H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Disclaimers / Terms and Conditions Mathematics need practice. This note gets you the U grade if you only read it. There might be errors. Please use some discretion when reading through. This note is definitely not the best. At A Levels now, it is assumed that many proofs and concepts are already exposed to you. Should you be interested, please research yourself for proofs. The use of the graphic calculator is not covered in this note. It is assumed that you have prior knowledge on its use. Assumptions are made to save time and cut back on redundancy. Strong O level concepts greatly assist in reading this note. Included are some relevant concepts that are not in the H2 Mathematics syllabus for enthusiasts. (Denoted by *) Distribute only to students by email or thumbdrive. The usage of these notes by any school or tuition teacher is stricyl prohibited. This is meant for J1 students only. I strongly recommend all J2 students to practice on problems instead of wasting time here. If you bought a copy of this, please ask for a refund. It is free!

Foreword I feel that amongst all Singapore students, many of us may not have the privilege of receiving quality education in the subject of mathematics due to differing teaching pedagogies in various institutions and teachers/mentors. Despite my limited ability, I hope that these notes will assist you in your learning journey for mathematics, be it the A you are aiming for, or to sustain your genuine interest in the subject. It is also apparent many of us learn for the sake of learning. Should you feel that I am actually somewhat trustworthy, I strongly urge you to consider why you are actually in school. Ultimately, it was never about your interest, it is only about the usefulness of the subject. (Supposedly) In JC, I believe all readers can already see how mathematics is useful in daily life. Its like how the NASSA swimming test could be really boring but could save your life should you accidentally fall into the ocean. In essence, learn math for a purpose. With that understanding, I wish you all the best for H2 Mathematics for your promotional exams. Ang Ray Yan Hwa Chong Institution (11S7B)

Page 1 of 32

H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) Contents Basic O Level Revision Laws of Indices Laws of Logarithms Completing the Square Partial Fractions Graphs Trigonometry

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) Page 3l-5l 3l 3l 3r 3r 4l 4r-5l 5r-9l 5r-6l 6l-7l 7l 7r-8l 8l-9l 9l-10r 9l 9r 10l 10l 10r 11l-12l 11l 11r 12l 12r-16l 12r 13l 13l 13r 13r 14l 14l 14r 14r 14r-15l 15l-15r 15r 15r-16l 16l-20r 16l-16r 16r-17r 17r-18l 18l -

All Rights Reserved 18l 18r 19l 19l-19r 19r 20l 20l 20r 20r 20r

Integration by Substitution Integration by Parts Special Types* Finding Area Under Graph Integrating Parametric Equations Solid of Revolution Shell method* Approximation* Length of Curve* Surface of Revolution*

Graphing Techniques Rational Functions, Asymptotes Conics Parametric Equations Transformation of Graphs Special Graphs

Vectors Definitions 21l Properties of Vectors 21l-21r Ratio Theorem 22l Scalar (dot) Product 22l-22r Vector (cross) Product 22r Projection Vectors 23l Perpendicular Distance 23l Area of Parallelogram / Triangle 23l Straight Lines 23r Interactions between Straight Lines 23r-24l Planes 24r Interactions (btw. Lines and Planes) 24r-25l Interactions between Planes 25r-26r Angle Bisectors 26r Distance between Skew Lines 26r 27l-28l 27l 27l-27r 27r 28l 28l-32l 28l 28l-28r 28r 29l 29l-29r 29r-30r 30r 31l-32l 32l-32r

Functions Definition / Set Notation One to One / Inverse Functions Composite Functions Piecewise Functions Hyperbolic Functions*

Inequalities Rational Functions Modulus Inequalities System of Linear Equations

Binomial Expansion Pascals Triangle and Expansion The Binomial Series Approximation Maclaurin/Taylor Series*

Differentiation Limits Differentiation by First Principle Techniques of Differentiation Implicit Differentiation Trigonometric Functions Inverse Trigonometric Functions Exponential / Logarithmic Function Parametric Equations Tangents and Normals Rates of Change Stationary Points Maxima / Minima problems Graph of derivatives

