Math. Ann.

330, 551–575 (2004) Mathematische Annalen

DOI: 10.1007/s00208-004-0559-5

Finite trigonometric sums and class numbers

Bruce C. Berndt · Alexandru Zaharescu

Received: 17 December 2003 / Revised version: 19 April 2004 /
Published online: 13 July 2004 – © Springer-Verlag 2004

Abstract. Explicit evaluations of finite trigonometric sums arose in proving certain theta func-
tion identities of Ramanujan. In this paper, without any appeal to theta functions, several classes
of finite trigonometric sums, including the aforementioned sums, are evaluated in closed form
in terms of class numbers of imaginary quadratic fields.
Mathematics Subject Classification (2000): Primary, 11L03; Secondary, 11R29, 11L10

1. Introduction

As corollaries of two difficult theta function identities from Ramanujan’s note-

books [16], the first author and L.–C. Zhang [6] discovered two interesting iden-
tities for trigonometric sums, namely,
sin(2π/7) sin(π/7) sin(3π/7) √
− + = 2 7 (1.1)
sin2 (3π/7) sin2 (2π/7) sin2 (π/7)
and
sin2 (3π/7) sin2 (2π/7) sin2 (π/7)
− + = 0. (1.2)
sin(2π/7) sin(π/7) sin(3π/7)
(Much of the material from [6] can also be found in [4]; in particular, see pages
183–184.) Using similar ideas, Z.–G. Liu [15, pp. 107–108] established both (1.1)
and (1.2) and eight further new identities involving sin(nπ/7), three of which are
given by
sin(2π/7) sin(π/7) sin(3π/7) 64 √
4
− 4
+ 4
= 7, (1.3)
sin (π/7) sin (3π/7) sin (2π/7) 7

sin4 (3π/7) sin4 (π/7) sin4 (2π/7) 5√

− − = 7, (1.4)
sin(π/7) sin(2π/7) sin(3π/7) 8

B. C. Berndt , A. Zaharescu
Department of Mathematics, University of Illinois, 1409 West Green Street, Urbana, IL 61801,
USA (e-mail: {berndt, zaharesc}@math.uiuc.edu)
 Research partially supported by grant MDA904-00-1-0015 from the National Security Agency.
552 B. C. Berndt, A. Zaharescu

and
sin3 (3π/7) sin3 (π/7) sin3 (2π/7) 368
6
− 6
+ 6
= √ . (1.5)
sin (π/7) sin (2π/7) sin (3π/7) 7
It is natural to ask if the identities (1.1)–(1.5) are unique in their relationship
to 7, or if they are special cases of infinite classes of such identities. The purpose
of this paper is to show that (1.1)–(1.5) are each special cases of infinite classes of
identities which we shall establish. Moreover, we generalize in several directions.
For example, we find a closed form expression when the powers of sin in the
numerator and denominator of (1.1) are replaced by a and a + 1, respectively,
where a is an odd positive integer. Some of our results, as well as Liu’s other
identities, can be further generalized. Our evaluations are effected in terms of
class numbers of imaginary quadratic number fields. Thus, our theorems may be
regarded as representations of class numbers by trigonometric sums. The earliest
theorems in this direction were first established by G. L. Dirichlet [12, p. 152],
V. A. Lebesgue [13], and V. Schemmel [17]; see also L. E. Dickson’s History [11,
pp. 117–118]. Despite the origins of our original identities, our proofs are devoid
of any connections these trigonometric identities may have with theta function
identities. Our methods depend on contour integration and properties of Gauss
sums.
In Sections 2 and 3, we generalize (1.1) and (1.2), respectively. The former
generalization is broader than the latter and contains several elegant special cases
and classical results. In Sections 4 and 5, we generalize (1.3)–(1.5), with the first
and third of these identities being special cases of one general theorem in Section
4, and (1.4) being a special case of Theorem 5.1 in Section 5. We use our tech-
niques in Section 6 to establish Schemmel’s results [17]. Lastly, in Section 7, we
evaluate a trigonometric sum first examined in a letter from R. G. Stoneham to
R. J. Evans in 1982 [18].
Throughout this paper, χ denotes a nonprincipal, real, primitive, odd character
modulo k, where k is an odd positive integer at least equal to 7. Define the Gauss
sum G(z, χ) for any complex number z by


k−1
G(z, χ ) := χ(j )e2π ij z/k . (1.6)
j =0

Then, for each integer n, we have the factorization theorem [5, p. 9, Thm. 1.1.3]
G(n, χ ) = χ (n)G(1, χ) =: χ(n)G(χ). (1.7)
In fact, (1.7) characterizes real primitive characters, i.e., (1.7) holds if and only
if χ is real and primitive [1, p. 482, Thm. 1], [10, pp. 65–66]. We need Gauss’s
famous evaluation [7, p. 349, Thm. 7], [5, p. 22, Thm. 1.3.4]
√
G(χ ) = i k. (1.8)
Trigonometric sums 553

√
We denote the class number of the imaginary quadratic field Q( −k) by h(−k).
For k ≥ 7 and odd, recall the classical formulas for the class number [2, p. 299],
[7, p. 344, eq. (4.3)]

1

k−1
h(−k) = − j χ(j ) (1.9)
k j =1

and [7, p. 346, eq. (4.7)]

1

h(−k) = χ (j ). (1.10)
2 − χ(2) 0<j <k/2

In the sequel, Rα (f ) = Rα denotes the residue of a meromorphic function f

at a pole α.

