I.

Psychodynamic

In deliberate contrast to behavioral psychology, psychodynamic psychology ignores the trappings of science and instead focuses on trying to get 'inside the head' of individuals in order to make sense of their relationships, experiences and how they see the world. The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious between the different structures of the personality. Freuds psychoanalysis was the original psychodynamic theory, but the psychodynamic approach as a whole includes all theories that were based on his ideas, e.g. Jung (1964), Adler (1927) and Erikson (1950). The words psychodynamic and psychoanalytic are often confused. Remember that Freuds theories were psychoanalytic, whereas the term psychodynamic refers to both his theories and those of his followers. Freuds psychoanalysis is both a theory and a therapy. Psychodynamic Approach Assumptions Our behaviour and feelings are powerfully affected by unconscious motives. Our behaviour and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood experiences. All behaviour has a cause (usually unconscious), even slips of the tongue. Therefore all behaviour is determined. Personality is made up of three parts (i.e. tripartite). The id, ego and super-ego. Behaviour is motivated by two instinctual drives: Eros (the sex drive & life instinct) and Thanatos (the aggressive drive & death instinct). Both these drives come from the id. Parts of the unconscious mind (the id and superego) are in constant conflict with the conscious part of the mind (the ego). Personality is shaped as the drives are modified by different conflicts at different times in childhood (during psychosexual development). Karen Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory Overview The psychoanalytic social theory of Karen Horney was built on the assumption that social and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, are largely responsible for shaping personality. People who do not have their needs for love and affection satisfied during childhood develop basic hostility toward their parents and, as a consequence, suffer from basic anxiety. Horney theorized that people combat basic anxiety by adopting one of three fundamental styles of relating to others: (1) moving toward people, (2) moving against people, or (3) moving away

from people. Normal individuals may use any of these modes of relating to other people, but neurotics are compelled to rigidly rely on only one. Their compulsive behaviour generates a basic intrapsychic conflict that may take the form of either an idealized self-image or self-hatred. The idealized self-image is expressed as: (1) neurotic search for glory, (2) neurotic claims, or (3) neurotic pride. Self-hatred id expressed as either self-contempt or alienation from self. Although Horneys writings are concerned mostly with the neurotic personality, many of her ideas can also be applied to normal individuals. As with other personality theorists, Horneys views on personality are a reflection of her life experiences. Barnard Paris wrote that Horneys insights were derived from her efforts to relieve her own pain, as well as that of her patients. If her suffering had been less intense, her insights would have been less profound. Horneys Biography Karen Horney was born September 16, 1885 near Hamburg, Germany. Her parents were Clotilde and Berndt Danielson. Her father was a ship's captain and she was able to explore many things on three long voyages. Horney's mom Clotilde had four children and then her father remarried to a women named Sonni. From this marriage, they had a child named Berndt. Horney became really close to her mother because she was deprived from her father's affection. Her father preferred her brother Brendt over her. At age nine, she developed a crush on her brother and he turned her away. This led to Horney's depression which would effect the rest of her life. In 1904, her stepmother divorced her father and left Brendt and Karen to the father. In 1906, Horney entered medical school against her parent's wishes. At medical school, she met Oscar Horney and married him in 1909. In 1910, she gave birth to Brigitte, the first of three daughters. Like her father, her husband disciplined his children harshly. She thought this was good, since it encouraged her children's independence. Her stepmother, Sonni, died in 1911 and this brought more difficulties in her life. This is when she decided to explore psychoanalysis. In 1915, she followed Freudian analysis with Karl Abraham. She began to take patients for analysis in 1919 and worked at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Clinic and Institute until 1932. During this year she joined Chicago Institute for Psychoanalysis. She published papers in the 1920s which described the topic of orthodox Freudians, especially with psychosexuality. In 1923, her husband Oscar, developed meningitis and his business shut down. Also, during this year, Horney's brother died at age forty of pulmonary infection. This is when she became really depressed and developed thoughts of committing suicide. Then Horney and her daughters moved out of her husband's house in 1976 and moved to the U.S. She developed theories in 1930 about the importance of socio-cultural factors in human development and moved to New York City in 1934. She wrote a book called The Neurotic Personality of Our Time (1937) and focus on the ideas of neuroses, brought about by cultural factors. Also, how neuroses was based on the disturbances in human relationships. After this, she went away from the orthodox Freudians views and established ideas with other prominent psychoanalysts in 1941 which was the Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis. She wrote a