Sequences and Series Arithmetic Progression (AP) Geometric Progression (GP) Sequences / Recurrence Relation Sigma Notation and Properties Method of Differences Method of Common Differences* Mathematical Induction Convergence and Divergence*

Miscellaneous -

Integration Definitions Integration of Standard Forms Integration using Partial Fractions Integration of Modulus Functions

Formulas for Shapes and 3D Shapes 32l-32r 32r

Credits

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 1.3 Completing the Square

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Chapter 1: Basic O Level Revision

Before we proceed, it is assumed that you have got a moderate grasp of your O level syllabus. This section only serves as a revision, not teaching material. Hence, materials are mostly in brief. If you wish to revise your O level syllabus, please grab a copy of my notes catered for O levels. 1.1 Laws of Indices For an index notation, we have the following:

The objective of this technique is as follows: Hence, starting from ( ) ,

This is exactly equal to: ( ( ) ( ) )

As such, the law of indices states that: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ( ) ( ) Given

, we observe the following:

1. Minimum / maximum value = 2. Stationary point at 1.4 Partial Fractions For any function ,

1.2 Laws of Logarithms Rewriting the index notation, we obtain a logarithmic expression as shown: We need to first perform long division. Otherwise, the following sections detail the basic rules: 1.4.1 Similarly, the law of logarithms exists as such: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. (change of base) 1.4.3 Note: ( ) All methods can be used simultaneously. Note: All 3 methods use substitution (of ) or comparing coefficients (of ) to solve. Page 3 of 32 Irreducible Quadratic Factors Linear Factors

1.4.2

Repeated Linear Factors

H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) 1.5 Graphs (Basic)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 1.6 Trigonometry

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Consider a right angle triangle as shown:

Hypotenuse Opposite Adjacent

The 3 basic ratios are sine, consine, tangent

( ( The red line is a linear graph with equation: ( ) ) )

The blue line is a quadratic graph with equation:

We have the following special values for special angles for application to the 4 quadrants (ASTC): Angle Sin Cos Tan

To find the x-intercepts (or roots) are given by:

It is assumed the reader knows the proof, which involves the use of completing the square. Using (discriminant), we know that:

Also, with the roots (

) known, we deduce:

To plot a polynomial graph in general:

The 4 quadrants here represent which trigonometric ratio will be positive. Angles are calculated in an anti-clockwise manner.

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) Some basic identities include: ( ) ( )

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Chapter 2: Graphing Techniques

2.1 Rational Functions, Asymptotes Rational functions are defined as:

Advanced formulas include: The 2 main types of asymptotes are as follows:

Vertical (

Horizontal (

Other asymptotes ( the expression of

) would depend on and

Furthermore 2 rules must be known for the following triangle:

The following are some graphs with asymptotes:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 1.6.2 Ellipse and Circle

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Given the above diagram, an ellipse has a general equation as follows:

To plot in your Graphic Calculator (GC) without the Conics application, we rewrite it as follows: Circles are formed when 2.2 Conics Generally, the equation of conics is formed by intersecting a plane and a cone: 1.6.3 Hyperbola :

A hyperbola can be defined by 2 different equations:

Source: http://mrhiggins.net/algebra2/?p=210

1.6.1

Parabola

There are only 2 types of equations:

Properties follow either that of a quadratic or root graph.

The vertices of this hyperbola is given by [i.e. the points A and B] The equation for asymptote (green) is given by:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 2.4 Transformation of Graphs 2.4.1

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Translation / Reflecting Graphs :

The graph below shows the translation of

The vertices of this hyperbola is given by [i.e. the points A and B] The equation for asymptotes (green) is given by:

Up/Down Left/Right The graph below shows the scaling of

Note: It is highly unlikely your GC is of any use here because neither the conics app nor normal graph lets you find the asymptotes and vertices. 2.3 Parametric Equations Parametric equations occur when x and y are expressed as a function of a third variable, i.e. Scale parallel to y-axis Scale parallel to x-axis (by factor of 1/a) The graph below shows the reflection of

To plot the graph in GC, press mode. Then, select Par (for parametric) before keying the equations. Sometimes, x and y can be expressed in Cartesian form. If possible, just substitute x = y to eliminate the 3rd variable. 2 standard instances are:

( )

( )

Do take note of the restrictions / domain for the 3rd variable, e.g.

