be applied to the member forces of the live load case on an element-by-element basis to reduce the contribution of the live load to the factored loading. When using the CISC code, SAP2000 design assumes that a P- analysis has been performed so that moment magnification factors for moments causing sidesway can be taken as unity. It is suggested that the P- analysis be done at the factored load level of 1.25 DL plus 1.05 LL. See also White and Hajjar (1991). For the gravity load case only, the code (CISC 8.6.2) requires that notional lateral loads be applied at each story, equal to 0.005 times the factored gravity loads acting at each story. If extra load cases are used for such analysis, they should be included in the loading combinations with due consideration to the fact that the notional lateral forces can be positive or negative.
66

74
For the determination of the nominal strengths for axial compression and flexure, the sections are classified as either Class 1 (Plastic), Class 2 (Compact), Class 3 (Noncompact), or Class 4 (Slender). The program classifies the individual sections according to Table VI-2 (CISC 11.2). According to this table, a section is classified as either Class 1, Class 2, or Class 3 as applicable. If a section fails to satisfy the limits for Class 3 sections, the section is classified as Class 4 Currently SAP2000 does not check stresses for Class 4 sections.

The factored member forces for each load combination are calculated at each of the previously defined stations. These member forces are T f or C f , M f , M f ,V f and V f corresponding to factored values of the tensile or compressive axial load, the major moment, the minor moment, the major direction shear, and the minor direction shear, respectively.
33 22 2 3
Because SAP2000 design assumes that the analysis includes P- effects, any magnification of sidesway moments due to the second order effects are already included, therefore U for both directions of bending is taken as unity. It is suggested that the P- analysis be done at the factored load level of 1.25 DL plus 1.05 LL. See also White and Hajjar (1991).
2
However, the user can overwrite the values of U for both major and minor direction bending. In this case M f in a particular direction is taken as:
2
M U M M
2
=M = = =
fg
+ U M ft , where
2
(CISC 8.6.1)
fg ft
Moment magnification factor for sidesway moments, Factored moments not causing translation, and Factored moments causing sidesway.
Calculation of Factored Strengths

The factored strengths in compression, tension, bending, and shear are computed for Class 1, 2, and 3 sections in SAP2000. The strength reduction factor, , is taken as 0.9 (CISC 13.1).
75
67
GENERAL RECTANGULAR
Ratio Checked
bB 2t B
Class 1 (Plastic)
Class 2 (Compact)
Assumed Class 3
Class 3 (Noncompact)
Assumed Class 2 145 FO 170 FO 200 FO
I-SHAPE h tM
C 1100 1 - 0.39 B CO FO FO (rolled) FO (welded)
C 1700 1 - 0.61 B CO FO
C 1900 1 - 0.65 B CO FO
b BOX h bB h bB d b
tB
420 525
525
FO
670
FO
tM tB tM 2t B tM t
As for I-shapes Not applicable Not applicable
As for I-shapes Not applicable Not applicable
As for I-shapes 200 FO
CHANNEL
As for I-shapes 200 340 200 FO FO FO
T-SHAPE
ANGLE ROUND BAR PIPE (Flexure) PIPE (Axial) DOUBLE ANGLE
Not applicable
Not applicable Assumed Class 2
D D b t t t 13000 FO
18000
FO
66000 23000 200
FO FO FO
Not applicable
Not applicable
Table VI-2 Limiting Width-Thickness Ratio Classification of Sections in CISC 94
68

76

bf bf
tw tf b
d tw tf b
tw
h tf b
bf
bf b tf
b h tw tf b = bf - 3t f d d t = tw = tf
tw
tf b
CISC95 : Axes Conventions 3-3 is the cross-section axis parallel to the flanges or the smaller leg in angle sections. This is the same as the x-x axis. 2-2 is the cross-section axis perpendicular to the flanges or the smaller leg in angle sections. This is the same as the y-y axis.
2, y
3, x
z
3, x
2, y
Figure VI-1 CISC 94 Definition of Geometric Properties Calculation of Factored Strengths

77
69
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual For Class 4 (Slender) sections and any singly symmetric and unsymmetric sections requiring consideration of local buckling, flexural-torsional and torsional buckling, or web buckling, reduced nominal strengths may be applicable. The user must separately investigate this reduction if such elements are used. If the user specifies nominal strengths for one or more elements in the Redefine Element Design Data", these values will override all the above mentioned calculated values for those elements as defined in the following subsections.
Compression Strength
The factored axial compressive strength value, C r , for Class 1, 2, or 3 sections deKl pends on a factor, , which eventually depends on the slenderness ratio, , which r K l K l is the larger of and , and is defined as r r
33 33 22 22 33 22
Kl r
Fy E
Then the factored axial strength is evaluated as follows (CISC 13.3.1): C r = AF y 1 +
, where
(CISC 13.3.1)
n =1.34 , for all types of sections except wide-flange sections with thickness less than or equal to 25.4 mm, and (CISC Table 1-2 and 6-2) n = 0.98 , for all wide-flange sections with thickness greater than or equal to 25.4 mm. (CISC Table 1-2 and 6-2) For single angles rZ is used in place of r and r . The above calculated value of C r is conservative for hot-formed or stress-relieved hollow sections where the code alKl lows a higher value (CISC 13.3.1). For members in compression, if is greater r than 200, a message is printed (CISC 10.2.1).
33 22
Tension Strength
The factored axial tensile strength value, Tr , is taken as Ag F y (CISC 13.2.(a).(i)). For members in tension, if l r is greater than 300, a message is printed accordingly (CISC 10.2.2).
70

78
Chapter VI Check/Design for CISC94 Tr = A g F y (CISC 13.2)
Bending Strengths
The factored bending strength in the major and minor directions is based on the geometric shape of the section, the section classification for compactness, and the unbraced length of the member. The bending strengths are evaluated according to CISC as follows (CISC 13.5 and 13.6): For laterally supported members, the moment capacities are considered to be as follows: For Class 1 and 2, For Class 3, M r = ZF y , and M r = SF y . (CISC 13.5) (CISC 13.5)
Special considerations are required for laterally unsupported members. The procedure for the determination of moment capacities for laterally unsupported members (CISC 13.6) is described in the following subsections.
I-shapes and Boxes

Major Axis of Bending For Class 1 and 2 sections of I-shapes and boxes bent about the major axis, when M u > 0.67 M p
3 33
,
33
Mp M r = 1.15 M p 1- 0.28 Mu
33
Mp
33
, and
(CISC 13.6)
when M u 0.67 M p Mr
33
33
, (CISC 13.6)
= M u , where = = = Factored major bending strength, Major plastic moment, Z F y , Critical elastic moment,
33
Mr Mp Mu
33
33
L Cw
= =
E EI GJ + I Cw , L L Laterally unbraced length, l , Warping constant assumed as 0.0,

2 2 22 22 22
(CISC 13.6)

79
71
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual for boxes, pipes, rectangular and circular bars, and
2
M = 1.75 +1.05 a + 0.30 M b
Ma M 2.5 . b
(CISC 13.6)
M a and M b are end moments of the unbraced segment and M a is less than M M b , a being positive for double curvature bending and negative for sinM b gle curvature bending. If any moment within the segment is greater than M b , is taken as 1.0. The program defaults to 1.0 if the unbraced length, l of the member is overwritten by the user (i.e. it is not equal to the length of the member). should be taken as 1.0 for cantilevers. However, the program is unable to detect whether the member is a cantilever. The user can overwrite the value of for any member by specifying it.
2 2 2 2
For Class 3 sections of I-shapes, channels, boxes bent about the major axis, when M u > 0.67 M y ,
33
Mr
33
My = 1.15 M y 1 0.28 Mu
33 33
33
M y , and
33
(CISC 13.6)
when M u 0.67 M y Mr Mr My
33
= M u , where
(CISC 13.6)
33
33
and M u are as defined earlier for Class 1 and 2 sections and is the major yield moment, S F y .
33
Minor Axis of Bending For Class 1 and 2 sections of I-shapes and boxes bent about their minor axis, Mr
22
= M p
22
= Z Fy .
22
For Class 3 sections of I-shapes and boxes bent about their minor axis, Mr
22
=My
22
= S Fy .
22
Rectangular Bar
Major Axis of Bending For Class 2 rectangular bars bent about the major axis,
72

80
Chapter VI Check/Design for CISC94 when M u > 0.67 M p Mr

33
33
,
33
Mp = 1.15 M p 1- 0.28 Mu
33 33
Mp
33
, and
(CISC 13.6)
33
, (CISC 13.6)
= Mu .
Minor Axis of Bending For Class 2 sections of rectangular bars bent about their minor axis, Mr
22
= M p
22
= Z Fy .
22
Pipes and Circular Rods

For pipes and circular rods bent about any axis When M u > 0.67 M p Mr
33 33
,
33
Mp = 1.15 M p 1- 0.28 Mu
33 33
Mp
33
, and
(CISC 13.6)
33
, (CISC 13.6)
= Mu .
Channel Sections
Major Axis of Bending For Class 3 channel sections bent about the major axis, when M u > 0.67 M y Mr
33 33
,
33
My = 1.15 M y 1 0.28 Mu
33 33
My
33
, and
(CISC 13.6)
when M u 0.67 M y Mr
33
= Mu .