book, Self-Analysis (1942). These ideas relate to her personal experiences. Also, how she came to grips with her own problems. She discusses ideas about pride and defense strategies expressed in these two books Our Inner Conflicts (1945), and Neurosis and Human Growth (1950). She practiced, taught, and wrote until her death at age 67 in 1952. The Theory Horney's theory is related to her personal life and how she was able to deal with her problems. Her idea of neurosis and psychoanalysis involving inner conflicts is regarded as one of the best theories in this area. Neurosis is how people cope and have control over interpersonal issues that happen day to day, according to Horney. Another theory she addresses is the idea of personality in conjunction with psychoanalysis. Below, her theories are examed in more depth by actually seeing how she disagrees with Freud and what her ideas are for neuroses and psychoanalysis. Neurosis: Neurosis is a "psychic disturbance brought by fears and defenses against these fears, and by attempts to find compromise solutions for conflicting tendencies" (The Neurotic Personality Of Our Time, 28-29). This describes an individual having trouble with coping and handling certain psychosocial environmental stressors resulting in problems within their selves. Also, neurotic can not be diagnosed without looking at their culture background. Neurotic feelings and attitudes are determined by the way they live, according to Horney. However, Freud believes "instinctual drives or object relationships that are frequent in our culture are biologically determined" (The Neurotic Personality of Our Time, 20). Horney feels Freud ignores the culture factors which consequently lead to false acquisitions. Also, it disrupts the understanding of what actually motivates our actions and attitudes. The neurotic shares their fears with other cultures. In a certain culture the fears are less when there are devices to protect them like rites or customs. Freud suggests that a neurotic's real self is determined by his concept of ego. This concept of ego is without initiative or executive powers. However, Horney thinks a neurotic is driven by these emotional forces that are involved in their lives. Also, Horney believes that Freudian's theory about sexuality and continuous compulsives, is interfering with an individual, the family, and social factors where there is organization of values, and attitudes. Freud believes they are compulsive drives from nature, involving every human being. This can not be valid according to Horney, if these "neuroses were an outgrowth of disturbed human relationships" (Inner Conflicts,12). She believes they are compulsive drives but become neurotic by a human feeling isolated, helpless, afraid, and hostile. They represent ways of coping with their life despite these problems called "neurotic trends" (Self-Analysis, 40).

Neurotic Needs 1.) The neurotic has a desperate need for acceptance and affection. Anxiety will occur without these. Neurotics see life as if everything is reasonable and suitable to fit their needs but in reality it is impossible. 2.) The neurotic has a need for love when in an intimate relationship and expects their partners to take over their lives by solving their problems. 3.) The neurotic need to make things simpler by having no routine or rules. Also, when at the point of stress, they want to be unnoticeable and avoid confrontation that may add to their frustration. 4.) The neurotic needs to have control and power over others. 5.) The neurotic has a need to manipulate others. They have this need because of their concern of being used or looking stupid. Practical jokes that may be funny to others are often not funny to the neurotic. 6.) The neurotic has a need to be recognized socially. They are extremely concerned with appearance and popularity. So, they strive to be outgoing. 7.) The neurotic has a need for others to admire their inner qualities. They are desperate perfectionists, fearing being unimportant or meaningless to others. 8.) Neurotics need personal accomplishment. They are obsessed with it. They want to be leader of everyone, being top of the world and number one at everything. 9.) Neurotics need independence. They refuse help from others, thinking they can accomplish things by themselves. Also, if they did receive assistance than it would not be just themselves recognized but the other person as well. They rather have all the attention focused on them individually. 10.) Neurotics need perfection, hoping that everything in life is just going to get better and better. They fear failure and people finding out that they make mistakes. They feel it is important to be in charge of the all situations. A neurotic person will go to the extremes for their devices because "an impairment of his capacities for achievement and enjoyment" (The Neurotic Personality of Our Time, 26). A suffering neurotic is unaware and tries to solve it by these certain solutions or needs which are unrealistic. Psychoanalysis: Her theoretical approach to this is describing it towards people's personalities. The personality she gave is an example of children and how parents as well as other socializing factors influence their personality. For instance, a normal child goes through life having certain characteristics of themselves when relating experiences with school, hobbies, and home. However, when looking at a child that is neurotic the environmental factors isolate their true self. Also, older people can be described as neurotic, characterized by no self-worth, loss of decision making or interest, afraid or obsessive-compulsive, anxiety, and depressed. The goal of this analysis is to basically change the person's opinions and perception of life by seeking a person's potential of self-realization. This emphasizes that the neurotic should be aware of their environmental factors that surround them and their inner-self, knowing who they are. This means "striving toward a clearer and deeper experiencing" (Neurosis And Human Growth, 364) with the direction of their lives. This analysis "cannot solve the ills of the world"