The limit can be set in your GC by accessing window and changing the value of Tmin and Tmax.

Reflect in y-axis Reflect in x-axis Page 7 of 32

H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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The sequence of transformations is as follows: y-coordinate Note: Always apply to the variable x or y only [not the parameter inside the function]. 2.4.2 Applying the Modulus Positive Negative Gradient Vertical Asymptote x-intercept + + -

x intercept at Vertical Asymptote

For , we apply the modulus function in 2 ways to transform the graph: Using the graph

Horizontal Asymptote Horizontal Asymptote Oblique asymptote Approach Stationary Points Maximum Minimum

Minimum

Minimum

To deduce Reflect graph below yaxis upwards 2.5 Special Graphs To deduce from , Reflect graph where x>0 in y-axis

from

Take only the positive part of the graph! Following which, reflect it in the x-axis. Note: for , take the negative portion is positive) Page 8 of 32

of the graph! (So that

H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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3.2 One to One / Inverse Functions Defined 0 or 1 y-intercept x-intercept Vertical asymptote Horizontal Asymptote Stationary Points To verify a function, we use the vertical line test, ensuring that maps only 1 y-value for every x-value. (For instance, circles fail the test) If a function is one to one, we use the horizontal line test to verify its existence. (The blue function is not one to one, unlike the red)

Maximum Maximum Minimum Minimum Maximum

Minimum

Chapter 3: Functions
3.1 Definition / Set Notation For a typical set defined as follows,

Note: The domain also determines if a function is one to one. For instance, if is the domain, then the blue function is a one to one function too. Hence, for all one to one functions, given that:

For instance, to find from for the graph below, we make x the subject. Note that [] stands for closed interval (inclusive) and () stands for open interval (exclusive). Furthermore, other typical sets include:

By definition, a function (f) is a rule assigning x ( ) to y ( ) (i.e. mapping x to y). Hence, X is the domain ( ) and Y is the range ( ).

We see that graphically, the line of .

is a reflection in

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) 3.3 Composite Functions

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 3.5 Hyperbolic Functions*

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For a composite function, we have a function in another. As an example, ( )

The diagram below shows how forms a circle and how form the right half of an equilateral hyperbola.

Hence, in order for to exist, we need to ensure the following holds:

This means that the range of g is a subset of or is equal to the domain of f. . Here are some properties of composite functions:
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HyperbolicAnimation.gif

Hence, the hyperbolic sine and cosine functions are defined by:

Using Eulers Formula ( 3.4 Piecewise Functions Piecewise functions use different rules for different parts of the domain. For instance, { We can obtain repeated patterns from piecewise functions. As an example, we have: {

),

Hence, we observe that trigonometric and hyperbolic functions share the relation:

Thus, they share many similar properties with trigonometric ratios, (e.g. addition theorems, double argument formulas) Lastly, here are some graphs for and : (Do note the range)

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 4.2 Modulus Inequalities First, we note that for ,

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Chapter 4: Inequalities
4.1 Rational Functions To solve for all inequalities with rational functions, 1) Bring all terms to one side. (DO NOT cancel) 2) Remove all factors that are always positive (proven via complete the square) 3) Plot the graph with the roots. 4) Determine interval of graph that satisfies the inequality (i.e. your solution) For all factorisable or ,

Then, we observe useful results for inequalities: Most of the time, we can just plot the graph using GC. However, to get values in exact form, we must solve them. For instance, | | | |

To summarize the above, an example is provided:

( ) After plotting the graphs using GC, we know that:

Also note that by letting , we can solve other inequalities if a substitution can occur. This is illustrated in the following example:

-1

Note: Sometimes the GC is required to solve inequalities, done via finding intersection points. E.g.:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) 4.3 System of Linear Equations

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Chapter 5: Differentiation
Legend: 5.1 Limits 5.1.1 Introduction