81
73
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual Minor Axis of Bending For Class 3 channel sections bent about their minor axis, Mr
22
=My
22
= S Fy .
22
T-shapes and double angles

Major Axis of Bending For Class 3 sections of T-shapes and double angles the factored major bending strength is assumed to be (CISC 13.6d), Mr = EI GJ B + 1 + B Fy S L
2 22 2 22
33
33
, where
B = 2.3( d L) I
J .
The positive sign for B applies for tension in stem of T-sections or outstanding legs of double angles (positive moments) and the negative sign applies for compression in stem (negative moments). Minor Axis of Bending For Class 3 sections of T-shapes and double angles the factored minor bending strength is assumed as, Mr
22
= Fy S
22
Single Angle and General Sections

For Class 3 single angles and for General sections, the factored major and minor direction bending strengths are assumed as, Mr Mr
33
= Fy S = Fy S
33
, and .
22
22
Shear Strengths
The factored shear strength, V r , for major direction shears in I-shapes, boxes and channels is evaluated as follows (CISC 13.4.1.1):
2
74

82
Chapter VI Check/Design for CISC94 h tw 439 kv , Fy (CISC 13.4.1.1) kv , Fy (CISC 13.4.1.1) kv , Fy (CISC 13.4.1.1)
For
V r = Aw {0.66F y } .
2
For 439
kv h < Fy tw
502 .
kv Fy V r = Aw 290 h tw
2
For 502
kv h < Fy tw
621
V r = Aw {Fcri + Ft } , where
2
Fcri = 290
kv Fy h tw
, and .
1 Ft = (0.5F y 0.866Fcri ) 1 + ( a/h )
Assuming no stiffener is used, the value of Ft is taken as zero. For k h > 621 v , tw Fy (CISC 13.4.1.1)
V r = Aw {Fcre + Ft } , where
2
Fcre =
180000 k v ( h/t w )
2
In the above equations, k v is the shear buckling coefficient, and it is defined as: kv = 4 + 5.34 , ( a / h)
2
a / h<1 a / h 1
k v = 5.34 +
4 , ( a / h)
2

83
75
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual and the aspect ratio a h is the ratio of the distance between the stiffeners to web depth. Assuming no stiffener is used, the value of k v is taken as 5.34. The factored shear strength for minor direction shears in I-shapes, boxes and channels is assumed as Vr
2
= 0.66 F y Av .
3
(CISC 13.4.2)
The factored shear strength for major and minor direction shears for all other sections is assumed as (CISC 13.4.2): Vr Vr
2
= 0.66 F y Av , and
2
(CISC 13.4.2) (CISC 13.4.2)
= 0.66 F y Av .
3

In the calculation of the axial force/biaxial moment capacity ratios, first, for each station along the length of the member, for each load combination, the actual member force/moment components are calculated. Then the corresponding capacities are calculated. Then, the capacity ratios are calculated at each station for each member under the influence of each of the design load combinations. The controlling compression and/or tension capacity ratio is then obtained, along with the associated station and load combination. A capacity ratio greater than 1.0 indicates exceeding a limit state. During the design, the effect of the presence of bolts or welds is not considered. Also, the joints are not designed.

From the factored axial loads and bending moments at each station and the factored strengths for axial tension and compression and major and minor bending, an interaction capacity ratio is produced for each of the load combinations as follows: Compressive Axial Load If the axial load is compressive, the capacity ratio for all sections except Class 1 I-shaped sections is given by: Cf Cr + U
13
33
Mr
12
22
33
Mr
(CISC 13.8.1)
22
76

84
Chapter VI Check/Design for CISC94 For Class 1 I-shaped sections the capacity is given by: Cf Cr + 0.85 U
13
33
Mr
+ 0.6
12
22
33
Mr
(CISC 13.8.2)
22
The above ratios are calculated for each of the following conditions and the largest ratio is reported: Cross-sectional Strength: M r and M r
33 22
are calculated assuming laterally braced members,
C r = AF y , and U
13
=U
12
=1.0 . are calculated assuming laterally braced members, and
Overall Member Strength: M r and M r

33 22
C r is evaluated with K =1.0 in the direction of bending. Lateral-Torsional Buckling Strength: K l only , and C r is calculated based on r
22 22 22
13
1.
For Class 1 I-shapes, the following ratio is also checked: M

f
33
Mr
22
33
Mr
(CISC 13.8.2)
22
In the above expressions, U =

1
, 1 - C f /C e
1
(CISC 13.8.3)
Ce =
1
EI , L
2 2
= 0.6 - 0.4 M a
M b 0.4 , and
M a M b is the ratio of the smaller to the larger moment at the ends of the member, M a M b being positive for double curvature bending and negative for single curvature bending. is assumed as 1.0 for beams with transverse load and when M b is zero.
1

85
77
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual The program defaults to 1.0 if the unbraced length, l, of the member is redefined by the user (i.e. it is not equal to the length of the member). The user can overwrite the value of for any member by specifying it. The factor U must be a positive number. Therefore C f must be less than C e . If this is not true, a failure condition is declared.
1 1 1
Tensile Axial Load If the axial load is tensile the capacity ratio is given by the larger of: T f Mf T + M r r assuming M r M f M r M f M r
33 33 33
22
33
Mr
22
(CISC 13.9)
and M r M
f
22
22
are calculated based on fully supported (l = 0), and

33
33
Mr M
f
22
Tf Z M A r
33
(for Class 1 and 2) or
(CISC 13.9)
33
22
33
Mr
22
Tf S M A r
33 33
(for Class 3).
(CISC 13.9)
For circular sections an SRSS combination is first made of the two bending components before adding the axial load component instead of the simple algebraic addition implied by the above interaction formulas.
Shear Stresses
From the factored shear force values and the factored shear strength values at each station, for each of the load combinations, shear capacity ratios for major and minor directions are produced as follows: Vf Vr
2
and
Vf Vr
78

86
C h a p t e r VII
Check/Design for BS 5950

This chapter describes the details of the structural steel design and stress check algorithms that are used by SAP2000 when the user selects the BS 5950 design code (BSI 1990). Various notations used in this chapter are described in Table VII-1. The design is based on user-specified loading combinations. But the program provides a set of default load combinations that should satisfy requirements for the design of most building type structures. In the evaluation of the axial force/biaxial moment capacity ratios at a station along the length of the member, first the actual member force/moment components and the corresponding capacities are calculated for each load combination. Then the capacity ratios are evaluated at each station under the influence of all load combinations using the corresponding equations that are defined in this section. The controlling capacity ratio is then obtained. A capacity ratio greater than 1.0 indicates exceeding a limit state. Similarly, a shear capacity ratio is also calculated separately. English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the code is based on Newton-Millimeter-Second units. For simplicity, all equations and descriptions presented in this chapter correspond to Newton-Millimeter-Second units unless otherwise noted.
79
87
A A A ,A B D
g v2
v3
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
E F F F G H I I J K K M M M M M M M M M M P P P P S T Y Z
t c t s
v2
,F
v3
33
22
33
,K
22
33
22
a 33
a 22
c 33
c 22
c 33
,P
c 22
v2
33
,P ,S
v3
22
33
,Z
22
Cross-sectional area, mm2 Gross cross-sectional area, mm2 2 Major and minor shear areas, mm Breadth, mm Depth of section, mm or outside diameter of pipes, mm Modulus of elasticity, MPa Axial compression, N Axial tension, N Major and minor shear loads, N Shear modulus, MPa 6 Warping constant, mm 4 Major moment of inertia, mm Minor moment of inertia, mm4 4 Torsional constant for the section, mm Effective length factor Major and minor effective length factors Applied moment, N-mm Applied moment about major axis, N-mm Applied moment about minor axis, N-mm Major maximum bending moment, N-mm Minor maximum bending moment, N-mm Buckling resistance moment, N-mm Moment capacity, N-mm Major moment capacity, N-mm Minor moment capacity, N-mm Elastic critical moment, N-mm Compression resistance, N Major and minor compression resistance, N Tension capacity, N Major and minor shear capacities, N Major and minor plastic section moduli, mm3 Thickness of flange or leg, mm Specified yield strength, MPa Major and minor elastic section moduli, mm3
Table VII-1 BS 5950 Notations
80
88
Chapter VII Check/Design for BS 5950
a b d h k l l ,l l ,l m n q q r ,r r t t t u v
33 e 33 e cr 33 z f w
22
e 22
22
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Robertson constant Outstand width, mm Depth of web, mm Story height, mm Distance from outer face of flange to web toe of fillet , mm Unbraced length of member, mm Major and minor direction unbraced member lengths, mm Major and minor effective lengths, mm ( K l , K l ) Equivalent uniform moment factor Slenderness correction factor Elastic critical shear strength of web panel, MPa Critical shear strength of web panel, MPa Major and minor radii of gyration, mm Minimum radius of gyration for angles, mm Thickness, mm Flange thickness, mm Thickness of web, mm Buckling parameter Slenderness factor Ratio of smaller to larger end moments
33 33 22 22
275 Constant
y
LT
Lo
LT
Slenderness parameter Limiting slenderness Equivalent slenderness Limiting equivalent slenderness Perry factor Perry coefficient Compressive strength, MPa Euler strength, MPa Yield strength, MPa Monosymmetry index
Table VII-1 BS 5950 Notations (cont.)
81
89