2. Generalization of (1.1)

Theorem 2.1. Let χ denote an odd, real, nonprincipal, primitive character of

modulus k, where k is odd and k ≥ 7. Let

sina (bπn/k)
S1 (k, χ, a, b) := χ (n) , (2.1)
0<n<k/2
sina+1 (πn/k)

where a and b are positive integers with a odd, b even, and ab − a − 3 < 2k.
Define

  
m a a+r
Ca,b := (−1) χ(n) . (2.2)
n,m,r≥0
m r
n+bm+r=(ab−a−1)/2

Then
√  a 
S1 (k, χ, a, b) = k b h(−k) − 2Ca,b . (2.3)

Observe that Ca,b is an integer. For fixed a and b and k large, the sum in (2.1)
is a “long" sum, while the sum in (2.2) has a bounded number of terms and can
be computed explicitly. The requirement ab − a − 3 < 2k is technical; we could
dispense with this condition, but then terms arising from the left side of (2.19)
below would appear, and Ca,b would have to be replaced by a more complicated
sum.
Proof. For N > 0, let CN denote the positively oriented indented rectangle with
horizontal sides through ±iN and vertical sides through 0 and k. On the left side
of CN , there is a semicircular indentation I0 of radius less than 1 centered at 0
554 B. C. Berndt, A. Zaharescu

and to its left. On the right side of CN , the semicircular indentation comprises the
points I0 + k. Consider the meromorphic function
G(z, χ ) sina (bπ z/k) 1
f (z) := , (2.4)
a+1
G(χ ) sin (π z/k) e 2πiz −1
where G(z, χ) and G(χ ) are defined in (1.6) and (1.7), respectively. We shall
integrate f (z) over the contour CN , on the interior of which the function f (z)
has simple poles (at most) at z = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1. Observe that on the interior
of CN , the pole of f (z) at z = 0 is also simple, because G(0, χ ) = 0. For
1 ≤ n ≤ (k − 1)/2, a simple calculation with the use of (1.7) shows that
χ (n) sina (bπ n/k)
Rn = (2.5)
2π i sina+1 (π n/k)
and, since χ is odd, a is odd, and b is even,
χ(n) sina (bπ(k − n)/k) χ (n) sina (bπn/k)
Rk−n = − = . (2.6)
2πi sina+1 (π(k − n)/k) 2πi sina+1 (πn/k)
Next, by the definition (1.6), (1.8), and (1.9),
G(z, χ ) sina (bπ z/k) z
R0 = lim
z→0 G(χ )(e 2πiz − 1) sin (π z/k) sin(πz/k)
a
k−1
a
j =1 χ (j )(2π ij/k) (bπ/k) 1
= a
G(χ )2π i (π/k) π/k
√
ba

k−1
ba ba k
= √ χ(j )j = − √ k h(−k) = − h(−k). (2.7)
πi k j =1 πi k πi

Hence, by the residue theorem, (2.5), (2.6), and (2.7),

 √
f (z)dz = 2S1 (k, χ, a, b) − 2ba h(−k) k. (2.8)
CN

Next, we let N → ∞ in order to calculate the integral in (2.8) directly. First

observe from (2.4) that, because a is odd and b is even, f (z) has period k, and
so the integrals over the indented vertical sides of CN cancel. Now examine the
integral over the top horizontal side CNT of CN . Set z = x + iN, 0 ≤ x ≤ k.
We regard f (z) as a rational function of eπN/k and eπix/k and expand f (z) as a
power series in eπ N/k with coefficients depending only on x, say

f (z) = f (x + iN) = A0 (x)eDπN/k + A1 (x)e(D−1)πN/k + · · · . (2.9)

Observe that we can ignore the terms of the form An (x)e(D−n)πN/k with n > D,
since their contributions to the integral of f (z) over CNT tend to 0 as N tends
Trigonometric sums 555

to ∞. Thus, we truncate (2.9), keeping only the polynomial part in eπN/k . Hence,
the integral of f (z) over CNT has the shape

f (z)dz = B0 eDπN/k + B1 e(D−1)πN/k + · · · + BD + O(e−πN/k ), (2.10)
CN T

as N → ∞, where B0 , B1 , . . . , BD are constants. Observe that the degree D is

given by
D = ab − a − 3.
Similarly, the integral of f (z) over the bottom side CNB of CN has the form

  
f (z)dz = B0 eDπN/k + B1 e(D−1)πN/k + · · · + BD + O(e−πN/k ), (2.11)
CN B
  
as N → ∞, where B0 , B1 , . . . , BD are constants.
Thus, by (2.8), (2.10), (2.11), and the aforementioned cancellation over the
vertical sides of CN ,
  
(B0 + B0 )eDπ N/k + (B1 + B1 )e(D−1)πN/k + · · · + (BD + BD ) + O(e−πN/k )
√
= 2S1 (k, χ, a, b) − 2ba k h(−k). (2.12)
The right side of (2.12) is independent of N . Therefore, by letting N → ∞, we
find successively that
  
B0 + B0 = 0, B1 + B1 = 0, . . . , BD−1 + BD−1 = 0. (2.13)
Thus, letting N → ∞ in (2.12), we conclude that
 √
BD + BD = 2S1 (k, χ, a, b) − 2ba k h(−k). (2.14)

It remains to compute BD and BD . We first calculate BD , which arises from the
constant term in the expansion of f (z) in powers of eπN/k on CNT . Set z = x +iN
and
µ := e−πiz/k = eπN/k e−πix/k . (2.15)
Then, by their definitions,


k−1
χ (n)
G(z, χ ) = , (2.16)
n=1
µ2n
 a
µ−b − µb (−1)a ab
sin (bπ z/k) =
a
= µ (1 − µ−2b )a
2i (2i)a
 
(−1)a ab

a
m a
= µ (−1) µ−2bm , (2.17)
(2i)a m=0
m
556 B. C. Berndt, A. Zaharescu

 −a−1
−a−1 µ−1 − µ
sin (πz/k) =
2i
= (−1) (2i)a+1 µ−a−1 (1 − µ−2 )−a−1
a+1

∞  
a+1 −a−1 r −a − 1
= (−1) (2i) µ
a+1
(−1) µ−2r
r=0
r
∞ 


−a−1 a+r
= (−1) a+1 a+1
(2i) µ µ−2r , (2.18)
r=0
r
and
1
= −1 + O(µ−2k ). (2.19)
e2πiz − 1
Thus, by (2.16)–(2.19) and the definition (2.4) of f , we find that
2i

k−1
χ(n)
f (z) = f (x + iN ) = µab−a−1
G(χ ) n=1
µ2n

a  
∞  
a −2bm a + r −2r
× (−1) m
µ µ
m=0
m r=0
r
+O(µab−a−3−2k ). (2.20)
The constant term in (2.20) is equal to

