International Rice Research Notes

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 2 1998

INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE

International Rice Research Notes

The International Rice Research Notes (IRRN) expedites communication among scientists concerned with the development of improved technology for rice and ricebased systems. The IRRN is a mechanism to help scientists keep each other informed of current rice research findings. The concise scientific notes are meant to encourage rice scientists to communicate with one another to obtain details on the research reported. The IRRN is published three times a year in April, August, and December by the International Rice Research Institute. Focus on hybrid rice
Achieving self-sufficiency in rice production and maintaining price stability are important in countries where rice provides food security and generates employment and income for people. In the past three decades, most rice-growing countries, particularly in Asia, have done remarkably well in meeting their rice needs. But by 2030, the world must produce 60% more rice than it produced in 1995 to meet the demand created by increasing population and rising income. This increase must be achieved using less land, less labor, less water, and fewer pesticides, and it must be sustainable. To meet this challenge, increasing the yield potential of rice beyond that of the semidwarf varieties is an important strategy. Hybrid rice is a technology for meeting this challenge. This technology has enabled China to increase its rice production significantly during the past 20 years. IRRI, in collaboration with several national agricultural research systems, has developed rice hybrids for the tropics and helped India, Vietnam, and the Philippines to begin commercializing them. By the 21st century, about 3 million hectares are expected to be covered with hybrid rice, which should produce about 3 million tons of extra rice (worth $450 million) annually. The Third International Symposium on Hybrid Rice Research was held 14-16 November 1996, at the Directorate of Rice Research in Hyderabad, India. The key papers presented are being published as an IRRI-Indian Council of Agricultural Research book. The posters displayed at the symposium appear as notes (in a modified format) throughout this issue of the IRRN. They are denoted by the symbol. We hope that you find these notes to be a valuable source of information.

This issue is dedicated to Dr. Dharmawansa Senadhira.

It is with the deepest regret that IRRI announces the tragic and untimely death of Dr. Dharmawansa Senadhira, plant breeder and leader of the Institute's Flood-prone Rice Ecosystem Program. Dr. Senadhira was killed in a highway accident on 7 Jul in Bangladesh while returning to Dhaka from a field trip associated with a deepwater fish-rice production project. Dr. Senadhira, a citizen of Sri Lanka, had worked at IRRI for 13 yr. With his colleagues, he had successfully developed and refined screening techniques in determining the inheritance of tolerance for soil-related stresses, low temperature, and submergence in rice. Working in close collaboration with national agricultural research systems (NARS) in several countries, he had also developed improved germplasm for tidal wetlands and deeply flooded ricelands, and for irrigated ricelands affected by low temperatures and salinity. Dr. Senadhira also had administrative responsibility for IRRI's office in Bangkok, Thailand. Before joining IRRI in 1985, Dr. Senadhira had been deputy director of agriculture (research) and senior rice breeder in the Sri Lankan Department of Agriculture. While in that position, he had won his country's President's Award for Scientific Achievement and the CERES Medal from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Just prior to his death, he had been informed that he had been awarded the prestigious Fukui International Koshihikari Rice Prize for 1998 in recognition of his outstanding achievements in rice culture development. Dr. Senadhira will be sorely missed by his colleagues at IRRI and his collaborators in the NARS, not only for his excellent scientific achievements and leadership but also for his open, warm, ever-friendly personality, his irrepressible sense of humor, and his willingness to take on new tasks and responsibilities whenever asked. The Institute especially appreciated his dedication as a reviewer to improving the quality of contributions to the IRRN. The news of his death has already brought many messages of sympathy and condolences from friends around the world. Dr. Senadhira, who was unmarried, leaves behind a family in Ranala, Sri Lanka.