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the load cases for which the structure needs to be checked. According to the BS 5950 code, if a structure is subjected to dead load (DL), live load (LL), wind load (WL), and earthquake load (EL); and considering that wind and earthquake forces are reversible, then the following load combinations may have to be considered (BS 2.4): 1.4 DL 1.4 DL + 1.6 LL 1.0 DL 1.4 WL 1.4 DL 1.4 WL 1.2 DL + 1.2 LL 1.2 WL 1.0 DL 1.4 EL 1.4 DL 1.4 EL 1.2 DL + 1.2 LL 1.2 EL These are also the default design load combinations whenever BS 5950 Code is used. The user should use other appropriate loading combinations if roof live load is separately treated, other types of loads are present, or if pattern live loads are to be considered. Live load reduction factors can be applied to the member forces of the live load case on an element-by-element basis to reduce the contribution of the live load to the factored loading. In addition to the above load combinations, the code requires that all buildings should be capable of resisting a notional design horizontal load applied at each floor or roof level. The notional load should be equal to the maximum of 0.01 times the factored dead load and 0.005 times the factored dead plus live loads (BS 2.4.2.3). The notional forces should be assumed to act in any one direction at a time and should be taken as acting simultaneously with the factored dead plus vertical imposed live loads. They should not be combined with any other horizontal load cases (BS 5.1.2.3). It is recommended that the user should define additional load cases for considering the notional load in SAP2000 and define the appropriate design combinations. When using the BS 5950 code, SAP2000 design assumes that a P- analysis has already been performed, so that moment magnification factors for the moments causing side-sway can be taken as unity. It is suggested that the P- analysis be (BS 2.4.1.1)
(BS 2.4.1.1)
82

90
Chapter VII Check/Design for BS 5950 done at the factored load level corresponding to 1.2 dead load plus 1.2 live load. See also White and Hajjar (1991).
The nominal strengths for axial compression and flexure are dependent on the classification of the section as Plastic, Compact, Semi-compact, or Slender. SAP2000 checks the sections according to Table VII-2 (BS 3.5.2). In this Table: R is the ratio of mean longitudinal stress in the web to y in a semi-compact section. This implies that for a semi-compact section in pure bending R is zero. In calculating R, compression is taken as positive and tension is taken as negative. is given as 2 d, where is the distance from the plastic neutral axis to the edge of the web connected to the compression flange. For > 2 , the section is treated as having compression throughout.
c c
is defined as
(275 / )
y
1/ 2
The section is classified as either Class 1 (Plastic), Class 2 (Compact), or Class 3 (Semi-compact) as applicable. If a section fails to satisfy the limits for Class 3 (Semi-compact) sections, the section is classified as Class 4 (Slender). Currently SAP2000 does not check stresses for Slender sections.

The factored member loads that are calculated for each load combination are Ft or Fc , M , M , Fv , and Fv corresponding to factored values of the tensile or compressive axial load, the major moment, the minor moment, the major direction shear load, and the minor direction shear load, respectively. These factored loads are calculated at each of the previously defined stations.
33 22 2 3
The moment magnification for non-sidesway moments is included in the overall buckling interaction equations. 1 M = Mg + M s , where 1 200 s,max s,max Mg Ms = = = Maximum story-drift divided by the story-height, Factored moments not causing translation, and Factored moments causing sidesway. Classification of Sections
91
(BS 5.6.3)
83
GENERAL SOLID RECTANGLE
Ratio Checked
b T (Rolled) b T (welded)
Class 1 (Plastic)
Class 2 (Compact)
Class 3 (Semi-compact)
Assumed Semi-compact Assumed Compact 8.5 7.5 9.5 8.5 15 13 For R > 0 : 120 41 and - 13 (welded) 1 + 1.5R R 120 41 and - 2 (rolled) 1 + 1.5R R For R = 0: 120 120 and 250 For R < 0: (1 + R ) 39
d t webs ( < 2) I-SHAPE
79 0.4 + 0.6
98
d t webs ( 2) (rolled) d t webs ( 2) (welded) b T (Rolled) BOX b T (welded) d t
39
39
28 26 23 As for I-shapes As for I-shapes
28 32 25 As for I-shapes As for I-shapes
28
39 28 As for I-shapes As for I-shapes
CHANNEL
b T d t
Table VII-2 Classification of Sections According to BS 5950
84

92
T-SHAPE
Ratio Checked
b T d t b T
Class 1 (Plastic)
8.5 8.5 8.5
Class 2 (Compact)
9.5 9.5 9.5
Class 3 (Semi-compact)
19 19 15 23
ANGLE
b+d T D d t T
SOLID CIRCLE PIPE
Assumed Compact 40 8.5 57 9.5 80 15
DOUBLE ANGLE (separated)
b+d T
23
Table VII-2 (cont.) Classification of Sections According to BS 5950
The moment magnification factor for moments causing sidesway can be taken as unity if a P- analysis is carried out. SAP2000 design assumes a P- analysis has been done and, therefore, s max for both major and minor direction bending is taken as 0 in the following equation. It is suggested that the P- analysis be done at the factored load level of 1.2 DL plus 1.2 LL. See also White and Hajjar (1991).
,
Calculation of Section Capacities

The nominal strengths in compression, tension, bending, and shear are computed for Class 1, 2, and 3 sections according to the following subsections. By default, SAP2000 takes the design strength, y , to be 1.0 times the minimum yield strength of steel, Y s , as specified by the user. In inputting values of the yield strength, the user should ensure that the thickness and the ultimate strength limitations given in the code are satisfied (BS 3.1.1). y = 1.0 Y s (BS 3.1.1) Calculation of Section Capacities
93
85
d T
D T
d t t
d T
T d T D t b = B - 3t d = D - 3t b t d t
b tf d
b BS 5950 : Axes Conventions 3-3 is the cross-section axis parallel to the flanges or the smaller leg in angle sections. This is the same as the x-x axis. 2-2 is the cross-section axis perpendicular to the flanges or the smaller leg in angle sections. This is the same as the y-y axis.
2, y
3, x
z
3, x
2, y
Figure VII-1 BS 5950 Definition of GeometricProperties
86

94
Chapter VII Check/Design for BS 5950 For Class 4 (Slender) sections and any singly symmetric and unsymmetric sections requiring special treatment, such as the consideration of local buckling, flexuraltorsional and torsional buckling, or web buckling, reduced section capacities may be applicable. The user must separately investigate this reduction if such elements are used. If the user specifies nominal strengths for one or more elements in the Redefine Element Design Data, these values will override all above the mentioned calculated values for those elements as defined in the following subsections.
Compression Resistance
The compression resistance for plastic, compact, or semi-compact sections is evaluated as follows: Pc = Ag c , where c is the compressive strength given by c = = E y + ( - E y )
2
(BS 4.7.4)
, where
(BS C.1)
y + ( +1) E 2
,
2
E = a
0
Euler strength, E
,
2 0
= = =
Perry factor, 0.001 a ( - ) 0 , Robertson constant from Table VII-3, E , and Limiting slenderness, 0.2 y
2 33 33 33
(BS C.2)
(BS C.2)
is the slenderness ratio in either the major, = l e / r , or in the minor, = l e / r direction (BS 4.7.3.1). The larger of the two values is used in the above equations to calculate Pc .
22 22 22
For members in compression, if is greater than 180, a message to that effect is printed (BS 4.7.3.2). For single angles r z is used instead of r and r .
33 22

95
87
I-SHAPE (rolled) H-SHAPE (rolled) I-SHAPE (welded) BOX (welded) RECTANGULAR or CIRCLE ANGLE, CHANNEL, T-SHAPE GENERAL
Axis of Bending Thickness (mm) Major

any 40 > 40 40 > 40 40 > 40 40 > 40 any any 2.0 3.5 5.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 5.5 3.5 5.5 5.5 5.5
Minor
3.5 5.5 8.0 5.5 8.0 3.5 5.5 3.5 5.5 5.5 5.5
Table VII-3 Robertson Constant in BS 5950
Tension Capacity
The tension capacity of a member is given by Pt = Ag .
y
(BS 4.6.1)
It should be noted that no net section checks are made. For main members in tension, the slenderness, , should not be greater than 250 (BS 4.7.3.2). If is greater than 250, a message is displayed accordingly. The user may have to separately investigate the members which are connected eccentrically to the axis of the member, for example angle sections.
88

96
Moment Capacity
The moment capacities in the major and minor directions, M c and M c are based on the design strength and the section modulus, the co-existent shear and the possibility of local buckling of the cross-section. Local buckling is avoided by applying a limitation to the width/thickness ratios of elements of the cross-section. The moment capacities are calculated as follows:
33 22
Plastic and Compact Sections

For plastic and compact sections, the moment capacities about the major and the minor axes of bending depend on the shear force, Fv , and the shear capacity, Pv . For I-, Box-, and Channel-sections bending about the 3-3 axis the moment capacities considering the effects of shear force are computed as M c = y S 1.2 y Z , M c = y ( S S v ) 1.2 y Z ,
1
for for
Fv 0.6Pv , Fv > 0.6Pv ,
(BS 4.2.5) (BS 4.2.6)
where S Z = = Plastic modulus of the gross section about the relevant axis, Elastic modulus of the gross section about the relevant axis, Plastic modulus of the gross section about the relevant axis less the the plastic modulus of that part of the section remaining after deduction of shear area i.e. plastic modulus of shear area. For example, for rolled I-shapes S v is taken to be tD 4 and
2 2
Sv =
for welded I-shapes it is taken as td Pv =

1
4,
The shear capacity described later in this chapter, 2.5 Fv 1.5 . Pv
The combined effect of shear and axial forces is not being considered because practical situations do not warrant this. In rare cases, however, the user may have to investigate this independently, and if necessary, overwrite values of the section moduli.