  
2i a a+r 2
AD := m
(−1) χ (n) = √ Ca,b ,
G(χ) n,m,r≥0
m r k
n+bm+r=(ab−a−1)/2

by (1.8) and (2.2). Hence,

 0 √
BD = AD dx = −kAD = −2Ca,b k. (2.21)
k
The calculation of the integral of f (z) over the bottom side CNB is similar.
Set z = x − iN and
ν := eπiz/k = eπN/k eπix/k . (2.22)
Then, in analogy with (2.20), we find that
2iχ(−1) ab−a−1
χ(n)
k−1
f (z) = f (x − iN) = ν
G(χ ) n=1
ν 2n

  ∞  
a −2bm
a + r −2r
a
× (−1) m
ν ν
m=0
m r=0
r
+O(ν ab−a−3−2k ). (2.23)
Trigonometric sums 557

The constant term is equal to

 2iχ(−1) 2
AD := Ca,b = − √ Ca,b ,
G(χ ) k
by (1.8) and (2.2). Hence,
 k √
  
BD = AD dx = kAD = −2Ca,b k. (2.24)
0

Lastly, from (2.14), (2.21), and (2.24), we conclude that

√ √
−4Ca,b k = 2S1 (k, χ, a, b) − 2ba h(−k) k,

which completes the proof of Theorem 2.1. 



Corollary 2.2. Let χ be a character as in Theorem 2.1, and let a be a positive

odd integer such that a − 3 < 2k. Then

k−1
√  
χ(n) cot(π n/k) cosa−1 (π n/k) = 2 k h(−k) − 21−a Ca,2 . (2.25)
n=1

Proof. Set b = 2 in Theorem 2.1. Using the elementary identity sin(2θ ) =

2 sin θ cos θ, we find that

sina (2π n/k)

χ(n) a+1
=2a χ (n) cot(πn/k) cosa−1 (πn/k)
0<n<k/2
sin (π n/k) 0<n<k/2


=2a−1 χ (n) cot(πn/k) cosa−1 (πn/k)
0<n<k
√  
= k 2a h(−k) − 2Ca,2 .

The desired result now easily follows. 



Corollary 2.3. For χ as in Theorem 2.1,

k−1
√
χ (n) cot(π n/k) = 2 k h(−k). (2.26)
n=1

Proof. Set a = 1 in Corollary 2.2. Observe that C1,2 = 0. Corollary 2.3 then
easily follows. 


Corollary 2.3 is due to Dirichlet [12]. See also papers by Lebesgue [13],
V. Schemmel [17], M. Lerch [14], S. Chowla [8], [9, pp. 192–193], A. L. Whit-
eman [19], and Berndt [3].
558 B. C. Berndt, A. Zaharescu

Corollary 2.4. If χ satisfies the conditions of Theorem 2.1, and if b is an even

positive integer such that b − 4 < 2k, then

sin(bπ n/k)
S1 (k, χ, 1, b) = χ (n)
0<n<k/2
sin2 (π n/k)


√
= k b h(−k) − 2 χ(n)(r + 1) . (2.27)
n,r≥0
n+r= 21 b−1

Proof. Let a = 1 in Theorem 2.1. The equality

n + bm + r = 21 (ab − a − 1) = 21 b − 1

forces m = 0. The desired result now follows. 



Corollary 2.5. For χ as above, let

sin(4πn/k)
S1 (k, χ) := S1 (k, χ , 1, 4) := χ(n) .
0<n<k/2
sin2 (πn/k)

Then
√
S1 (k, χ ) = k (4h(−k) − 2) . (2.28)

Proof. Set b = 4 in Corollary 2.4. Observe that C1,4 = 1, since the only nonzero
term in the sum on the right side of (2.27) arises from the case when n = 1 and
r = 0. The result then follows from Corollary 2.4. 


Corollary 2.6. We have

√ √
S1 (7, χ) = 2 7, S1 (11, χ ) = 2 11, (2.29)
√ √
S1 (23, χ) = 10 23, S1 (35, χ ) = 6 35. (2.30)

These values follow readily from Corollary 2.5, since [7, p. 425]

h(−7) = h(−11) = 1, h(−23) = 3, h(−35) = 2. (2.31)

The first of these evaluations is (1.1).

Trigonometric sums 559

3. Generalization of (1.2)

We next prove a generalization of (1.2).

Theorem 3.1. Let χ denote an odd, real, primitive, nonprincipal character of

modulus k, where k is odd and k ≥ 7. Define

sin2 (πn/k)
S2 (k, χ ) := χ (n) . (3.1)
0<n<k/2
sin(4πn/k)

Then
√
3 k
S2 (k, χ ) = (χ (2) − 1)h(−k). (3.2)
4

Proof. For N > 0, let CN denote the same positively oriented indented rectangle
that we employed in the proof of Theorem 2.1. We shall integrate the function

G(z, χ ) sin2 (π z/k) 1

f (z) := (3.3)
G(χ ) sin(4π z/k) e2πiz − 1

over the contour CN , where G(z, χ ) and G(χ) are defined in (1.6) and (1.7),
respectively. On the interior of CN , the function f (z) has simple poles (at most)
at z = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1. For 1 ≤ n ≤ (k − 1)/2, simple calculations with the use
of (1.7) show that

χ (n) sin2 (π n/k)

Rn = (3.4)
2π i sin(4π n/k)

and, since χ is odd,

χ (n) sin2 (πn/k)

Rk−n = . (3.5)
2π i sin(4πn/k)

In contrast to the proof of Theorem 2.1, f (z) has a removable singularity at z = 0.

