Exploring Qualitative

Research
Dr. David Pollard
Leeds Business School
Leeds Metropolitan University
The Qualitative World View
z There is not a single reality
z Reality is based on perceptions and context
z Reality is different for each person
z Reality changes over time
What is Qualitative Research?
z Qualitative research is a type of scientific research.
z In general terms, scientific research consists of an investigation that:
seeks answers to a question
systematically uses a predefined set of procedures
to answer the question
collects evidence
produces findings that were not determined in
advance
z Qualitative research shares these characteristics. Additionally, it
seeks to understand a given research problem or topic from the
perspectives of the local population.
z Qualitative research is especially effective in obtaining culturally
specific information about the values, opinions, behaviours, and
social contexts of particular populations.
Four Common Frameworks
z Phenomenological
z Grounded Theory
z Ethnographic Research
z Historical Research
Phenomenological
z Purpose to describe the lived experiences as they
are lived (for example, the lived experiences of
examinations)
z Each individuals reality is different and truth is an
interpretation of the meanings of the world
z Research questions look like: what is the lived
experience for a particular phenomenon?
z Outcome is often a theoretical statement
responding to the research question
Phenomenological
z Philosophical Orientation
z The person is integral with the environment
z The world is shaped by the self and also shapes the self
z The person is a self within a body (Heidegger)
z The person possesses a world (relationships, practices,
language, culture)
z The person only has situated freedom meanings constrained
by the world
z The person can only be understood in the context of his or her
world including meaning and structure.
z The person experiences being within a time framework past
and future affect their now
Phenomenological
z Methodology
z What is the meaning of ones lived experience
z The only reliable source of information is the
person the person must interpret the action or
experience for the researcher and the researcher
must interpret the explanation provided by the
person
Grounded Theory
z Glaser & Strauss (1967)
z Purpose theory development by describing social situations
(for example the symbolic meaning of examinations as
expressed through personal work ethics, competitiveness, etc.)
z Each individual creates his or her own reality by attaching a
meaning to a situation. Realities are influenced by the context of
social interactions
z Research questions look like: what are the social interactions of
individuals experiencing a particular situation? or what are the
meanings of xxxx to individuals in a particular situation?
z Outcome is a theory to explain the phenomenon of interest
Grounded Theory Research
z Philosophical Orientation
z Based on Symbolic Interaction Theory
z Explores how people define reality
z Explores how beliefs are related to actions
z Meaning is expressed in terms of symbols
z Meaning is shared by groups
z Group life is based on shared meanings
Grounded Theory Research
z Methodology
z Studies dynamics within groups of people
z Steps of research occur simultaneously
z Uses constant comparison processes
z Outcome is theory explaining the phenomenon
under study
Ethnographic Research
z Purpose to describe a culture through its
characteristics. The researcher must gain entrance
and become part of the culture
z Individuals way of living, believing and adapting
are reflective of the cultural group to which they
identify
z Research question looks like: what are the
behaviours within a culture? Or what are the
similarities or differences in behaviours across
cultures?
z Outcome is a detailed description of a culture and
cultural theory
Ethnographic Research
z Philosophical Orientation
z Seeks to understand ways of living
z Examines all the accumulated ways a group of people
solve problems (Leininger, 1970)
z Identifies the ideals that a group of people hold as
desirable
Ethnographic Research
z Methodologies
z Emic approach studying behaviours from inside
the culture
z Etic approach studying behaviours from outside
the culture
z Examining similarities and differences across
cultures
Historical Research
z Purpose to increase self-understanding through
examination of past events
z History can help explain events and structures
affecting social processes
z Research questions look like: what have we come
from, who are we and where are we going?
z Outcome is a presentation of findings and
interpretations with a discussion of the relevancy to
current times.
Historical Research
z Philosophical Orientation
z History is an estimate of the past from the
standpoint of the present (Miller, 1867)
z There is nothing new under the sun
z History is a search for wisdom, one can learn from
the past
z Explanations of history based on one of three
philosophical views
History reflects progression
History shows a tendency to regress
History shows repetition
Historical Research
z Methodology
z Look at general lines of development
z Look for patterns of regularity and change
z Search for meaning
z Explain causality through theory development
z Generalise to other events and other times
Comparison of Types of Qualitative
Methods
How has the
examination
system evolved?
What are the
cultural aspects?
Observe
traditions, etc.
What social
processes are
relevant? Talk to
students,
teachers, etc.
What is it like to
take
examinations
ask a student!
Example
What occurred
and how is it
relevant to today?
What are the
cultural norms for
a given situation?
What meaning is
attached to the
interaction?
What is the
meaning of the
lived experience?
Research
Question
Oral interviews,
old documents
Cultural
immersion
Symbolic
meanings
words, objects,
etc.