97
89
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual For all other cases, the reduction of moment capacities for the presence of shear force is not considered. The user should investigate the reduced moment capacity separately. The moment capacity for these cases is computed in SAP2000 as M c = y S 1.2 y Z . (BS 4.2.5)
Semi-compact Sections
Reduction of moment capacity due to coexistent shear does not apply for semicompact sections. Mc = yZ (BS 4.2.5)
Lateral-Torsional Buckling Moment Capacity

The lateral torsional buckling resistance moment, M b , of a member is calculated from the following equations. The program assumes the members to be uniform (of constant properties) throughout their lengths. Furthermore members are assumed to be symmetrical about at least one axis. For I-, Box-, and Channel-sections M b is obtained from Mb = B = ME= LT = y S
2 33
ME
1/ 2 33
B + ( B - y S M E ) y S
33
, where
(BS B.2.1)
+ ( LT +1) M E 2
, S E
2 2
The elastic critical moment, The Perry coefficient.
33
LT
, and
(BS B2.2)
The Perry coefficient, LT , for rolled and welded sections is taken as follows: For rolled sections LT = b { LT L for welded sections LT = 2 b L
0 0
0 , and
(BS B2.2)
0, with b ( LT L ) LT 2 b ( LT L ).(BS B2.2)

0 0
90

98
Chapter VII Check/Design for BS 5950 In the above definition of LT , L and LT are the limiting equivalent slenderness and the equivalent slenderness, respectively, and b is a constant. b is taken as 0.007. For flanged members symmetrical about at least one axis and uniform throughout their length, L and LT are defined as follows:
0 0
L = 0.4
0
E , y
2
(BS B2.4) (BS B2.5)

22
LT = n u v , where is the slenderness and is equivalent to l e r .

22
n is the slenderness correction factor. For flanged members in general, not loaded between adjacent lateral restraints, and for cantilevers without intermediate lateral restraints, n is taken as 1.0. For members with equal flanges loaded between adjacent lateral restraints, the value of n is conservatively taken as given by the following formula. This, however, can be overwritten by the user for any member by specifying it (BS Table 13). n= Cb = 1 Cb , where 12.5 M max , and + 3 M A + 4 M B + 3 MC
2.5 M max
M max , M A , M B , and M C are absolute values of maximum moment, 1/4 point, center of span and 3/4 point major moments respectively, in the member. The program also defaults C b to 1.0 if the unbraced length, l, of the member is redefined by the user (i.e. it is not equal to the length of the member). C b should be taken as 1.0 for cantilevers. However, the program is unable to detect whether the member is a cantilever. The user can overwrite the value of C b for any member. u is the buckling parameter. It is conservatively taken as 0.9 for rolled Ishapes and channels. For any other section, u is taken as 1.0 (BS 4.3.7.5). v is the slenderness factor. It is given by the following formula for symmetric sections. This equation is a simplified version of equation (BS B.2.5). The torsional index used in the calculation of the slenderness factor is simplified to D T (BS 4.3.7.5).

99
91
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual v= 1 1 1 + 20 T D

2
"
(BS B.2.5)
For all other sections, lateral torsional buckling is not considered. The user should investigate moment capacity considering lateral-torsional buckling separately.
Shear Capacities
The shear capacities for both the major and minor direction shears in I-shapes, boxes or channels are evaluated as follows: Pv = 0.6 y Av , and
2 2
(BS 4.2.3) (BS 4.2.3)
Pv = 0.6 y Av .
3 3
Moreover, the shear capacity computed above is valid only if d t 63 , strictly speaking. For d t > 63 , the shear buckling of the thin members should be checked independently by the user in accordance with the code (BS 4.4.5).

Local Capacity Check

For members under axial load and moments, local capacity ratios are calculated as follows:
92

100
Under Axial Tension

A simplified approach allowed by the code is used to check the local capacity for plastic and compact sections. M Ft + Mc Ag y
33
33
M Mc
22
(BS 4.8.2)
22
Under Axial Compression

Similarly, the same simplified approach is used for axial compression. M Fc + Mc Ag y
33
33
M Mc
22
(BS 4.8.3.2)
22
Overall Buckling Check

In addition to local capacity checks, which are carried out at section level, a compression member with bending moments is also checked for overall buckling in accordance with the following interaction ratio: m M Fc + Ag c Mb
33 33
33
m M yZ
22
22
(BS 4.8.3.3.1)
22
The equivalent uniform moment factor, m, for members of uniform section and with flanges, not loaded between adjacent lateral restraints, is defined as m = 0.57 + 0.33 + 0.10 0.43 .
2
(BS Table 18)
For other members, the value of m is taken as 1.0. The program defaults m to 1.0 if the unbraced length, l, of the member is overwritten by the user (i.e. if it is not equal to the length of the member). The user can overwrite the value of m for any member by specifying it. is the ratio of the smaller end moment to the larger end moment on a span equal to the unrestrained length, being positive for single curvature bending and negative for double curvature bending.
Shear Capacity Check

From the factored shear force values and the shear capacity values at each station, shear capacity ratios for major and minor directions are produced for each of the load combinations as follows:

101
93
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual Fv , and Pv

2 2
Fv Pv
94

102
C h a p t e r VIII
Check/Design for EUROCODE 3

This chapter describes the details of the structural steel design and stress check algorithms that are used by SAP2000 when the user selects the Eurocode 3 design code (CEN 1992). The program investigates the limiting states of strength and stability but does not address the serviceability limit states. Various notations used in this chapter are described in Table VIII-1. The design is based on user-specified loading combinations. But the program provides a set of default load combinations that should satisfy requirements for the design of most building type structures. In the evaluation of the axial force/biaxial moment capacity ratios at a station along the length of the member, first the actual member force/moment components and the corresponding capacities are calculated for each load combination. Then the capacity ratios are evaluated at each station under the influence of all load combinations using the corresponding equations that are defined in this section. The controlling capacity ratio is then obtained. A capacity ratio greater than 1.0 indicates exceeding a limit state. Similarly, a shear capacity ratio is calculated separately. English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the code is based on Newton-Millimeter-Second units. For simplicity, all equations and descriptions presented in this chapter correspond to Newton-Millimeter-Second units unless otherwise noted.
95
103
A A ,A C E G I I I I K L K ,K M M M M M M M M M N N
v2 1 t w 33 22 33 b . Rd cr g Sd . s. Sd V . Sd 33 Sd . 22 Sd . 33 Rd . 22 Rd . b . Rd b 33 Rd .
v3
22
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
N N N N N N V V V
b 22 Rd .
c. Sd
c. Rd
t. Sd
t. Rd
pl. Rd
2 Sd .
3 Sd .
2 Rd .
Gross cross-sectional area, mm2 2 Areas for shear in the 2- and 3-directions, mm Bending coefficient Modulus of elasticity, MPa Shear modulus, MPa Torsion constant, mm4 Warping constant, mm6 Major moment of inertia, mm4 Minor moment of inertia, mm4 Effective length factor Length, span, mm Major and minor effective length factors Design buckling resistance moment, N-mm Elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling, N-mm Design moments not causing sidesway , N-mm Design moments causing sidesway, N-mm Design moment resistance after considering shear, N-mm Design value of moment about the major axis, N-mm Design value of moment about the minor axis, N-mm Design moment resistance about the major axis, N-mm Design moment resistance about the minor axis, N-mm Design buckling resistance of a compression member, N Design buckling resistance of a compression member about the major axis, N Design buckling resistance of a compression member about the minor axis, N Design value of compressive force, N Design compression resistance, N Design value of tensile force, N Design tension resistance, N Design plastic shear resistance, N Design value of shear force in the major direction, N Design value of shear force in the minor direction, N Design shear resistance in the major direction, N
Table VIII-1 Eurocode 3 Notations
96
104
Chapter VIII Check/Design for EUROCODE 3
V W ,W W ,W b c d f h l ,l i ,i i k ,k
3 Rd . el. 33 pl. 33 y 33 22 33 22 z 33 22
el. 22
pl. 22
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
LT
t t t ,
f w M0
M1
Design shear resistance in the minor direction, N Major and minor elastic section moduli, mm3 Major and minor plastic section moduli, mm3 Width, mm Distance, mm Depth of web, mm Nominal yield strength of steel, MPa Overall depth, mm Major and minor direction unbraced member lengths, mm Major and minor radii of gyration, mm Minimum radius of gyration for angles, mm Factors applied to the major and minor design moments in the interaction equations Factor applied to the major design moments in the interaction equation checking for failure due to lateral-torsional buckling Thickness, mm Flange thickness, mm Web thickness, mm Ratio used in classification of sections Material partial safety factors 235 f
y
( f in MPa)
y
ba
33 ,
22
LT
Reduction factor Post-critical shear strength, MPa Reduction factors for buckling about the 3-3 and 2-2 axes Reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling Ratio of smaller to larger end moment of unbraced segment Amplification factor for sway moments
Table VIII-1 Eurocode 3 Notations (cont.)
97
105