On the other hand, there are additional simple poles at z = k/4, z = k/2, and
z = 3k/4, with residues, respectively,

kG(k/4, χ) kG(k/2, χ )
Rk/4 = − , Rk/2 = − ,
8π G(χ )(e πik/2 − 1) 8πG(χ)
kG(3k/4, χ)
R3k/4 =− . (3.6)
8π G(χ )(e−πik/2 − 1)
560 B. C. Berndt, A. Zaharescu

We examine each of the Gauss sums appearing above. To evaluate G(k/2, χ ), we

write


(k−1)/2


(k−1)/2
G(k/2, χ) = χ (2j ) − χ(2j + 1)
j =1 j =0

(k−1)/2


k−1
=2χ(2) χ (j ) − χ(j )
j =1 j =1

(k−1)/2
=2χ (2) χ (j ) = 2χ (2) (2 − χ (2)) h(−k), (3.7)
j =1

by (1.10). We evaluate the remaining two Gauss sums in (3.6) together. Using the
definition (1.6), putting both terms under a common denominator, replacing j by
k − j in two of the resulting four sums, and using several times that χ is odd, we
find that
G(k/4, χ) G(3k/4, χ)
+ −πik/2
eπik/2 − 1 e −1
1

k−1
 
= χ (j ) eπi(j −k)/2 − eπij/2 + eπi(3j +k)/2 − e3πij/2
2 j =1

1
 
k−1
=− χ(j ) e−πij/2 + eπij/2 + eπij/2 + e−πij/2
2 j =1

k−1
= −2 χ(j ) cos(πj/2)
j =1


= −2χ (2) χ(j )(−1)j
0<j <k/2

k−1
= −χ(2) χ(j )(−1)j
j =1

= −χ(2)G(k/2, χ) = −2 (2 − χ (2)) h(−k), (3.8)

by (3.7). Summing the residues in (3.6) and using the evaluations in (3.7) and
(3.8), we deduce that
k
Rk/4 + Rk/2 + R3k/4 = − (χ (2) − 1) (2 − χ (2)) h(−k)
4π G(χ )
√
3 k
=− (χ (2) − 1)h(−k), (3.9)
4π i
Trigonometric sums 561

by (1.8). Hence, by the residue theorem, (3.4), (3.5), and (3.9),

 √
3 k
f (z)dz = 2S2 (k, χ ) − (χ(2) − 1)h(−k). (3.10)
CN 2

We now calculate the integral in (3.10) directly by letting N → ∞. The inte-

grals over the indented vertical sides cancel, because of the periodicity of the
integrand. Inverting the order of integration and summation for the integrals on
the horizontal sides, we see that for each j, 1 ≤ j ≤ k − 1, the integrals over the
top and bottom sides of CN approach 0 as N tends to ∞. Hence,

f (z) = 0. (3.11)
CN

Hence, combining (3.10) and (3.11), we deduce (3.2) to complete the proof. 


We now state an immediate corollary of Theorem 3.1.

Corollary 3.2. We have

 √
 3 k
− h(−k), if k ≡ 3 (mod 8),
S2 (k, χ ) = 2 (3.12)

0, if k ≡ 7 (mod 8).

Corollary 3.3. We have

3√
S2 (7, χ) = 0, S2 (11, χ ) = − 11, (3.13)
2√
S2 (23, χ) = 0, S2 (35, χ ) = −3 35. (3.14)

These values follow readily from Corollary 3.2 and the class numbers given
in (2.31). The first of these evaluations is (1.2).

4. Generalization of (1.3) and (1.5)

Our objective in this section is to prove a general theorem from which (1.3) and
(1.5) follow as special cases.

Theorem 4.1. Let χ denote a nonprincipal, real, primitive, odd character of mod-
ulus k, k ≥ 7. Let

sina (bπn/k)
S3 (k, χ, a, b) := χ (n) , (4.1)
0<n<k/2
sina+3 (πn/k)
562 B. C. Berndt, A. Zaharescu

where a and b are positive integers with a odd, b even, and ab − a − 5 < 2k.
Define

  
m a a+2+r
Ea,b := (−1) χ (n) , (4.2)
n,m,r≥0
m r
n+bm+r=(ab−a−3)/2

and let


k−1
M3 (χ ) = χ (j )j 3 . (4.3)
j =1

Then
ba   √
S3 (k, χ, a, b) = √ k(a + 3 − ab2 + 4k 2 )h(−k) + 4M3 (χ) + 8Ea,b k.
6 k
(4.4)
Proof. We integrate
G(z, χ ) sina (bπ z/k) 1
f (z) := (4.5)
a+3
G(χ ) sin (π z/k) e 2πiz −1
over the same contour CN that we utilized in the proof of Theorem 2.1, where
G(z, χ) and G(χ) are defined in (1.6) and (1.7), respectively. The function f (z)
has simple poles (at most) at z = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1 and a triple pole at z = 0
on the interior of CN . By straightforward calculations with the use of (1.7), for
0 < n < k/2,
χ (n) sina (bπ n/k)
Rn = = Rk−n . (4.6)
2π i sina+3 (π n/k)
To calculate the residue at z = 0, we first observe that, since χ is odd,


k−1

k−1
χ(j )j = −
2
χ (j )(k − j )2
j =1 j =1

k−1

k−1

k−1
= − k2 χ (j ) + 2k χ (j )j − χ (j )j 2
j =1 j =1 j =1

k−1
= − 2k 2 h(−k) − χ(j )j 2 ,
j =1

by (1.9). Hence,


k−1
χ(j )j 2 = −k 2 h(−k). (4.7)
j =1
Trigonometric sums 563

Thus, using (1.9), (4.3), and (4.7), we find that the Laurent expansion of f (z)
about the origin is
ba k 3 h(−k)i ba i  
f (z) = √ + √ k(a + 3 − ab2 + 4k 2 )h(−k) + 4M3 (χ ) + · · · ,
π 3 k z3 6π kz
and hence
ba i  
R0 = √ k(a + 3 − ab2 + 4k 2 )h(−k) + 4M3 (k) . (4.8)
6π k
Hence, by the residue theorem, (4.1), (4.6), and (4.8), we find that

ba  
f (z)dz = 2S3 (k, χ, a, b)− √ k(a + 3 − ab2 + 4k 2 )h(−k) + 4M3 (k) .
CN 3 k
(4.9)