IRRN production team

Editor: Bill Hardy Assistant editor: Tess Rola Layout and design: Erlie Putungan Artwork: Erlie Putungan

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Contents
Vol. 23, No. 2, 1998
Germplasm improvement
Genetic resources A new CMS line with a wide compatibility gene 5 New cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) lines with diversified CMS sources and better outcrossing traits in rice 5 Diversifying cytoplasmic sources in rice 5 An indica source of male sterile cytoplasm and its fertility restoration for hybrid rice breeding 6 Male sterile lines for hybrid rice breeding 6 Fertility-altering conditions of promising thermosensitive genic male sterile lines in rice 6 Identifying rice genotypes with the TGMS trait suitable for north India 7 Genetics Zhenong 921: a new indica rice variety with high yield and blast resistance 7 Cytogenetics of alien chromosome addition lines in rice (Oryza sativa L.) with single chromosomes of O. punctata Kotschy 8 Genetic, histological, and histochemical evidence for reversion to partial fertility in WA CMS line IR54752A 9 Genetics of the thermosensitive genic male sterility trait in rice 9 Biochemical markers for characterizing rice genotypes 10 Identifying molecular markers for the gene(s) governing thermosensitive genic male sterility in rice 10 Breeding methods Heterosis over environments in crosses involving indica and tropical japonica rice cultivars 11 Plant regeneration from protoplasts of wild rice, Oryza meyeriana Baill. 11 Chinoor: a promising spontaneous mutant and high-quality rice variety of Madhya Pradesh, India 12 Combination selection method for rice breeding efficiency 13 Yield stability analysis of rice hybrids 14 Yield system analysis in rice hybrids 14 Studying heterosis for grain yield and its components in hybrid rice 15 Standard heterosis of rice hybrids for yield and yield components 15 Developing Pusa 5A, a stable indica CMS line with high outcrossing potential 15 Field evaluation of thermosensitive genic male sterile lines 16 Developing thermosensitive genic male sterile lines in rice 16

Male sterility and fertility behavior of suspected thermosensitive genic male sterile (TGMS) lines 16 Hybrid rice research in Pakistan 17 Hybrid rice: status and future in Bangladesh 17 Grain quality Donors for quality traits from the international aromatic nursery 18 Effect of bran removal on oil recovery 19 Jaymati, a high-yielding summer rice variety with good grain quality for Assam 20 Integrated germplasm improvement Wide adaptability of new rice cultivars developed by the JapanChina collaborative project in Yunnan, China 21 Integrated germplasm improvement irrigated Karnataka rice hybrids 22 TNRH16: a salt-tolerant rice hybrid 22 Pest resistance diseases Differentiation of rice tungro spherical virus variants by RT-PCR and RFLP 22 Mechanism of resistance to rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV) 24 Seed technology Leaf number: a reliable parameter for determining seeding intervals between parental lines in hybrid rice seed production 25 Adapting hybrid rice seed production technology 26 Analyzing leaf number in parental lines for hybrid rice seed production 27 Identifying some favorable environments for hybrid rice seed production in Andhra Pradesh, India 27 Seasonal influence of flowering behavior and plant growth characters on parental lines of hybrid rice 27 Determining seeding intervals of parents in hybrid rice seed production 28 Adjusting flowering of a CMS line in hybrid rice seed production 28 Stress tolerance adverse soils Effective amount of N fertilizer for direct seeding on wet surface of reclaimed saline soil in Korea 29 Identifying optimum seeding time for direct seeding on a wet field surface in reclaimed saline soil in Korea 29 Stress tolerance excess water Distinguishing seedling traits in deepwater rice (Oryza sativa L.) 30 Tolerance for submergence in rainfed lowland rice under repetition of flooding 31

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Yield potential Physiological basis of heterosis in rice 32 Physiological efficiency of rice hybrids 32 Performance of hybrid rice in south Karnataka 33

Fertilizer management Response of rice hybrids to N sources and time of application of N and K 43 Nitrogen response of Karnataka Rice Hybrid 2 43 Integrated pest management diseases The effect of Trichoderma and antifungal agents on rice germination 43 Integrated pest management insects Evolving insecticide use and practices at IRRI 44 Integrated pest management weeds Butachlor safener combinations for weed control in direct-seeded puddled rice 46 Soil microbiology Effect of immobilization of N2-fixing cyanobacteria on solid matrices and their influence on N2-fixing activity and ammonia excretion 47