The design loading combinations define the various factored combinations of the load cases for which the structure is to be checked. The design loading combinations are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads with appropriate partial factors of safety. If a structure is subjected to dead load (DL) and live load (LL) only, the design will need only one loading combination, namely 1.35 DL + 1.5 LL. However, in addition to the dead load and live load, if the structure is subjected to wind (WL) or earthquake induced forces (EL), and considering that wind and earthquake forces are subject to reversals, the following load combinations may have to be considered (EC3 2.3.3): 1.35 DL 1.35 DL + 1.50 LL 1.35 DL 1.50 WL 1.00 DL 1.50 WL 1.35 DL + 1.35 LL 1.35 WL 1.00 DL 1.00 EL 1.00 DL + 1.5*0.3 LL 1.0 EL (EC3 2.3.3)
(EC3 2.3.3) (EC3 2.3.3)
In fact, these are the default load combinations which can be used or overwritten by the user to produce other critical design conditions. These default loading combinations are produced for persistent and transient design situations (EC3 2.3.2.2) by combining forces due to dead, live, wind, and earthquake loads for ultimate limit states. See also section 9.4 of Eurocode 1 (CEN 1994) and Table 1, 3, and 4 and section 4 of United Kingdom National Application Document (NAD). The default load combinations will usually suffice for most building design. The user should use other appropriate loading combinations if roof live load is separately treated, other types of loads are present, or if pattern live loads are to be considered. Live load reduction factors can be applied to the member forces of the live load case on an element-by-element basis to reduce the contribution of the live load to the factored loading. In addition to the loads described earlier, equivalent lateral load cases for geometric imperfection should be considered by the user. This equivalent load is similar to the notional load of the British code, and depends on the number of stories and number of columns in any floor (EC3 5.2.4.3). Additional load combinations are also needed for these load cases.
98

106
Chapter VIII Check/Design for EUROCODE 3 When using Eurocode 3, SAP2000 design assumes that a P- analysis has been performed so that moment magnification factors for moments causing sidesway can be taken as unity. It is suggested that the P- analysis should be done at the factored load level corresponding to 1.35 dead load plus 1.35 live load. See also White and Hajjar (1991).
The design strength of a cross-section subject to compression due to moment or axial load depends on its classification as Class 1 (Plastic), Class 2 (Compact), Class 3 (Semi-compact), or Class 4 (Slender). According to Eurocode 3, the classification of sections depends on the classification of flange and web elements. The classification also depends on whether the compression elements are in pure compression, pure bending, or under the influence of combined axial force and bending (EC3 5.3.2). SAP2000 conservatively classifies the compression elements for only pure compression according to Table VIII-2 and for pure bending according to Table VIII-3, depending on whether the member is a column or a beam. The section dimensions used in the tables are given in Figure VIII-1. If the section dimensions satisfy the limits shown in the tables, the section is classified as Class 1, Class 2, or Class 3 as applicable. A cross-section is classified by reporting the highest (least favorable) class of its compression elements. If a section fails to satisfy the limits for Class 3 sections, the section is classified as Class 4. Currently SAP2000 does not check stresses for Class 4 sections. One of the major factors in determining the limiting width-thickness ratio is . This parameter is used to reflect the influence of yield stress on the section classification. = 235 fy (EC3 5.3.2)
Calculation of Factored Forces

The internal design loads which are calculated for each load combination are N t Sd or N c Sd , M Sd , M Sd , V Sd and V Sd corresponding to design values of the tensile or compressive axial load, the major moment, the minor moment, the major direction shear and the minor direction shear respectively. These design loads are calculated at each of the previously defined stations of each frame element.
. . 33. 22. 2. 3.
107
99
Section GENERAL RECTANGLE
Element C C web
Ratio Checked None None d tM c t B (rolled)
Class 1
Class 2 Assumed Class 3 Assumed Class 2
Class 3
33 10 9 33 42 42 33 10 33 10 9 Not applicable
38 11 10 38 42 42 38 11 38 11 10 Not applicable Assumed Class 1
42 15 14 42 42 42 42 15 42 15 14 15 11.5
I-SHAPE flange
c t B (welded) web BOX flange d tM (b 3t B ) t B (rolled) b t B (welded) web CHANNEL flange web T-SHAPE flange b 2t B (welded) ANGLE ROUND BAR PIPE DOUBLE ANGLES C C C C ht (b + h) (2t ) None d t ht (b + h) (2t ) b tB d tM b 2t B (rolled) d tM
50
702 Not applicable
902 15 11.5
Not applicable
Table VIII-2 Classification of Sections According to Eurocode 3 Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Compression Elements
100

108
Section GENERAL RECTANGLE
Element C C web
Ratio Checked None None d tM c t B (rolled)
Class 1
Class 2 Assumed Class 3 Assumed Class 2
Class 3
72 10 9 72 33 33 72 33 10 33 10 9 Not applicable
83 11 10 83 38 38 83 38 11 38 11 10 Not applicable Assumed Class 1
124 15 14 124 42 42 124 42 15 42 15 14 15.0 11.5
I-SHAPE flange
c t B (welded) web BOX flange b t B (welded) d tM (Major axis) web CHANNEL flange web T-SHAPE flange b 2t B (welded) ANGLE ROUND BAR PIPE DOUBLE ANGLES C C C C ht (b + h) (2t ) None d t ht (b + h) (2t ) d tM (Minor axis) b tB d tM b 2t B (rolled) d tM (b 3t B ) t B (rolled)
50
702 Not applicable
902 15.0 11.5
Not applicable
Table VIII-3 Classification of Sections According to Eurocode 3 Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Flexure Elements Calculation of Factored Forces
109
101

b b
d tf
tw
h tf
tw
tw
d tf
tf d tf tw h t = tw = tf h
r tw
d = h - 3t
b tf h
b EUROCODE 3 : Axes Conventions 3-3 is the cross-section axis parallel to the flanges or the smaller leg in angle sections. This is the same as the y-y axis. 2-2 is the cross-section axis perpendicular to the flanges or the smaller leg in angle sections. This is the same as the z-z axis.
2, z
3, y
z
3, y
2, z
Figure VIII-1 Eurocode 3 Definition of Geometric Properties
102

110
Chapter VIII Check/Design for EUROCODE 3 The design moments and forces need to be corrected for second order effects. This correction are different for the so called sway and nonsway components of the moments. The code requires that the additional sway moments introduced by the horizontal deflection of the top of a story relative to the bottom must be taken into account in the elastic analysis of the frame in one of the following ways (EC3 5.2.6.2): Directly C by carrying out the global frame analysis using P-D analysis. Member design can be carried out using inplane buckling lengths for nonsway mode. Indirectly C by modifying the results of a linear elastic analysis using an approximate method which makes allowance for the second order effects. There are two alternative ways to do this C amplified sway moment method or sway mode inplane buckling method. The advantage of the direct second order elastic analysis is that this method avoids uncertainty in approximating the buckling length and also avoids splitting up moments into their sway and nonsway components. SAP2000 design assumes that P-D effects are included in the analysis. Therefore any magnification of sidesway moments due to second order effects is already accounted for, i. e. s in the following equation is taken as 1.0. It is suggested that the P- analysis be done at the factored load level of 1.35 DL plus 1.35 LL. See also White and Hajjar (1991). However, the user can overwrite the values of s for both major and minor direction bending in which case M Sd in a particular direction is taken as: M Sd = M g.Sd + s M s.Sd , where M g Sd M s Sd
. .
(EC3 5.2.6.2)
= =
Design moments not causing translation, and Design moments causing sidesway.
Moment magnification for non-sidesway moments is included in the overall buckling interaction equations. Sway moments are produced in a frame by the action of any load which results in sway displacements. The horizontal loads can be expected always to produce sway moments. However, they are also produced by vertical loads if either the load or the frame are unsymmetrical. In the case of a symmetrical frame with symmetrical vertical loads, the sway moments are simply the internal moments in the frames due to the horizontal loads (EC3 5.2.6.2).