Next, we calculate the integral in (4.9) directly. From the definition of f (z)
in (4.5), we see that the integrals over the indented vertical sides of CN cancel
by periodicity. Now we examine the integral over the top horizontal side CNT of
CN . Set z = x + iN, 0 ≤ x ≤ k. As before, we expand f (z) as a power series in
eπN/k with coefficients depending only on x, say

f (z) = f (x + iN ) = A0 (x)eDπN/k + A1 (x)e(D−1)πN/k + · · · . (4.10)

Then

f (z)dz = B0 eDπN/k + B1 e(D−1)πN/k + · · · + BD + O(e−πN/k ), (4.11)
CN T

as N → ∞, where B0 , B1 , . . . , BD are constants. Similarly, the integral of f (z)

over the bottom side CNB of CN has the form

  
f (z)dz = B0 eDπN/k + B1 e(D−1)πN/k + · · · + BD + O(e−πN/k ), (4.12)
CN B
  
as N → ∞, where B0 , B1 , . . . , BD are constants. By (4.9), (4.11), (4.12), and the
cancellation over the vertical sides of CN ,
  
(B0 + B0 )eDπN/k + (B1 + B1 )e(D−1)πN/k + · · · + (BD + BD ) + O(e−πN/k )
ba  
= 2S3 (k, χ, a, b) − √ k(a + 3 − ab2 + 4k 2 )h(−k) + 4M3 (k) .
3 k
(4.13)

Letting N → ∞, we find successively that

  
B0 + B0 = 0, B1 + B1 = 0, . . . , BD−1 + BD−1 = 0, (4.14)
564 B. C. Berndt, A. Zaharescu

and further, that

 ba  
BD + BD = 2S3 (k, χ, a, b) − √ k(a + 3 − ab2 + 4k 2 )h(−k) + 4M3 (k) .
3 k
(4.15)

In order to calculate BD , which arises from the constant term in the expansion
of f (z) in powers of eπN/k on CNT , set z = x + iN and define µ by (2.15). Then,
using (2.16), (2.17), (2.18) with a replaced by a + 2, and (2.19), we find that

8i

k−1
χ(n)
f (z) = f (x + iN) = − µab−a−3
G(χ ) n=1
µ2n

a  
∞  
a a + 2 + r −2r
× (−1)m µ−2bm µ
m=0
m r=0
r
+O(µab−a−5−2k ). (4.16)

The constant term in (4.16) is equal to

  
8i a a+2+r 8
AD := − m
(−1) χ (n) = − √ Ea,b ,
G(χ) n,m,r≥0
m r k
n+bm+r=(ab−a−3)/2

by (1.8) and (4.2), and so

 0 √
BD = AD dx = −kAD = 8Ea,b k. (4.17)
k

To compute the integral of f (z) over the bottom side CNB , set z = x − iN
and define µ by (2.22). Then we find that

8iχ(−1) ab−a−3
χ(n)

k−1
f (z) = f (x − iN) = − ν
G(χ ) n=1
ν 2n

  ∞  
a −2bm
a + 2 + r −2r
a
× (−1) m
ν ν
m=0
m r=0
r
+O(ν ab−a−5−2k ). (4.18)

The constant term is equal to

 8iχ(−1) 8
AD := − Ea,b = √ Ea,b ,
G(χ ) k
Trigonometric sums 565

and so
 k √
  
BD = AD dx = kAD = 8Ea,b k. (4.19)
0

By (4.15), (4.17), and (4.19), we derive that

√ ba  
16Ea,b k = 2S3 (k, χ, a, b) − √ k(a + 3 − ab2 + 4k 2 )h(−k) + 4M3 (k) ,
3 k

which completes the proof of Theorem 4.1. 


For a = 1 and b = 2, we find that E1,2 = 0, and so Theorem 4.1 gives the
following result.
Corollary 4.2. Let χ denote a nonprincipal, real, primitive, odd character of
modulus k, k ≥ 7. Then

sin(2π n/k) 4  
S3 (k, χ, 1, 2) = χ (n) 4 = √ k 3 h(−k) + M3 (χ) .
0<n<k/2
sin (π n/k) 3 k
(4.20)
Corollary 4.3. We have
64 √ 264 √
S3 (7, χ, 1, 2) = 7, S3 (11, χ, 1, 2) = 11.
7 11
These two values follow immediately from Corollary 4.2 upon using (2.31)
and observing that M3 (7) = −295 and M3 (11) = −1133. The first evaluation in
Corollary 4.3, as we observed in (1.3), was first established by Liu [15].
Next, set a = 3 and b = 4 in the statement of Theorem 4.1. Then E3,4 =
21 + 6χ(2) + χ(3), and Theorem 4.1 provides the following result.
Corollary 4.4. Let χ denote a nonprincipal, real, primitive, odd character of
modulus k, k ≥ 7. Then

sin3 (4πn/k)
S3 (k, χ , 3, 4) = χ (n)
0<n<k/2
sin6 (πn/k)
64  
= √ k(2k 2 − 21)h(−k) + 2M3 (χ)
3 k √
+8(21 + 6χ(2) + χ (3)) k.
In particular, for k = 7, we obtain Liu’s identity (1.5).
Corollary 4.5. We have
sin3 (3π/7) sin3 (π/7) sin3 (2π/7) 368
S3 (7, χ, 3, 4) = 6
− 6
+ 6
= √ .
sin (π/7) sin (2π/7) sin (3π/7) 7
566 B. C. Berndt, A. Zaharescu

5. Generalization of (1.4)

Next, we establish a general theorem for which (1.4) is a special case.