(Self-Analysis, 10) but it can explain the neurotic's problems and try to help them. Psychoanalysis therapy is "helping people toward their best possible further development" (SelfAnalysis, 37). Freud suggests that this therapy involves the neurotic developing love for the analyst in addition to seeking help. However, Horney feels this is "not prompted by love for the analyst" (Self-Analysis, 20) but is the patients fear of people and their way of coping with life. The patient would feel helpless otherwise. Freud suggests that in order for people to overcome their resistance they need to deny them. Horney suggests differently. She thinks "the strength of the resisting forces and the strength of the self to deal with them" (Self-Analysis, 269). Inner Conflicts: Freud was aware of the inner conflicts, but saw them as repressed or repressing. Freud's regards to man's inner self with a "disbelief in human goodness and growth" (Inner Conflicts, 19). He mentioned man was condemned to destroy and suffer. She saw these conflicts in a different way. The conflicts were between contradictory neurotic trends and the attitudes toward self, qualities, and set of values. Horney believed that each of us has the capability and potential to become a decent person. This comes from the relationship with ourselves as well as with others which is disturbed with problems. However, "man can change and go on changing as long as he lives" (Inner Conflicts, 19). So, Horney disagrees with Freud and establishes her own perception on these ideas when looking at psychoanalysis and neuroses that involve inner conflicts. II. Humanistic The Humanistic theory of personality is the least scientific or testable theory of personality and views each individual as unique, deriving and viewing the world from different perspectives. Humanistic theory examines the import an individual places on being true to the choices one makes and how those choices align with aspirations to affect significant transformation in the direction one's life is taking. Humanistic theories focus on how external stimulus affects one's behavior, with little or no concentration on one's personality traits or the motivations driving one's behavior. Humanistic theory derived from existentialist philosophy which very briefly means one's life is determined by one's choices and is not predetermined by fate. Humanistic theory allows that one's personality can be manipulated by others who place conditions on one's worth, negatively altering one's self esteem; a high self esteem is centric to being true to oneself, as is having self-ideals or mental clarity of what one is capable of achieving and the type of person one is able to become. (Nevid & Rathus, 2005) Carl Rogers: Person-Centered Theory Overview Although he is best known as the founder of client-centered therapy, Carl Rogers developed a humanistic theory of personality that grew out of his experiences as a practicing psychotherapist. Unlike Freud, who was primarily a theorist and secondarily a therapist, Rogers was a consummate therapist but only a reluctant theorist. He was more concerned with helping people than with discovering why they behaved as they did. He was more likely to ask, How can I help this person grow and develop? rather than to ponder the question, What caused this person to develop in this manner?

Like many personality theorists, Rogers built his theory in the scaffold provided by experiences as therapist. Unlike most of these therapists, however, he continually called for empirical research to support both his personality theory and his therapeutic approach. Perhaps more than any other therapist-theorist, Rogers advocated a balance between tender-minded and hardheaded studies that would expand knowledge of how humans feel and think. Even though he formulated a rigorous, internally consistent theory of personality, Rogers did not feel comfortable with the notion of theory. his personal preference was to be a helper and not a constructor of theories. To him, theories seemed to make things too cold and external, and he worried that his theory might imply a measure of finality. During the 1950s, at a midpoint in his career, Rogers was invited to write what was then called the client-centered theory of personality, and his original statement is found in Volume 3 of Sigmund Fochs Psychology: A Study of a Science. Even at that time, Rogers realized that 10 or 20 years hence, his theories would be different; but unfortunately, throughout the intervening years, he never systematically reformulated his theory of personality. Although many of his personality rests on that original foundation spelled out in the Koch series. Rogers Biography Carl Rogers was born January 8, 1902 in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago, the fourth of six children. His father was a successful civil engineer and his mother was a housewife and devout Christian. His education started in the second grade, because he could already read before kindergarten. When Carl was 12, his family moved to a farm about 30 miles west of Chicago, and it was here that he was to spend his adolescence. With a strict upbringing and many chores, Carl was to become rather isolated, independent, and self-disciplined. He went on to the University of Wisconsin as an agriculture major. Later, he switched to religion to study for the ministry. During this time, he was selected as one of ten students to go to Beijing for the World Student Christian Federation Conference for six months. He tells us that his new experiences so broadened his thinking that he began to doubt some of his basic religious views. After graduation, he married Helen Elliot (against his parents wishes), moved to New York City, and began attending the Union Theological Seminary, a famous liberal religious institution. While there, he took a student organized seminar called Why am I entering the ministry? I might as well tell you that, unless you want to change your career, never take a class with such a title! He tells us that most of the participants thought their way right out of religious work. Religions loss was, of course, psychologys gain: Rogers switched to the clinical psychology program of Columbia University, and received his Ph.D. in 1931. He had already begun his clinical work at the Rochester Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. At this clinic, he learned about Otto Ranks theory and therapy techniques, which started him on the road to developing his own approach.