111
103
Calculation of Section Resistances

The nominal strengths in compression, tension, bending, and shear are computed for Class 1, 2, and 3 sections according to the following subsections. The material partial safety factors used by the program are: M = 1.1, and M = 1.1.
0 1
(EC3 5.1.1) (EC3 5.1.1)
For Class 4 (Slender) sections and any singly symmetric and unsymmetric sections requiring special treatment, such as the consideration of local buckling, flexuraltorsional and torsional buckling, or web buckling, reduced section capacities may be applicable. The user must separately investigate this reduction if such elements are used. If the user specifies nominal capabilities for one or more elements in the Redefine Element Design Data, these values are will override all the above mentioned calculated values for those elements as defined in the following subsections.
Tension Capacity
The design tension resistance for all classes of sections is evaluated in SAP2000 as follows: N t.Rd = A f y M
0
(EC3 5.4.3)
It should be noted that the design ultimate resistance of the net cross-section at the holes for fasteners is not computed and checked. The user is expected to investigate this independently.
Compression Resistance
The design compressive resistance of the cross-section is taken as the smaller of the design plastic resistance of the gross cross-section (N pl Rd ) and the design local buckling resistance of the gross cross-section (N b Rd ).
. .
N c Rd = min ( N pl Rd N b Rd )
. . , .
(EC3 5.4.4)
The plastic resistance of Class 1, Class 2, and Class 3 sections is given by N pl.Rd = A f y
M0
(EC3 5.4.4)
104

112
Chapter VIII Check/Design for EUROCODE 3 The design buckling resistance of a compression member is taken as N b.Rd = min A f y
A
M , where
1
(EC3 5.5.1)
A = 1,
for Class 1, 2 or 3 cross-sections.
is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode. This factor is calculated below based on the assumption that all members are of uniform crosssection. = 1 +[ - ]
2 2
1 , in which
2
(EC3 5.5.1.2)
= 0.5 [1 + ( 0.2 ) + ] , = [A ]
1 0.5
, l
33
33
i i the lesser of the two.

33
or
22
22
. The two values of give and . min is

3 2
22
l 1 , K is conservatively taken as 1 in SAP2000 design (EC3 L 5.5.1.5). The user can, however, override this default option if it is deemed necessary. An accurate estimate of K can be obtained from the Annex E of the code. K= l is the buckling length, L is the length of the column, i is the radius of gyration about the neutral axis, and is determined using the properties of the gross cross-section, E = , and fy
1
is an imperfection factor and is obtained from Table VIII-4. Values of this factor for different types of sections, axes of buckling, and thickness of materials are obtained from Tables 5.5.1 and 5.5.3 of the code.

113
105
Section GENERAL RECTANGLE I-SHAPE (rolled) h/b > 1.2 I-SHAPE (rolled) h/b 1.2
Limits
any any tf 40 mm tf > 40 mm tf 100 mm tf > 100 mm tf 40 mm
(major axis)
0.49 0.49 0.21 0.34 0.34 0.76 0.34 0.49 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.21 0.49
(minor axis)
0.49 0.49 0.34 0.49 0.49 0.76 0.49 0.76 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.21 0.49
I-SHAPE (welded)
tf > 40 mm Rolled
BOX
welded
CHANNEL T-SHAPE ANGLE ROUND BAR PIPE

DOUBLE ANGLES
any any any any any any
Table VIII-4 The factor for different sections and different axes of buckling
106

114
Chapter VIII Check/Design for EUROCODE 3 Angle, Channel, and T-sections in compression are subjected to an additional moment due to the shift of the centroidal axis of the effective cross-section (EC3 5.4.4). SAP2000 does not currently considers this eccentricity. The user is expected to investigate this issue separately.
Shear Capacity
The design shear resistance of a section is the minimum of the plastic shear capacity and the buckling shear capacity. For all types of sections, the plastic shear resistance is computed as V Rd = V pl.Rd = Av f y 3 M ,
0
(EC3 5.4.6)
where Av is the effective shear area for the section and the appropriate axis of bending. The buckling shear capacities are only computed for the I-, Box-, and Channelsections if the width-thickness ratio is large (d t w > 69). The capacities are computed as V Rd = V ba.Rd = d t w ba M ,
1
(for
d > 69 ) tw
(EC3 5.6.3)
where, ba is the simple post-critical shear strength which is determined as follows: ba = f yw 3 , for w 0.8 , (EC3 5.6.3) (EC3 5.6.3) (EC3 5.6.3)
ba = 1 0.625 ( w - 0.8 ) ba = 0.9
[ [
f yw 3
for 0.8 < w < 1.2 , and for w 1.2 .
f yw 3
in which w is the web slenderness ratio, w = d tw 37.4 k , and (EC3 5.6.3)
and k is the buckling factor for shear. For webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports but no intermediate transverse stiffeners, k = 5.34 . (EC3 5.6.3) Calculation of Section Resistances
115
107
Moment Resistance
The moment resistance in the major and minor directions is based on the section classification. Moment capacity is also influenced by the presence of shear force and axial force at the cross section. If the shear force is less than half of the shear capacity, the moment capacity is almost unaffected by the presence of shear force. If the shear force is greater than half of the shear capacity, additional factors need to be considered. If V Sd 0.5V pl.Rd For Class 1 and Class 2 Sections M c Rd = M pl Rd = W pl f y
. .
M0
(EC3 5.4.5.2)
For Class 3 Sections M c Rd = M el Rd = W el f y

. .
M0
(EC3 5.4.5.2)
If V Sd > 0.5V pl.Rd For I-, Box-, and Channel-sections bending about the 3-3 axis the moment capacities considering the effects of shear force are computed as MV
Rd
Av f y = W pl 4t w M
2 2
M c Rd , where
. 0
(EC3 5.4.7)
2 V = Sd -1 . V pl.Rd For all other cases, the reduction of moment capacities for the presence of shear force is not considered. The user should investigate the reduced moment capacity separately.
Lateral-torsional Buckling
For the determination of lateral-torsional buckling resistance, it is assumed that the section is uniform, doubly symmetric, under standard conditions of restraint at each end, and loaded through its shear center. The lateral-torsional buckling resistance of a beam is evaluated as, M b.Rd = LT w W pl. f y
33
M , where
1
(EC3 5.5.2)
108

116
Chapter VIII Check/Design for EUROCODE 3 w = 1, w = LT = W el. W pl.

33
for Class 1 and Class 2 sections, , 1 for Class 3 sections, 1 , in which

2
33
LT + [ LT - LT ]
2 2
LT = 0.5 1 + LT ( LT 0.2 ) + LT LT = 0.21, LT = 0.49 , LT

33
] , where
for rolled sections, for welded sections, and

0 5
w W pl. f y = M cr EI
2 1 22
, where
0 5
M cr = C
Iw L G It + EI I
2 2 22 22
(EC3 F1.1)
I t = The torsion constant, I w = The warping constant, L C

1
= Laterally unbraced length for buckling about the minor axis, = 1.88 -1.40 + 0.52
2
2.7 , and
Ma . Mb varies between -1 and 1 (1 1). A negative value implies double curvature. M a and M b are end moments of the unbraced segment and M a is less M than M b , a being negative for double curvature bending and positive for M b = The ratio of smaller to larger end moment of unbraced segment,
1 1
single curvature bending. If any moment within the segment is greater than M b , C is taken as 1.0. The program defaults C to 1.0 if the unbraced length, l of the member is overwritten by the user (i.e. it is not equal to the length of the member). C should be taken as 1.0 for cantilevers. However, the program is unable to detect whether the member is a cantilever. The user can overwrite the value of C for any member by specifying it.
1 1

117
109
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual If LT 0.4 , no allowance for lateral torsional buckling is required by code and is not made in the design.