Theorem 5.1. Let χ be as in the previous theorems, and let a and b be positive
integers with a even, b odd, and ab − 4 < 2k. Define

sina (bπj/k)
S4 (k, χ, a, b) := χ (j ) . (5.1)
0<j <k/2
sin(2πj/k)

Then
 
1√ 1
S4 (k, χ, a, b) = k Da,b − {2χ(2) − 1} h(−k) , (5.2)
2 (2i)a−2
where

 
a
Da,b := (−1)m χ(n) . (5.3)
n,m,r≥0
m
2n+2bm+4r=ab−2

The condition ab − 4 < 2k is required for technical reasons. If this restriction

were lifted, Da,b would have to be replaced by a more complicated sum arising
from the contributions of the left side of (2.19).
Proof. Define
G(z, χ ) sina (bπ z/k) 1
f (z) := . (5.4)
G(χ ) sin(2π z/k) e2πiz − 1
As in previous proofs, we integrate f (z) over the contour CN of Theorem 2.1. On
the interior of CN , f (z) has simple poles (at most) at z = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1 with
residues
χ (n) sina (bπ n/k)
Rn = = Rk−n , (5.5)
2π i sin(2π n/k)
where 0 < n < k/2 and where we used (1.7) and the fact that a is even. However,
there is also a simple pole of f (z) at z = k/2 with residue
√
G(k/2, χ) 1 1 G(k/2, χ ) k
Rk/2 = = , (5.6)
G(χ ) (−2π/k) (−2) 4πi
by (1.8). Using (5.6) and (3.7), we deduce that
√
k
Rk/2 = χ(2) {2 − χ (2)} h(−k). (5.7)
2π i
Trigonometric sums 567

Hence, by the residue theorem, (5.5), and (5.7),

 √
f (z)dz = 2S4 (k, χ, a, b) + kχ(2) {2 − χ (2)} h(−k). (5.8)
CN

We next evaluate the integral above by a direct calculation. Noting from (5.4)
that f (z) has period k, we see that the integrals over the indented vertical sides
of CN cancel. We now examine the individual terms on the top and bottom of
CN , i.e., on CNT and CNB , respectively. As before, on CNT , we write f (z) as a
power series in eπN/k with the leading term having degree D := ab − 4. We now
proceed as in the proof of Theorem 2.1. Using analogous notation and the same
sort of reasoning, we deduce that
 √
BD + BD = 2S4 (k, χ, a, b) + kχ(2) {2 − χ (2)} h(−k). (5.9)

It remains to compute BD and BD . We first calculate BD , which arises from the
constant term in the expansion of f (z) in powers of eπN/k on CNT . As in (2.15),
set z = x + iN and
µ := e−πiz/k = eπN/k e−πix/k . (5.10)
We use the expansions (2.16), (2.17), (2.19), and
 −2 −1
∞
−1 µ − µ2 2i 1 −2
sin (2πz/k) = =− 2 = −2iµ µ−4r
2i µ 1 − µ−4 r=0
(5.11)
in the definition (5.4) of f (z) to find that

1

k−1
χ(n)
f (z) = f (x + iN) = µab−2
(2i)a−1 G(χ ) n=1
µ2n


a  
∞
a −2bm
× (−1) m
µ µ−4r + O(µab−4−2k ).
m=0
m r=0
(5.12)
The constant term in (5.12) is equal to

 
1 a 1
AD := a−1
m
(−1) χ(n) = √ Da,b ,
(2i) G(χ ) n,m,r≥0
m (2i)a−1 i k
2n+2bm+4r=ab−2

by (1.8) and (5.3). Hence,

 0 √
k
BD = AD dx = −kAD = − a−1
Da,b . (5.13)
k (2i) i
568 B. C. Berndt, A. Zaharescu

The calculation of the integral of f (z) over CNB is similar, and we find that
 k √
   k
BD = AD dx = kAD = − a−1
Da,b . (5.14)
0 (2i) i
Lastly, from (5.9), (5.13), and (5.14), we conclude that
√
k √
a−2
Da,b = 2S4 (k, χ, a, b) + kχ(2) {2 − χ (2)} h(−k),
(2i)
which completes the proof of Theorem 5.1. 

Corollary 5.2. If χ is as in previous theorems, then

√
χ (n) tan(π n/k) = −2 k {2χ(2) − 1} h(−k).
0<n<k

Proof. Set a = 2 and b = 1 in Theorem 5.1. Observe that D2,1 = 0. Hence, by

Theorem 5.1 and the elementary identity sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ,

sin2 (π n/k) 1

χ (n) = χ(n) tan(πn/k)
0<n<k/2
sin(2π n/k) 2 0<n<k/2

1

= χ(n) tan(πn/k)
4 0<n<k
1√
=− k {2χ (2) − 1} h(−k),
2
from which the desired corollary follows. 

Corollary 5.2 is due to Lebesgue [13].
Corollary 5.3. Let χ be as in Theorems 2.1 and 5.1 and set

sin4 (πj/k)
S4 (k, χ ) := χ(j ) . (5.15)
0<j <k/2
sin(2πj/k)

Then
√
k
S4 (k, χ ) = − (1 + 4 {2χ (2) − 1} h(−k)) . (5.16)
8
Proof. Set a = 4 and b = 1 in Theorem 5.1. We easily see that D4,1 = 1. The
corollary then immediately follows. 