He was offered a full professorship at Ohio State in 1940. In 1942, he wrote his first book, Counseling and Psychotherapy. Then, in 1945, he was invited to set up a counseling center at the University of Chicago. It was while working there that in 1951 he published his major work, Client-Centered Therapy, wherein he outlines his basic theory. In 1957, he returned to teach at his alma mater, the University of Wisconsisn. Unfortunately, it was a time of conflict within their psychology department, and Rogers became very disillusioned with higher education. In 1964, he was happy to accept a research position in La Jolla, California. He provided therapy, gave speeches, and wrote, until his death in 1987. The Theory Rogers theory is a clinical one, based on years of experience dealing with his clients. He has this in common with Freud, for example. Also in common with Freud is that his is a particularly rich and mature theory -- well thought-out and logically tight, with broad application. Not in common with Freud, however, is the fact that Rogers sees people as basically good or healthy -- or at very least, not bad or ill. In other words, he sees mental health as the normal progression of life, and he sees mental illness, criminality, and other human problems, as distortions of that natural tendency. Also not in common with Freud is the fact that Rogers theory is a relatively simple one. Also not in common with Freud is that Rogers theory is particularly simple -- elegant even! The entire theory is built on a single force of life he calls the actualizing tendency. It can be defined as the built-in motivation present in every life-form to develop its potentials to the fullest extent possible. Were not just talking about survival: Rogers believes that all creatures strive to make the very best of their existence. If they fail to do so, it is not for a lack of desire. Rogers captures with this single great need or motive all the other motives that other theorists talk about. He asks us, why do we want air and water and food? Why do we seek safety, love, and a sense of competence? Why, indeed, do we seek to discover new medicines, invent new power sources, or create new works of art? Because, he answers, it is in our nature as living things to do the very best we can! Keep in mind that, unlike Maslows use of the term, Rogers applies it to all living creatures. Some of his earliest examples, in fact, include seaweed and mushrooms! Think about it: Doesnt it sometimes amaze you the way weeds will grow through the sidewalk, or saplings crack boulders, or animals survive desert conditions or the frozen north? He also applied the idea to ecosystems, saying that an ecosystem such as a forest, with all its complexity, has a much greater actualization potential than a simple ecosystem such as a corn field. If one bug were to become extinct in a forest, there are likely to be other creatures that will adapt to fill the gap; On the other hand, one bout of corn blight or some such disaster, and you have a dust bowl. The same for us as individuals: If we live as we should, we will become increasingly complex, like the forest, and thereby remain flexible in the face of lifes little -- and big -- disasters.

People, however, in the course of actualizing their potentials, created society and culture. In and of itself, thats not a problem: We are a social creature, it is our nature. But when we created culture, it developed a life of its own. Rather than remaining close to other aspects of our natures, culture can become a force in its own right. And even if, in the long run, a culture that interferes with our actualization dies out, we, in all likelihood, will die with it. Dont misunderstand: Culture and society are not intrinsically evil! Its more along the lines of the birds of paradise found in Papua-New Guinea. The colorful and dramatic plumage of the males apparently distracts predators from females and the young. Natural selection has led these birds towards more and more elaborate tail feathers, until in some species the male can no longer get off the ground. At that point, being colorful doesnt do the male -- or the species -much good! In the same way, our elaborate societies, complex cultures, incredible technologies, for all that they have helped us to survive and prosper, may at the same time serve to harm us, and possibly even destroy us. III. Social Cognitive The social cognitive theory explains how people acquire and maintain certain behavioral patterns, while also providing the basis for intervention strategies (Bandura, 1997). Evaluating behavioral change depends on the factors environment, people and behavior. SCT provides a framework for designing, implementing and evaluating programs. Environment refers to the factors that can affect a persons behavior. There are social and physical environments. Social environment include family members, friends and colleagues. Physical environment is the size of a room, the ambient temperature or the availability of certain foods. Environment and situation provide the framework for understanding behavior (Parraga, 1990). The situation refers to the cognitive or mental representations of the environment that may affect a persons behavior. The situation is a persons perception of the lace, time, physical features and activity (Glanz et al, 2002). The three factors environment, people and behavior are constantly influencing each other. Behavior is not simply the result of the environment and the person, just as the environment is not simply the result of the person and behavior (Glanz et al, 2002). The environment provides models for behavior. Observational learning occurs when a person watches the actions of another person and the reinforcements that the person receives (Bandura, 1997). The concept of behavior can be viewed in many ways. Behavioral capability means that if a person is to perform a behavior he must know what the behavior is and have the skills to perform it. Julian Rotter and Walter Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning Theory Overview The cognitive social learning theories of Julian Rotter and Walter Mischel each rest on the assumption that cognitive factors help shape how people will react to environmental forces. Both theorists object to Skinners explanation that behaviour is shaped by immediate reinforcement and instead suggest that ones expectations of future events are prime determinants of performance.