A system of linear equations is a set of 2 or more equations with 2 or more variables. Its solution is a set of values satisfying all equations in the system (not all systems have unique solutions). To do it manually*, we use the Gauss-Jordan Elimination technique, leveraging on the elementary row operations (ERO) on matrices. For any Matrix [A][B], we wish to get [I][S], where A and B represent the LHS and RHS of the equations, I represents the identity matrix and S represents the solution. For example,

The above expression means that as x approaches , approaches L. Also, and represent approaching from the right and left of respectively (one-sided limit), possibly different for discontinuous functions. For rational functions, where denoted by , is

][

] ( ) ) ) ( ( ( ) ) )

][

( (

][

5.1.2

l'Hpital's Rule

][ ]

][

](

5.1.3

Squeeze Theorem

][

][

However, please use the Graphic Calculator (Plysmlt2) to solve any system. You will only be tested on your ability to formulate the equations, not solve them manually. Page 12 of 32

H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 5.4 Implicit Differentiation ( ) ( )

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5.2 Differentiation by First Principle

As an example of finding a differential,

For the graph and

, we take 2 points, .

5.3 Techniques of Differentiation Assuming you do not already know this, brief proofs will be given throughout this section: 5.3.1 Polynomials

Hence, differentiate y w.r.t. y, then times dy/dx. 5.5 Trigonometric Functions Assuming you dont know the proof, we start with:

( ( ) (

( )

( ) (

5.3.2

Chain Rule

5.3.3

Product / Quotient Rule

Trigonometric derivatives are summarized below:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 5.8 Parametric Equations

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5.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

5.9 Tangents and Normals At a point along a curve ,

| To summarize, | Note: for parametric equations, substitute:

Also remember to express 5.10 Rates of Change

in terms of .

5.7 Exponential / Logarithmic Functions ( )

To summarize the derivatives,

This is used to prove if a curve is strictly increasing/decreasing. For instance,

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 5.11.2 First Derivative Test (left) + Same Sign

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The chain rule is also used to solve problems involving connected rates of change. For instance, A spherical balloon is deflated. When its radius is 3m, its Surface Area is decreasing at 2m2s-1. Find the rate of decrease of radius and volume at the same instant. |

Maximum Minimum POI

0 0 0 / Not 0 (stationary or not)

(right) + Same Sign

5.12

Maxima / Minima problems

With the above knowledge, we can now solve maxima/minima problems. As an example: An 8cm wire is cut into 2 wires. The first of is bent into a circle of circumference . The second is bent to form a square of perimeter . Prove that the sum of areas of the square and circle is a minimum when the radius of the circle is ( 5.11 Stationary Points ) ( )

The red graph shows the global and local stationary points (maximum and minimum). The blue graph shows a non-stationary point of inflexion, and the green showing a stationary point of inflexion (POI). 5.11.1 Second Derivative Test Condition | | | | | | | | Conclusion Maximum at Minimum at Possible stationary POI. Possible nonstationary POI.

5.13

Graph of derivatives

When we plot the graph of derivatives (blue), we look at the value of and . Page 15 of 32

H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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The relevant changes are as follows: Above x-axis Below x-axis Vertical asymptote at Non-vertical asymptote

Important properties for definite integrals are:

Vertical asymptote at Any other asymptote

6.2 Integration of Standard Forms Using anti-derivatives, we immediately observe the following standard forms: 6.2.1 6.2.2 Some Fractions 6.2.3 Hence, a point of inflexion is the point where changes in sign. Exponential Functions Sometimes, we need to multiply the numerator and denominator by the same factor to differentiate. E.g.: 6.2.4 Trigonometric Functions ( ) Polynomials

As with regards to the concavity of the curve,

Chapter 6: Integration
6.1 Definitions Integration was discovered by Newton and Leibniz in the 17th century. It is generally regarded as the anti-derivative, i.e. 2 properties are observed for indefinite integrals:

The definite integral introduces 2 limits, the lower limit a and upper limit b:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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The following is the full proof for integrating

6.3 Integration using Complete the Square

We first express it in this form: )

Hence, the first part is immediately solvable:

Hence to summarize the above, Using double angle, factor formulas and trigonometric identities, we have the following: ( ( ) )

For the second part, we complete the square: ( ( ) ( ) )

Then, we finalize our result with the following: Form | | Result ( ) | |

The proofs can be derived using implicit differentiation and partial fractions.