Corollary 5.4. We have
5√ 11 √
S4 (7, χ) = − 7, S4 (11, χ ) = 11. (5.17)
8 8
Trigonometric sums 569

First observe that in the case k = 7 the sum in (5.15) has the opposite sign as
the sum in (1.4). If we set k = 7 and k = 11, respectively, in (5.16), recall that
h(−7) = h(−11) = 1, and note that χ(2) = 1 for k = 7 and χ (2) = −1 for
k = 11, both evaluations in (5.17) follow.
By the same kind of argument, we can prove an analogue of Theorem 5.1 in
which sina (bπj/k) is replaced by cosa (bπj/k). Because the proof is similar, we
provide only the most salient details.
Theorem 5.5. Let χ be as in Theorem 5.1, let a be a nonnegative integer, and let b
be an even positive integer. Assume, as in the previous theorem, that ab − 4 < 2k.
Define

cosa (bπj/k)
S5 (k, χ, a, b) := χ(j ) . (5.18)
0<j <k/2
sin(2πj/k)

Then
 
1√ 1  
S5 (k, χ, a, b) = k − a−2 Ea,b + 1 − (−1)ab/2 {2χ (2) − 1} h(−k) ,
2 2
(5.19)
where

 
a
Ea,b := χ(n) . (5.20)
n,m,r≥0
m
2n+2bm+4r=ab−2

As with Theorem 5.1, if the condition ab − 4 < 2k were lifted, Ea,b would
have to be replaced by a more complicated sum arising from the contributions of
the left side of (2.19).
Proof. Define
G(z, χ ) cosa (bπ z/k) 1
f (z) := . (5.21)
G(χ ) sin(2π z/k) e2πiz − 1
We integrate f (z) over the contour CN of Theorem 2.1. On the interior of CN ,
f (z) has simple poles (at most) at z = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1 with residues
χ (n) cosa (bπ n/k)
Rn = = Rk−n , 1 ≤ n < k/2, (5.22)
2π i sin(2π n/k)
since b is even and χ is odd. In contrast to the proof of Theorem 5.1, our new
function f (z) has a simple pole at 0 with residue
k−1 √
n=1 χ (n)n k h(−k)
R0 = √ =− , (5.23)
2π i k 2πi
570 B. C. Berndt, A. Zaharescu

by (1.8) and (1.9). As in the proof of Theorem 5.1, f (z) also has a simple pole at
z = k/2, here with residue
√
k
Rk/2 = (−1) ab/2
{2χ(2) − 1} h(−k). (5.24)
2π i
Hence, invoking the residue theorem and using (5.22)–(5.24), we find that
 √ √
f (z) = 2S5 (k, χ, a, b) − k h(−k) + (−1)ab/2 {2χ (2) − 1} k h(−k).
CN
(5.25)
We next evaluate directly the integral above. Noting from (5.21) that f (z) has
period k, we see that the integrals over the indented vertical sides of CN cancel. We
now examine the individual terms on the top and bottom of CN , i.e., on CNT and
CN B , respectively. As before, on CNT , we write f (z) as a power series in eπN/k
with the leading term having degree D = ab − 4. As in the proof of Theorem
5.1, we need only to determine the constant term in this power series. Using the
expansion
a  
1 ab −2b a 1 ab
a
cos (bπz/k) = a µ (1 + µ ) = a µ
a
µ−2bm , (5.26)
2 2 m=0
m

where µ = e−πiz/k , (2.16), (2.19), and (5.11) in the definition (5.21) of f (z), we
find that the constant term in this expansion is equal to
1
AD := √ Ea,b ,
2a−1 k
where Ea,b is defined in (5.20). Hence,
  0 √
k
f (z)dz = AD dx = −kAD = − a−1 Ea,b . (5.27)
CN T k 2
By a similar calculation,
 √
k
f (z)dz = − a−1 Ea,b . (5.28)
CN B 2
Hence, combining our two evaluations of the integral of f (z) over CN arising
from (5.25) and then (5.27) and (5.28), we conclude that
√
k √ √
− a−2 Ea,b = 2S5 (k, χ, a, b) − kh(−k) + (−1)ab/2 {2χ (2) − 1} kh(−k),
2

which upon a slight rearrangement yields (5.19). 


Trigonometric sums 571

Corollary 5.6. For χ as above,

k−1
√
χ (n) cot(2π n/k) = χ (2) k h(−k). (5.29)
n=1

Proof. Set a = 1 and b = 2 in Theorem 5.5. Noting that E1,2 = 0, we complete

the proof. 


6. Schemmel’s Theorems

The method used in the proofs of the results in this paper is very flexible, and one
can prove in the same way various variants of the results above. For instance, one
can use this method to prove the following identity obtained by Schemmel [17].
Theorem 6.1. For any real parameter α, and χ as in the statement of Theorem
2.1,


k−1
1

k−1
sin kα sin(2πn/k)
χ (n) sin nα = √ χ (n) . (6.1)
n=1
2 k n=1 cos(2πn/k) − cos α

As was shown by Schemmel, one can use this identity to prove certain formulas
involving class numbers. By taking α = π/2 in (6.1), he derived the equality

1

k−1
h(−k) = − √ χ (n) tan(2πn/k) . (6.2)
2 k n=1
Also, after differentiating (6.1) with respect to α and then taking α = 0,
Schemmel deduced Lebesgue’s class-number formula [13]

2 − χ (2)

k−1
h(−k) = √ χ (n) cot(πn/k) . (6.3)
2 k n=1
Proof. In order to prove (6.1), we integrate the function
G(z, χ ) sin kα sin(2πz/k) 1
f (z) := (6.4)
G(χ ) cos(2π z/k) − cos α e2πiz − 1
over the contour CN from the proof of Theorem 2.1. Taking into account the peri-
odicity of both sides of (6.1) as functions of α, we may assume in what follows
that 0 ≤ α ≤ 2π. We may also assume that α
= π and that α is not equal to one
of the numbers 2π n/k, with n ∈ {0, 2, . . . , k}, since, if we prove (6.1) for any
0 ≤ α ≤ 2π except for these finitely many values, then (6.1) will also hold for
these values by the continuity of both sides of (6.1) as functions of α.
Assume then in what follows that 0 ≤ α ≤ 2π, α
= π, and α
= 2πn/k,
0 ≤ n ≤ k. Then, on the interior of CN , the function f (z) has simple poles (at
572 B. C. Berndt, A. Zaharescu

most) at z = 2πkα
, at z = k − kα
2π
, and at z = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1. Using (1.7), we see
that, for 1 ≤ n ≤ k − 1,