Rotter contends that human behaviour is best predicted from an understanding of the interaction of people with their meaningful environments. As an interactionist, he believes that neither the environment itself nor the individual is completely responsible for behaviour. Instead he holds that peoples cognitions, past histories and expectations of the future are keys to predicting behaviour. In this respect, he differs from Skinner who believed that reinforcement ultimately stems from the environment. Mischels cognitive social theory has much in common with Banduras social cognitive theory and Rotters social learning theory. Like Bandura and Rotter, Mischel believes that cognitive factors, such as expectancies, subjective perceptions, values, goals and personal standards, play important roles in shaping personality. His contributions to personality theory have evolved from research on delay of gratification, to research regarding the consistency or inconsistency of personality, and presently to work with Yuichi Shoda on the development of a cognitiveaffective personality system. Rotters Social Learning Theory The social learning theory is the most well-known theory of American psychologist Julian B. Rotter. The theory poses principles contrary to, and partially in reaction to, Freud's drive-based psychoanalysis, which was the dominant theory when Rotter was educated. Rotter believed that personality and behavior are a product of an individual's interaction with his environment. Basic Theory In social learning theory, the environment is defined as the external stimuli that the individual recognizes and responds to, and she is viewed as a composite of learning and experiences. Because of this, the personality is seen not as a set persona, but an array of potential actions in response to external settings. Rotter's theory has four major elements: behavior potential, reinforcement value, expectancy and the psychological situation. Behavior Potential Behavior potential is a representation of the likelihood that an individual will choose a particular behavior in response to particular stimuli. In every environment, he has a selection of possible behaviors, the behavior chosen being the one with the highest behavior potential. While no personality is permanently set, the greater number of life experiences reinforcing a certain belief system, the higher the potential that he will make choices based upon that belief system. Reinforcement Value Reinforcement value is an assessment of the positive outcome of a situation. Reinforcement is a term meaning "a situation's outcome," and the higher the positive effect of an outcome, the higher its reinforcement value. The lowest reinforcement value that is still viewed as a positive outcome is called the "minimal goal" -- achieving this level or higher is viewed as success, and anything below this level of reinforcement value is viewed as failure. Expectancy

Expectancy is the perceived probability that an action will result in the desired outcome. Expectancy and reinforcement value work together to determine the behavior potential of all choices in a situation. An action with a high reinforcement value (positive result) and a high expectancy (likelihood that the action will actually achieve this result) is most likely to have a high behavior potential (and so be the chosen action). The Psychological Situation Rotter actually described this relationship as a formula: BP = f (E + RV) This is merely a simplification, stating that BP (behavior potential) is a function of E (expectancy) + RV (reinforcement value). Rotter did not view this as a cut-and-dried calculation, however. Both expectancy and reinforcement value are subjective, calculated based on life experience of an individual, and not necessarily reflecting realistic or objective values. Rotter called this internal subjectivity an individual's "psychological situation," and felt it was essential to determining behavior. Treatment The most prevalent influence of Rotter's social learning theory is not seen in the teaching of psychology, but in its practice. Rotter countered the Freudian belief that behavior is instinctdriven with the belief that all behavior is learned. He therefore advocated a treatment methodology modeled after learning experiences and a teacher-student relationship. Modern cognitive behavioral treatment is rooted in this methodology.

Bibliography Feist, J., & Feist, G. (2006). Theories of Personality. New York, N.Y.: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/600889/humanistic_personality_theory_trait.html http://www.ehow.com/about_5377160_rotters-social-learning-theory.html http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/horney.htm http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychodynamic.html http://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Health%20Communication/Soc ial_cognitive_theory.doc/ http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/rogers.html