Bending, Axial Compression, and Low Shear

When the design value of the coexisting shear, V Sd , is less than half of the corresponding capacities for plastic resistance, V pl Rd and buckling resistance, V ba Rd , i.e.
. .
V Sd 0.5V pl Rd , and
.
(EC3 5.4.9) (EC3 5.4.9)
V Sd 0.5V ba Rd ,
.
the capacity ratios are computed for different types of sections as follows: For Class 1 and Class 2 sections, the capacity ratio is conservatively taken as M N c.Sd + M pl. N pl.Rd
33
.Sd Rd
33.
M M pl.
22
.Sd Rd
(EC3 5.4.8.1)
22.
For Class 3 sections, the capacity ratio is conservatively taken as M .Sd M .Sd N c.Sd , where + + W el. f yd W el. f yd Af yd
33 22 33 22
(EC3 5.4.8.1)
f yd =
fy M
0
110

118
Bending, Axial Compression, and High Shear

When the design value of the coexisting shear, V Sd , is more than half the corresponding capacities for plastic resistance, V pl Rd or buckling resistance, V ba Rd , the shear is considered to be high, i.e. the shear is high if
. .
V Sd > 0.5 V pl Rd , or
.
(EC3 5.4.9) (EC3 5.4.9)
V Sd > 0.5 V ba Rd .
.
Under these conditions, the capacity ratios are computed for different types of sections as follows (EC3 5.4.9): For Class 1, 2, and 3 sections, the capacity ratio is conservatively taken as M N c.Sd + M V. N pl.Rd
33 33
.Sd .Rd
33
M M V.
22
.Sd .Rd
, where
(EC3 5.4.8.1)
22
M V. .Rd and M V. .Rd are the design moment resistances about the major and and the minor axes, respectively, considering the effect of high shear (see page 108).
22
Bending, Compression, and Flexural Buckling

For all members of Class 1, 2, and 3 sections subject to axial compression, N Sd , major axis bending, M Sd , and minor axis bending, M Sd , the capacity ratio is given by
33. 22.
k M N c.Sd + N b.min.Rd M c.
33 . .
33
.Sd
33
.Rd
k M M c.
22
22
.Sd
, where
(EC3 5.5.4)
22
.Rd
N b min Rd = min {N b = k k M , M
0 1
. 33.
Rd
, Nb
. 22.
Rd
},
33
=1 =1 -
33
33
N c.Sd 1.5 , Afy N c.Sd 1.5 , Afy
22
22
22

119
111
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual W pl. - W el. (2 M. - 4 ) + W el.

33 33 33 22
33
33
33
0.9 , (Class 1 and Class 2), 0.9 , (Class 1 and Class 2), (for Class 3 sections), (for Class 3 sections),
22
W pl. - W el. = ( 2 M. - 4 ) + W el.

22 22 22
22
33
= =
33
33
( 2 M. - 4 ) 0.9 ,
33
22
22
( 2 M. - 4 ) 0.9 ,
22
M. = Equivalent uniform moment factor for flexural buckling about the 3-3 (major) axis between points braced in 2-2 direction, and M. = Equivalent uniform moment factor for flexural buckling about the 2-2 (minor) axis between points braced in 3-3 direction.
22
The equivalent uniform moment factors, M. and M. , are determined from

33 22
M = (1.8 0.7 )+
MQ M
( 0.7 0.5 ) , and
M Q = Absolute maximum moment due to lateral load only assuming simple support at the ends, = Absolute value of the ratio of smaller to larger end moment. varies between -1 and 1 (1 1). A negative value implies double curvature.
M = Absolute maximum value of moment for moment diagram without change of sign, and M = Sum of absolute maximum and absolute minimum value of moments for moment diagram with change of sign.
Bending, Compression, and Lateral-Torsional Buckling

For all members of Class 1, 2, and 3 sections subject to axial compression, N Sd , major axis bending, M Sd , and minor axis bending, M Sd , the capacity ratio is given by
33. 22.
k M k M .Sd N c.Sd + + LT M b Rd N b. Rd M c.
33 22 22. .
22
.Sd
, where
(EC3 5.5.4)
22
.Rd
112

120
Chapter VIII Check/Design for EUROCODE 3 k and are as defined in the previous subsection Bending, Compression, and Flexural Buckling,
22
k LT = 1 -
LT N c.Sd Afy
22 22
1 , where
LT = 0.15
M.LT - 0.15 0.9 , and
M.LT = Equivalent uniform moment factor for lateral-torsional buckling. It is determined for bending about the y-y axis and between two points braced in the y-y direction.
Bending, Axial Tension, and Low Shear

When the design value of the coexisting shear, V Sd , is less than half of the corresponding capacities for plastic resistance, V pl Rd and buckling resistance, V ba Rd , i.e.
. .
V Sd 0.5V pl Rd , and
.
(EC3 5.4.9) (EC3 5.4.9)
V Sd 0.5V ba Rd ,
.
the capacity ratios are computed for different types of sections as follows: For Class 1 and Class 2 sections, the capacity ratio is conservatively taken as M N t.Sd + M pl. N t.Rd
33
.Sd Rd
33.
M M pl.
22
.Sd Rd
(EC3 5.4.8.1)
22.
For Class 3 sections, the capacity ratio is conservatively taken as M .Sd M .Sd N t.Sd . + + W el. f yd W el. f yd Af yd
33 22 33 22
(EC3 5.4.8.1)
Bending, Axial Tension, and High Shear

When the design values of the coexisting shear, V Sd , is more than half the corresponding capacities for plastic resistance, V pl Rd or buckling resistance, V ba Rd , the shear is considered to be high, i.e. the shear is high if
. .
V Sd > 0.5 V pl Rd , or
.
(EC3 5.4.9) (EC3 5.4.9)
V Sd > 0.5 V ba Rd .
.

121
113
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual Under these conditions, the capacity ratios are computed for different types of sections as follows (EC3 5.4.9): For Class 1, 2, and 3 sections, the capacity ratio is conservatively taken as M N t.Sd + M V. N t.Rd
33
.Sd .Rd
33
M M V.
22
.Sd .Rd
(EC3 5.4.8.1)
22
Bending, Axial Tension, and Lateral-Torsional Buckling

The axial tensile force has a beneficial effect for lateral-torsional buckling. In order to check whether the member fails under lateral-torsional buckling, the effective internal moment about the 3-3 axis is calculated as follows: M eff
. 33.
Sd
=M
33.
Sd
vec
N t Sd W com A
.
. 33
, where
(EC3 5.5.3)
vec = 0.8 (according to the EC3 box value), and W com

. 33
is the elastic section modulus for the extreme compression fiber.

.
For all members of Class 1, 2, and 3 sections subject to axial tension, N t Sd , major axis bending, M Sd , and minor axis bending, M Sd , the capacity ratio is taken as
33. 22.
k M k M .Sd N t.Sd + + LT M b.Rd N t.Rd M c.

33 22
22
.Sd
vec k LT
22
.Rd
N t Sd W com A M b Rd
. .
. 33
(EC3 5.5.4)
where k LT , k
22
and are as defined in the previous subsections.
Shear
From the design values of shear force at each station, for each of the load combinations and the shear resistance values, shear capacity ratios for major and minor directions are produced as follows: V V
2
.Sd .Rd
and
V V
.Sd .Rd
114

122
C h a p t e r IX
Design Output
Overview
SAP2000 creates design output in three different major formats graphical display, tabular output, and member specific detailed design information. The graphical display of steel design output includes input and output design information. Input design information includes design section labels, K-factors, live load reduction factors, and other design parameters. The output design information includes axial force-bending moment interaction ratios and shear stress ratios. All graphical output can be printed. The tabular output can be saved in a file or printed. The tabular output includes most of the information which can be displayed. This is generated for added convenience to the designer. The member specific detailed design information shows details of the calculation from the designers point of view. It shows the design section dimensions, material properties, design and allowable stresses or factored and nominal strengths, and some intermediate results for all the load combinations at all the design sections of a specific frame member.
Overview
123
115
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual In the following sections, some of the typical graphical display, tabular output, and member specific detailed design information are described. Some of the design information is specific to the chosen steel design codes which are available in the program and is only described where required. The AISC-ASD89 design code is described in the latter part of this chapter. For all other codes, the design outputs are similar.
Graphical Display of Design Output

The graphical output can be produced either as color screen display or in grayscaled printed form. Moreover, the active screen display can be sent directly to the printer. The graphical display of design output includes input and output design information. Input design information, for the AISC-ASD89 code, includes Design section labels, K-factors for major and minor direction of buckling, Unbraced Length Ratios, C m -factors, C b -factors, Live Load Reduction Factors, s -factors, b -factors, design type, allowable stresses in axial, bending, and shear. The output design information which can be displayed is Color coded P-M interaction ratios with or without values, and Color coded shear stress ratios. The graphical displays can be accessed from the Design menu. For example, the color coded P-M interaction ratios with values can be displayed by selecting the Display Design Info... from the Design menu. This will pop up a dialog box called Display Design Results. Then the user should switch on the Design Output option button (default) and select P-M Ratios Colors & Values in the drop-down box. Then clicking the OK button will show the interaction ratios in the active window.
116
Graphical Display of Design Output

124
Chapter IX Design Output The graphics can be displayed in either 3D or 2D mode. The SAP2000 standard view transformations are available for all steel design input and output displays. For switching between 3D or 2D view of graphical displays, there are several buttons on the main toolbar. Alternatively, the view can be set by choosing Set 3D View... from the View menu. The graphical display in an active window can be printed in gray scaled black and white from the SAP2000 program. To send the graphical output directly to the printer, click on the Print Graphics button in the File menu. A screen capture of the active window can also be made by following the standard procedure provided by the Windows operating system.
Tabular Display of Design Output