χ (n) sin kα sin(2π n/k)

Rn = . (6.5)
2π i cos(2π n/k) − cos α

The residue of f (z) at z = kα

2π
is given by

G(kα/2π, χ ) sin kα sin α 1

Rkα/2π = √  2π 
i k e − 1 − k sin α
ikα
√
− k sin kα

k−1
= χ (n)einα . (6.6)
2π i eikα − 1 n=1

Similarly, the residue of f (z) at z = k − kα

2π
equals

G(k − kα/2π, χ ) (− sin kα sin α) 1

Rk−kα/2π = √
i k e−ikα − 1 2π
k
sin α
√
− k sin kα

k−1
= χ (n)e−inα . (6.7)
2π i e−ikα − 1 n=1

Note that 2πiRk−kα/2π is the complex conjugate of 2πiRkα/2π , and therefore

 
√ 1

k−1
2πi(Rk−kα/2π + Rkα/2π ) = −2 k sin kα Re χ(n)e inα
. (6.8)
eikα − 1 n=1

Here
   
1
k−1
1

k−1
Re ikα χ (n)einα = Re ikα/2 χ(n)ei(n−k/2)α
e − 1 n=1 e − e−ikα/2 n=1
 
1

k−1
= Re χ (n)(cos(n − k/2)α + i sin(n − k/2)α
2i sin(kα/2) n=1

1

k−1
= χ (n) sin(n − k/2)α. (6.9)
2 sin(kα/2) n=1
Trigonometric sums 573

We thus deduce from (6.8) and (6.9) that

√

k−1
2πi(Rk−kα/2π + Rkα/2π ) = − 2 k cos(kα/2) χ(n) sin(n − k/2)α
n=1

√
k−1
=− k χ (n)(sin nα + sin(n − k)α)
n=1

√
k−1
=−2 k χ (n) sin nα, (6.10)
n=1
where we used the substitution n → k − n and the assumption that χ is odd in
order to conclude that the contribution of the terms χ(n) sin(n − k)α equals the
contribution of the terms χ (n) sin nα in the sum above. By (6.5), (6.10), and the
residue theorem,


k−1
√
k−1
sin kα sin(2π n/k)
f (z)dz = χ (n) −2 k χ(n) sin nα. (6.11)
CN n=1
cos(2π n/k) − cos α n=1
Next, we let N → ∞ in order to calculate the integral in (6.11) directly. Note
first that f (z) has period k, and so the integrals over the indented vertical sides of
CN cancel. Inverting the order of integration and summation for the integrals on
the horizontal sides, we see that for each j, 1 ≤ j ≤ k − 1, the integrals over the
top and the bottom sides of CN tend to zero as N tends to infinity. Hence,

f (z)dz = 0. (6.12)
CN
The identity (6.1) now follows by combining (6.11) with (6.12). 


7. Stoneham’s Letter to Evans

Theorem 7.1. Let χ be a character satisfying the hypotheses of Theorem 2.1, and
let b be a positive even integer such that b < 2k + 2. Let


k−1
S6 (k, χ, b) := χ (n) cos(bπn/k) cot(πn/k). (7.1)
n=1
Then
√
S6 (k, χ, b) = (2h(−k) − Fb ) k, (7.2)
where
1
b−1
2

Fb := 2 χ (n) + χ ( 21 b). (7.3)
n=1
574 B. C. Berndt, A. Zaharescu

The sum S6 (k, χ, b) is equivalent to a sum described by Stoneham in his letter

of September 3, 1982, to Evans [18]. Stoneham calculated his sum for several
values of b and k = 19 and asked if the sum had ever been previously studied.
No conjectures were given.
Proof. Integrate
G(z, χ ) 1
f (z) := cos(bπ z/k) cot(πz/k) 2πiz (7.4)
G(χ ) e −1
over the contour CN in the proof of Theorem 2.1. For 1 ≤ n ≤ k − 1,
χ (n)
Rn = cos(bπ n/k) cot(πn/k). (7.5)
2π i
A straightforward calculation with the use of (1.8) and (1.9) shows that
√
k h(−k)
R0 = − . (7.6)
πi
Hence, by (7.5), (7.6), and the residue theorem,
 √
f (z)dz = S6 (k, χ, b) − 2 k h(−k). (7.7)
CN

Next, we provide a direct calculation of the integral above. Since, b is even,

by the periodicity of f (z) in (7.4), we see that the integrals over the indented
vertical sides of CN cancel. As before, we next expand f (z) in powers of µ on
CN T . Using (2.18) (with a = 0), (2.19), and the expansion
1 b
cos(bπ z/k) = µ (1 + µ−2b )
2
twice, we find that on CNT ,

∞
χ (n)
−2r
k−1
i
f (z) = µb (1 + µ−2b )(1 + µ−2 ) 2n
µ + O(µb−2−2k ).
2G(χ) n=1
µ r=0

The only contribution to the integral of f (z) over CNT arises √ from the constant
term in this expansion which is readily seen to equal Fb /(2 k), where Fb is
defined in (7.3). We use a similar argument on CNB . Thus, we find that
 
1√
f (z)dz = − k Fb = f (z)dz. (7.8)
CN T 2 CN B

Combining (7.7) and (7.8), we conclude that

√ √
S6 (k, χ, b) − 2 k h(−k) = − k Fb ,
which completes the proof of Theorem 7.1. 

The authors are grateful to the referee for corrections and helpful suggestions.
Trigonometric sums 575

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1. Apostol, T.M.: Euler’s φ-function and separable Gauss sums. Proc. Am. Math. Soc. 24,
482–485 (1970)
2. Ayoub, R.: An Introduction to the Analytic Theory of Numbers. American Mathematical
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