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 6.6 Integration by Parts

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Given the product rule, we derive the following:

We always need to complete the square. Only then can we apply the following: ( )

The proof is done by implicit differentiation. 6.4 Integration of Modulus Functions For the portion of the graph that is negative, we integrate the negative of it. This suggests we must find the x-intercepts of that graph. E.g.:

Hence, we see that we need integrate v and differentiate u. We choose u like this: L I Log / Ln Inv. Trig A Algebraic T Trig E Exp.

[ (

[ ) (

] )

The following 2 examples illustrate the above:

6.5 Integration by Substitution To solve an integral given the following:

The following are common substitutions*: Given Use Result Integrating by parts a second time:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) 6.7 Special Types* 6.8 Finding Area Under Graph

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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From the above diagram, it is obvious that the area between the graphs is the red portion minus the green portion:

For H2 mathematics, we explore the use of the Riemann Integral in solving area under graph.

Regardless of the way we place the rectangles of width (right, minimum, maximum or left), we obtain the following: As approximation is more accurate as The following is useful for ,

Using the example, the integral for intersecting graphs is:

Also, the area between the curve and the y-axis for some interval : 6.9 Integrating Parametric Equations

Sometimes curves are expressed in parametric equations. To solve them, we observe that:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) 6.10 Solid of Revolution

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 6.12 Approximation*

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The solid of revolution is obtained by rotating a curve about a straight line.

Instead of using rectangles, your graphic calculator uses the trapezium rule to approximate your definite integrals. ( ) ( ( ) ) )

Rotated about the x-axis, we see that this solid comprises many disks. Hence, the Disk method to calculate its volume is used as follows:

6.13

Length of Curve*

To express rotation about the y-axis, rewrite y, making x the subject. 6.11 Shell method* ( ) to ) ( ) is:

To save yourself some trouble, we use a new method for finding the volume when is rotated about the y-axis.

Hence, length of curve from From this view, we observed that instead of adding up disks, we add cylindrical shells (left). Each shell (right) when unfolded gives a volume: 6.14 (

Surface of Revolution*

For interest, the surface area is given by: ( )

Hence, to find the volume of the solid, Note:

is rotated about the y-axis.

This is given by Pappuss centroid theorem (first), where the surface area is equal to the product of the length of curve and distance travelled by the geometric centroid. i.e.:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Chapter 7: Vectors
7.1 Definitions Scalars have a magnitude. Vectors however, have magnitude and direction. For this notes, vectors are represented as: Furthermore, this note tries to use minimal diagrams because anything beyond 3D is not really visual anymore. This also forces you to use spatial imagination. 7.2 Properties of Vectors

Vectors (3D) can be defined by using the co-ordinates:

Source:http://www.technology2skill.com/science_mathematics/vect or_analysis/vector_picture/position_vector_xyz.png

Hence, expressing in column notation: ( ) ( )

From the above, we observe that:

( ) Hence, the magnitude is of (

( ) is therefore: )

Unit vectors (denoted by the ^ above it) [magnitude = 1] of any vector is thus: The parallelogram law of addition (left) demonstrates how to sum 2 vectors, and the polygon law of addition shows how to sum all vectors. Hence, we conclude: Position vectors originate from the origin O. Displacement vectors can be any other vector. They can be equal in magnitude and direction as a position vector. Lastly, for collinear points, we observe that:

Other useful properties include:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) 7.3 Ratio Theorem

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Important results from dot product:

7.5 Vector (cross) Product Given that p divides AB is the ratio Conditions for using ratio theorem: a, b and p must all point inwards or outwards there must be a common point From the above diagram, we observe that: ,

My personal opinion is that it is only a shortcut; otherwise it is more or less redundant. 7.4 Scalar (dot) Product For any two vectors and :