Lived experience
Element of
Study
Understanding
through
examination of
the past
Defined by the
culture
Meaning attached
to situations
Lived
experience
Reality
Historical Ethno-
graphic
Grounded
Theory
Phenomenol
ogical
What Can We Learn From
Qualitative Research?
z The strength of qualitative research is its ability to provide complex descriptions
of how people experience a given research issue. It provides information about
the human side of an issue that is, the often contradictory behaviors, beliefs,
opinions, emotions, and relationships of individuals.
z Qualitative methods are also effective in identifying intangible factors, such as
social norms, gender roles, etc.
z When used alongside quantitative methods, qualitative research can help us to
interpret and better understand the complex reality of a given situation and the
implications of quantitative data.
z Although findings from qualitative data can often be extended to people with
characteristics similar to those in the study population, gaining a rich and
complex understanding of a specific social context or phenomenon typically
takes precedence over eliciting data that can be generalized to other
geographical areas or populations. In this sense, qualitative research differs
from quantitative research.
Some Qualitative Research
Methods
The three most common qualitative methods, are participant
observation, in-depth interviews, and focus groups. Each method
is particularly suited for obtaining a specific type of data.
z Participant observation is appropriate for collecting data on
naturally occurring behaviour in their usual contexts.
z In-depth interviews are optimal for collecting data on individuals
personal histories, perspectives and experiences, particularly
when sensitive topics are being explored.
z Focus groups are effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms
of a group and in generating broad overviews of issues of
concern to the cultural groups or subgroups represented.
z The types of data these three methods generate are field notes,
audio (and sometimes video) recordings, and transcripts.
Additional Methods
Diary methods - The researcher or subject keeps a personal account
of daily events, feelings, discussions, interactions etc.
z Role-play and simulation - Participants may be asked to play a role,
or may be asked to observe role-play, after which they are asked to rate
behaviour, report feelings, and predict further events.
z Case-study - This is an in-depth study of just one person, group or
event.
z Content and discourse analysis These techniques involve the
reading of texts capturing the essence, of the phenomenon. But it may
also be that using more structured, analytical techniques, involving:
(i) sorting;
(ii) categorizing;
(iii) naming themes,
(iv) counting, etc.
As always, the exact method will depend on the nature of the situation,
the personality and expertise of the researcher, the financial and
political context, etc.
Observation
z Requires structured plan and defined set of
participants and equipment
z Method of experiment must be closely
controlled between tests.
z Data collection must be consistent
z Requirement for precise recording, including
any differences found between and within
tests
Observation
z Participant versus non-participant
z Does not rely on memory or willingness to reply and
activities can be recorded in real time.
z Types personal observation, ethnography e.g.
TV, video
z Problems people may act rather than behave
normally and may resent being watched
z Any changes in the environment of the survey
should be recorded in detail
Interviews
z Used for obtaining more detailed and richer
data than is available from surveys
z Usually smaller samples
z Requires a good deal of pre-planning
z Structured versus semi-structured interviews
z Questions of access and independence
z Problems of recording
Interviews
z Quality Criteria for an Interview (Kvale, 1996)
z The extent of spontaneous, rich, specific and
relevant answers from the interviewee
z The shorter the interviewers questions and the
longer the interviewees answers, the better.
z The degree to which the interviewer follows up
and clarifies the meanings of the relevant aspects
of the answer.
z The interviewer attempts to verify his or her
interpretation of the interviewees answers
throughout
Telephone Interviews
z Telephone interviews Advantages
z Less costly than personal interviews
z Can reach a wide geographic area
z Greater anonymity than personal interviews
Disadvantages
z Non-verbal cues cannot be read
z Interviews have to be kept short
z Problem with telephone numbers changing and
contacting the appropriate respondent
Focus Groups
z Used when the researcher is requiring depth and
richness of data from relevant respondents
z Small samples, interacting and discussing
z Can be both exploratory (testing ideas and
questions) and explanatory (explaining motives and
beliefs)
z Problem of respondents influencing each other
z Problem of independence
z Problems of recording usually needs a tape
recorder or video.
Comparing Qualitative and
Quantitative Methods
Quantitative and qualitative research methods differ
primarily in:
their analytical objectives
the types of questions they pose
the types of data collection instruments they use
the forms of data they produce
the degree of flexibility built into study design
quantitative approaches relatively inflexible
It is important to see quantitative and qualitative
methods as part of the same continuum.
Comparing Qualitative and
Quantitative approaches
Quantitative
Seek to confirm hypotheses about
phenomena
z Instruments use more rigid style of
eliciting and categorizing responses to
questions
z Use highly structured methods such as
questionnaires, surveys, and
structured observation
z To quantify variation
z Closed-ended questions
z Numerical (obtained by assigning
numerical values to responses)
z Study design is stable from beginning
to end
z Participant responses do not influence
or determine how and which questions
researchers ask next
z Study design is subject to statistical
assumptions and conditions
Qualitative
z Seek to explore phenomena
z Instruments more flexible,
z iterative style of eliciting and
categorizing responses to questions
z Use semi-structured methods such as
in-depth interviews, focus groups, and
participant observation to describe
variation
z To describe and explain relationships,
individual experiences and group
norms
z Open-ended questions
z Some aspects of the study are flexible
(for example, the addition, exclusion,
or wording of particular interview
questions)
z Participant responses affect how and
which questions researchers ask next
z Study design is iterative, that is, data
collection and research questions are
adjusted according to what is learned
Advantages of Qualitative
Methods for Exploratory Research
z One advantage of qualitative methods in exploratory research is that use of
open-ended questions and probing gives participants the opportunity to respond
in their own words, rather than forcing them to choose from fixed responses, as
quantitative methods do.