The tabular design output can be sent directly either to a printer or to a file. The printed form of tabular output is the same as that produced for the file output with the exception that for the printed output font size is adjusted. The tabular design output includes input and output design information which depends on the design code of choice. For the AISC-ASD89 code, the tabular output includes the following. All tables have formal headings and are self-explanatory, so further description of these tables is not given. Input design information includes the following: Load Combination Multipliers Combination name, Load types, and Load factors. Steel Stress Check Element Information (code dependent) Frame ID, Design Section ID, K-factors for major and minor direction of buckling, Unbraced Length Ratios, C m -factors, C b -factors, and Live Load Reduction Factors. Steel Moment Magnification Factors (code dependent) Tabular Display of Design Output
125
117
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual Frame ID, Section ID, Framing Type, b -factors, and s -factors. The output design information includes the following: Steel Stress Check Output (code dependent) Frame ID, Section location, Controlling load combination ID for P-M interaction, Tension or compression indication, Axial force-bending moment interaction ratio, Controlling load combination ID for major and minor shear forces, and Shear stress ratios. The tabular output can be accessed by selecting Print Design Tables... from the File menu. This will pop up a dialog box. Then the user can specify the design quantities for which the results are to be tabulated. By default, the output will be sent to the printer. If the user wants the output stream to be redirected to a file, he/she can check the Print to File box. This will provide a default filename. The default filename can be edited. Alternatively, a file list can be obtained by clicking the File Name button to chose a file from. Then clicking the OK button will direct the tabular output to the requested stream C the file or the printer.
Member Specific Information

The member specific design information shows the details of the calculation from the designers point of view. It provides an access to the geometry and material data, other input data, design section dimensions, design and allowable stresses, reinforcement details, and some of the intermediate results for a member. The design detail information can be displayed for a specific load combination and for a specific station of a frame member. The detailed design information can be accessed by right clicking on the desired frame member. This will pop up a dialog box called Steel Stress Check Information which includes the following tabulated information for the specific member.
118

126
Chapter IX Design Output Frame ID, Section ID, Load combination ID, Station location, Axial force-bending moment interaction ratio, and Shear stress ratio along two axes. Additional information can be accessed by clicking on the ReDesign and Details buttons in the dialog box. Additional information that is available by clicking on the ReDesign button is as follows: Design Factors (code dependent) Effective length factors, K, for major and minor direction of buckling, Unbraced Length Ratios, C m -factors, C b -factors, Live Load Reduction Factors, s -factors, and b -factors. Element Section ID Element Framing Type Overwriting allowable stresses Additional information that is available by clicking on the Details button is given below. Frame, Section, Station, and Load Combination IDs, Section geometric information and graphical representation, Material properties of steel, Moment factors, Design and allowable stresses for axial force and biaxial moments, and Design and allowable stresses for shear.

127
119
128
References
AISC, 1989 Manual of Steel Construction, Allowable Stress Design, 9th Edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, Ill, 1989. AISC, 1994 Manual of Steel Construction, Load & Resistance Factor Design, 2nd Edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, Ill, 1994. BSI, 1990 Structural Use of Steelwork in Building, Part 1, Code of Practice for Design in Simple and Continuous Construction: Hot Rolled Sections, BS 5950 : Part 1 : 1990, British Standards Institution, London, UK, 1990. CEN, 1992 Design of Steel Structures, Part 1.1 : General Rules and Rules for Buildings, ENV 1993-1-1 : 1992, European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium, 1992. CISC, 1995 Handbook of Steel Construction, CAN/CSA-S16.1-94, 6th Edition, Canadian Institute of Steel Construction, Willodale, Ontario, Canada, 1995.
121
129
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual CSI, 1997a SAP2000 Getting Started, Computers and Structures, Inc., Berkeley, California, 1997. CSI, 1997b SAP2000 Analysis Reference, Vols. I and II, Computers and Structures, Inc., Berkeley, California, 1997. ICBO, 1997 Uniform Building Code, 1997, International Conference of Building Officials, Whittier, California, 1997. D. W. White and J. F. Hajjar, 1991 Application of Second-Order Elastic Analysis in LRFD: Research to Practice, Engineering Journal, American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., Vol. 28, No. 4, 1991.
122
130
Index
Automatic member selection, 19 Bending strength ASD (allowable), 40 BS, 89 CISC, 71 Eurocode, 108 LRFD, 57 Braced frames, 28 BS, 85 CISC, 67 Eurocode, 103 LRFD, 54 Capacity ratio, 2, 27 ASD, 33, 44 BS, 79, 92 CISC, 63, 76 Eurocode, 95, 110 LRFD, 47, 61 Check stations, 27 Classification of sections ASD, 36 BS, 83 CISC, 67 Eurocode, 99 LRFD, 50 Compact section See Classification of sections Compressive strength ASD (allowable), 39 BS, 87 CISC, 70 Eurocode, 104 LRFD, 55 Demonstration accessing detailed information, 14 analysis, 10 automatic member selection, 19 editing member properties, 16, 19 reanalysis, 21 redesign, 15 stress check, 12 Design output, 115 graphical, 116 member specific, 118 tabular, 117 Effective length factor, 30 Euler buckling load ASD, 40 BS, 87 LRFD, 54
123
131
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual Factored forces and moments BS, 83 CISC, 67 Eurocode, 99 LRFD, 54 Flexural buckling ASD, 39 CISC, 70, 87 Eurocode, 104 Graphical output, 116 Interaction equations See Capacity ratio Interactive environment, 1 Lateral drift effect, 28 See Also P-Delta analysis Lateral-torsional buckling ASD, 40 BS, 90 CISC, 71 Eurocode, 108 LRFD, 57 Live load reduction factor, 27, 36, 50, 66, 82, 98 Loading combinations, 1, 26 ASD, 36 BS, 82 CISC, 66 Eurocode, 98 LRFD, 50 Member specific output, 118 Member stability effect, 28 See Also P-Delta analysis Moment magnification BS, 83 CISC, 67 Eurocode, 103 LRFD, 54 Noncompact section See Classification of sections Nonsway, 28 BS, 85 CISC, 67 Eurocode, 103 LRFD, 54 Notional load BS, 82 CISC, 66 Eurocode, 98 Output, 2 details, 14, 119 graphical, 115 member specific, 13 tabular, 115 P-Delta analysis, 28 BS, 82, 85 CISC, 66 - 67 Eurocode, 99, 103 LRFD, 50, 55 P-Delta effects, 28 Perry factor, 87 Plastic section See Classification of sections Redesign, 119 Robertson constant, 87 Second order effects See P-Delta effects Shear strength ASD (allowable), 43 BS, 92 CISC, 74 Eurocode, 107 LRFD, 60 Slender section See Classification of sections
124
132
Index Strength reduction factors BS (partial factors), 85 CISC, 67 Euro (partial factors), 104 LRFD, 55 Supported design codes, 1 ASD, 25, 33 BS, 25, 79 CISC, 25, 63 Eurocode, 25, 95 LRFD, 25, 47 Sway, 28 BS, 85 CISC, 67 Eurocode, 103 LRFD, 54 Tabular output, 117 Tensile strength ASD (allowable), 40 BS, 88 CISC, 70 Eurocode, 104 LRFD, 56 Unbraced frames, 28 BS, 85 CISC, 67 Eurocode, 103 LRFD, 54 Units, 2, 32 ASD, 33 BS, 79 CISC, 63 Eurocode, 95 LRFD, 47 Unsupported length, 28
125
133

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SAP2000

Integrated Finite Element Analysis and Design of Structures

STEEL DESIGN MANUAL

COMPUTERS & STRUCTURES INC.

Computers and Structures, Inc. Berkeley, California, USA

Version 6.1 February 1998

CHAPTER III Design Algorithms

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual CHAPTER IV Check/Design for AISC-ASD89

CHAPTER V Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

CHAPTER VI Check/Design for CISC94

CHAPTER VII Check/Design for BS 5950

CHAPTER VIII Check/Design for EUROCODE 3

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

CHAPTER IX Design Output

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Description of the Model

Description of the Model

Chapter II Quick Tutorial

25'-0" Pinned Connection

All columns are W14x132

Figure II-1 Description of the Model (Tutorial Example)

Description of the Model

Starting the Tutorial

Opening the Model Database File

Starting the Tutorial

Opening the Model Database File

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Analyzing the Model

Analyzing the Model

Selecting the Design Code

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Starting Design and Stress Check

Starting Design and Stress Check

Starting Design and Stress Check

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Starting Design and Stress Check

Starting Design and Stress Check

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Modifying Member Properties

Modifying Member Properties

Modifying Member Properties

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Modifying Member Properties

Chapter II Quick Tutorial

Selecting Sections Automatically

Selecting Sections Automatically

Selecting Sections Automatically

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Re-analyzing with Updated Elements

Re-analyzing with Updated Elements

Re-analyzing with Updated Elements

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Design Load Combinations

Design Load Combinations

Design and Check Stations

Element Stress Ratios

Element Unsupported Lengths

Figure III-1 Major and Minor Axes of Bending

y AISC (ASD89 & LRFD95)

Figure III-2 Correspondence between SAP2000 Axes and Code Axes

Effective Length Factor (K)

Effective Length Factor (K)

SIc SIb SIc = I S b =

SJc SJb SJc = J S b =