Note that n is the perpendicular vector to both a and b. Alternatively, it is computed as follows: ( Here is the acute/obtuse angle formed when both vectors point towards/away from a point. The result is a scalar. Alternatively, we also know that: ( ) ( ) ) ( )

Basically, we ignore the first row for the first row of our product, second row for the second and third row for the third. Important results from cross product:

Given this, we can find the angle between the 2 vectors. For instance, ( ) ( ) The vector product can give us a vector that is perpendicular to both a and b. For instance: ( ) ( )

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) 7.6 Projection Vectors

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 7.9 Straight Lines

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From the diagram, the projection vector of a on b is ON. | | | | | | | ( 7.7 Perpendicular Distance | ) In this case, a is the position vector and b is the displacement vector. For any line AB, to get the displacement vector, ( ) ( ) ( ) | |
Source: http://www.netcomuk.co.uk/~jenolive/vecline.gif

We see that a line as such would take the form:

When expressed in column notation, By Pythagoras theorem, we know that: | | ( ) ( )

Alternatively, we know that since: | | | | | 7.8 Area of Parallelogram / Triangle Given the above, we know that: | This is the Cartesian equation of the line. 7.10 Interactions between Straight Lines

7.10.1 Intersecting, Parallel and Skew Lines

The above represents the 3 possible interactions involving straight lines. Hence, given 2 straight lines:

First, we test for parallel lines:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) : 7.11 Planes

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Otherwise, equate both lines, solving For instance, ( ) ( ) ( ) (

( )

Equation both lines: A plane is defined by a point A and 2 directional vectors that must be parallel to the plane. In the parametric form: Use the GC (to save time) to solve (using PlySmlt2). Alternatively, knowing that:

7.10.2 Angles between intersecting/skew Lines Like what we do when finding angle between vectors, we just need the displacement vectors this time round: This is the scalar product form of a plane. Also, ( ) ( The Cartesian form of a plane is: 7.10.3 Foot of Perpendicular (Point to Line) Like what we do when finding projection vectors, we just need a point on the line: 7.12 Interactions between Lines and Planes )

7.12.1 Intersecting Lines and Planes

7.12.2 Angle between Lines and Planes First, we check if line is parallel to plane:

7.10.4 Reflection in line for a point To do this we use the ratio theorem ( Page 24 of 32 ):

H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) If line is not parallel to plane,

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 7.13

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Interactions between Planes

7.13.1 Intersection of 2 Planes Otherwise,

One could equate both equations of the planes but I prefer substitution: 7.12.3 Angle between Line and Plane To find the angle between lines and planes, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

(( ) 7.12.4 Distance between Parallel Line and Plane

)) (

( ) To put it in short, we just wish to find . ( ) ( )

For vectors, do create points when you need them. For instance: ( ) ( ) ( )

( )

To do it by equating both planes: ( ( ) ( ) ) ( )

( ) | |(( ) ( ))

( ) ( | Note: ( )| ) ( ) ( )

Note: For distance from point to plane, A is given!

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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7.13.2 Intersection of 3 Planes At a Point No Intersection

7.13.4 Distance between 2 Planes

No Intersection

At a Line

No Intersection Very obviously, we once again let A and B be points in the respective planes:

Source: http://www.vitutor.com/geometry/space/three_planes.html

By no intersection we mean that there is no common point/line of intersection for all 3 planes. The fastest way to solve this is just to solve a system of equations in 3 variables (i.e. PlySmlt2). The 2 examples show the results: 7.14

| |

| | Angle Bisectors

To find the angle bisector, we realize that the resultant vector must be as such:

Hence, in general, the displacement vector for any angle bisector is: ( ) 7.13.3 Angle between Planes 8.1 Distance between Skew Lines ( ) The point of intersection (x) (if lines are given) can be solved by using your GC. ( )

We see that the angle between the planes is the angle between their normal vectors. Hence,

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Chapter 8: Binomial Expansion

8.1 Pascals Triangle and Expansion Pascals triangle (below) shows the binomial coefficient of each term for :

Very useful shortcuts (it is quite obvious actually):