Open-ended questions have the ability to evoke responses that are:
meaningful and culturally salient to the participant
unanticipated by the researcher
rich and explanatory in nature
z Another advantage of qualitative methods is that they allow the researcher the
flexibility to probe initial participant responses that is, to ask why or how. The
researcher must listen carefully to what participants say, engage with them
according to their individual personalities and styles and use probes to
encourage them to elaborate on their answers.
Problems With Qualitative
Research
z One major problem is that only relatively small numbers of
subjects can be studied because data collection methods are so
labour intensive.
z It is also often criticized for: being subject to researcher bias, for
example the difficulties in analyzing qualitative data rigorously;
the lack of reproducibility and generalizability of the findings (i.e.
findings may not be applicable to other subjects or settings).
z Proponents of qualitative research would however argue that
there are strategies available to the qualitative researcher to
protect against these potential biases and to enhance the rigour
of the findings. The methodological checklist below helps
qualitative projects assess the quality of published research but
they also provide a useful checklist for researchers to consider
when designing their own qualitative research.
Appraising Qualitative
Research
z Was the research question clearly identified?
z Was the setting in which the research took place clearly
described?
z If sampling was undertaken, were the sampling methods
described?
z Did the research worker address the issues of subjectivity and
data collection?
z Were methods to test the validity of the results of the research
used?
z If quantitative methods were appropriate as a supplement to the
qualitative methods, were they used?
Rigour in Qualitative Research is
Measured Through-
z Openness
z Scrupulous adherence to a specified
philosophical perspective
z Thoroughness in collecting data
z Consideration of all the data during theory
development
z Logic of the emerging theory
z Clarity with which it sheds light on the
studied phenomenon
Research Ethics
z Qualitative research entails interactions with people for
significant periods of time
z Obtaining permission
z Explicitly consider the needs and concerns of the people we
study, that an appropriate rationale for the conduct of research is
provided and that a basis for trust and respect is established
between researchers and study participants.
z Need for informed consent, based on clear guidelines for the
research
z the purpose of the research
z what is expected of a research participant, including the amount of
time likely to be required for participation
z any perceived risks and benefits
z We can find ourselves, for example, making decisions that brings
us to the point where our work threatens to disrupt the work of
the people we are studying.
z Beware unwanted or irrelevant interventions
Confidentiality Issues
z Because much qualitative research is
conversational, it is important to maintain clear
boundaries between what researchers are told by
participants and what they tell to participants.
z As qualitative researchers we take a lot of
information from participants and therefore can feel
a strong need to give similar information in return.
z Strategies for protecting confidentiality should be
evolved at the beginning of the study.
To Sum Up
Strengths and Weaknesses of
Qualitative Research
z Some strengths
z Data based on participants own categories of meaning
z Useful for studying a limited number of cases in depth
z Useful for describing complex phenomena
z Can be used for cross-case analysis
z Provides understanding of peoples personal experiences
z Can determine how participants interpret constructs, for
example self-esteem
z Enables the study of dynamic processes over time
z Can describe in considerable detail phenomena as they
are embedded and situated in local contexts
Strengths and Weaknesses of
Qualitative Research
z Some weaknesses
z Knowledge produced may not be generalisable to
other settings, the findings might be unique to the
relatively few people included in the study
z It is difficult to make predictions
z It might have lower cerdibility
z It is time-consuming
z The results are more easily influenced by the
researchers personal biases
Using Qualitative Research
Methods
z Importance of the research question
z The phenomena being investigated
z The research style of the investigator
z Other factors research culture, publication,
supervisor bias?
Mixed Research
z Within stage
z For example using a questionnaire during data
collection that included both open-ended and
closed questions
z Across stage
z For example - collecting qualitative data and then
performing quantitative analysis through scoring
or coding procedures.
Writing up Results
z There are two basic ways of organizing the results:
1. Presentlng a|| the resu|ts, then gltlng a dlscusslon
(erhas ln a dlfferent sectlon)
2. Presentlng art of the resu|ts then gltlng a
dlscusslon, resentlng another art then gltlng a
dlscusslon, etc.
z The method of organltatlon ou use ul|| deend on
the quantlt and te of resu|ts ou obtaln from
our research. You shou|d |ook for a method of
resentatlon that makes the lnformatlon and ldeas
ou are resentlng as c|ear as osslb|e to the reader.
:ULWLQJXS5HVXOWV
z The research methods must be arorlate to the
ob]ectltes of the stud. lf ou erform a case stud
of one commuter ln order to lntestlgate users'
ercetlons of the efflclenc of ub|lc transort ln
Bangkok, our method ls obtlous| unsulted to
our ob]ectltes.
z The methodo|og shou|d a|so dlscuss the rob|ems
that uere antlclated and ex|aln the stes taken to
retent them from occurrlng, and the rob|ems that
dld occur and the uas thelr lmact uas mlnlmlted.