For any rational function, we should try to express in partial fractions first: If for , then we know that: ( ) ( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) If you encounter something like this: ( Note: to find coefficient for term : ) ) ( )

Use if r is positive when even and negative when odd, otherwise use or 8.3 Approximation using Binomial Expansion Being an infinite series, we can use this series to approximate our solutions. For instance,

We either group the terms together before use binomial expansion or we can use the multinomial theorem*. 8.2 The Binomial Series However, if n is a negative integer or fraction, then we use: ( )(

This only applies if

Hence, we can also extend it to the following: ( ) ( )

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) 8.4 Maclaurin / Taylor Series*

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Here are some useful properties of GP:

For any real and complex function that is infinite differentiable in a neighbourhood of real or complex can be expressed as:

For an infinite GP, the sum

only exists when

Hence, when

, we get the Maclaurin Series:

Additionally, we have the Arithmetic Mean (AM) and Geometric Mean (GM)

This is useful in helping us get the derivatives at the point .

Chapter 9: Sequences and Series

9.1 Arithmetic Progression (AP) For an arithmetic progression, the nth term is defined as the following: 9.3 Sequences / Recurrence Relation A sequence can be defined by expressing the nth term in terms of n:

The sum of the first n terms is given by:

Here are some useful properties of GP:

A sequence can also be defined using a recurrence relation, expressing a known term in terms of its relationship with consecutive terms. For instance, the Fibonacci sequence is:

9.2 Geometric Progression (GP) For an arithmetic progression, the nth term is defined as the following:

A sequence may/may not converge:

The sum of the first n terms is given by:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) 9.4 Sigma Notation and Properties

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) Questions usually provide

All Rights Reserved For instance,

As seen sometimes previously in this note, the sigma notation is used for sums: Properties of sigma notation: ( )

9.6 Method of Common Differences* We use the method of common differences to try and deduce the polynomial that generated the sequence. The main idea behind is that:

9.5 Method of Differences If the general term can be expressed as 2 or more terms, then we can use the method of differences: 9.6.1 Sequences generated using Exponentials

We observe that the sequence repeats in the differences. For instance,

Here we see that time we take differences.

repeats itself every

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 9.6.3 Others

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9.6.2 Sequences generated using Polynomials To prove the following used in Chap 6 (integration)

Fibonacci sequences have the following pattern:

We generate the first few differences as shown below:

and take

Generally, any sequence that adds the previous terms see that their differences go in the reverse order. 9.7 Mathematical Induction A method for proving, it is generalized as follows:

When we observe a common difference, we can stop. Since we have taken differences 3 times to get a constant, we can assume that:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Write the proposition Verify proposition with smallest value of n Let P(k) be true for some positive integer k Use P(k) to prove that P(k+1) is true State Conclusion.

The following shows 2 examples of proving: The 3! appears because we differentiated the function 3 times. Then we proceed to generate the same triangle for :

After repeating as shown below,

We finally obtain:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only) 9.8 Convergence and Divergence*

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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The following applies to all sequences that are eventually non-negative. 9.8.1 Comparison Test Hence, for any operating on interval :

An example is provided as follows: {

An example is provided as follows:

[ ]

9.8.2 Integral Test

9.8.3
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral_test_for_convergence

Ratio Test

Note that: From the above, we observe that:

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H2 Mathematics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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The following 2 examples demonstrate its use: 3D Shape Regular Pyramid Cube Cone Cylinder Sphere Rectangular Prism Surface Area Volume

Credits
( ( ) ) This set of math notes is done by Ang Ray Yan, Hwa Chong Institution 11S7B. The following people deserve their due recognition in the making of this set of notes: Mr Yee, my math tutor, for his wonderful applets that helped in my illustration for many points, especially integration. Sim Hui Min for correcting many of my calculation mistakes. Phang Zheng Xun for correcting my formatting and introducing other ways of presenting certain oncepts. Yuan Yu Chuan for improving my command of English that is deemed as powderful.

Chapter 10: Miscellaneous

10.1 Formulas for Shapes and 3D Shapes

Shape Square Circle Triangle Sector Trapezium Ellipse Parallelogram

Area

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