Crop and resource management

Physiology and plant nutrition Effect of salinity on growth, chlorophyll content, and flag leaf area of rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes 33 Crop management A labor-saving technique in direct-sown and transplanted rice 35 Optimum seedlings per unit area for high-yielding rice varieties in the hill zone of Karnataka 36 Drill sowing of pregerminated rice seed: effect of rainfall on plant stand 38 Effect of planting geometry and N levels on grain yield of hybrid cultures 38 Farm machinery An improved suction apparatus for sampling invertebrate communities in flooded rice 38 A new Senegalese thresher/cleaner responds to small-farmer postharvest needs 39 Technology transfer from Asia to Africa sets the stage for public- and private-sector collaboration in new technology in Senegal 41 Polyurethane rollers: a substitute for rubber rollers in rice dehuskers 42

Socioeconomic impact
Economics of hybrid rice seed production in seed growers fields in Karnataka, India 48 Economics of commercial hybrid rice cultivation 48

Announcement
Scholarships available 48

The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) was established in 1960 by the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations with the help and approval of the Government of the Philippines. Today IRRI is one of 16 nonprofit international research centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR is cosponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its membership comprises donor countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations. As listed in its most recent Corporate Report, IRRI receives support, through the CGIAR, from a number of donors including UNDP, World Bank, European Union, Asian Development Bank, and Rockefeller Foundation, and the international aid agencies of the following governments: Australia, Belgium, Canada, Peoples Republic of China, Denmark, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Islamic Republic of Iran, Japan, Republic of Korea, The Netherlands, Norway, Philippines, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and United States.

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Germplasm improvement
Genetic resources
A new CMS line with a wide compatibility gene
P. Jayamani, K.N. Ganesan, K. Thiyagarajan, M. Rangaswamy, and P. Rangasamy, School of Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641003, India

New cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) lines with diversified CMS sources and better outcrossing traits in rice
M.S. Ramesha, M.I. Ahmed, B.C. Viraktamath, C.H.M. Vijayakumar, and S. Singh, Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030, India

hybrid seed yield without the use of GA3, a costly input in hybrid rice seed production. A reduction in the cost of hybrid seed will help in large-scale adoption. s

In the three-line system (A/B/R) of heterosis breeding in rice, genetic diversity of the A line is very important. The F1 hybrids of indica/japonica crosses show semisterility. Some wide compatibility varieties do produce fertile F1 hybrids when crossed with indica as well as with japonica varieties. A cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) line with a wide compatibility gene will be useful in developing indica/japonica hybrids that can overcome sterility problems. Variety Dular, with a wide compatibility gene, was crossed with different CMS lines during the 1990 dry season. The F1s of V20A/Dular showed 100% pollen sterility and substitution backcrosses were then made. In each backcross generation, 36 plants were raised along with the parental lines. The completely male sterile plants were identified based on pollen sterility and used for subsequent backcrossing up to the BC6 generation. Finally, the genome of Dular was transferred into a V20A cytoplasmic background. In the BC7 generation, a completely male sterile population was built up. This new male sterile line (COMS8A) has many advantages over the existing male sterile lines, although it has an open plant type. COMS8A has the wide compatibility allele, which can be used to exploit indica/japonica heterosis. The line also possesses a high percentage of panicle exsertion, which minimizes the requirement of applying GA3 in seed production. s

Diversifying cytoplasmic sources in rice

M. Rangaswamy and P. Jayamani, School of Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641003, India

About 95% of the commercial hybrids in China and elsewhere are based on a wild abortive (WA) cytosterility system. This excessive reliance on a single source of sterility may give hybrids genetic vulnerability to a sudden outbreak of diseases and insect pests. Another drawback of the WA system is poor panicle exsertion and undesirable flowering behavior, which lead to low seed yield in seed production plots. To overcome these disadvantages, three new and diversified CMS sources have been identified and many CMS lines possessing these sources have been developed. One CMS line from Oryza nivara possessed a sporophytic type of male sterility with a very high frequency of typically abortive pollen grains. The other two sources, from O. rufipogon and O. nivara, possessed a gametophytic type of male sterility as evidenced by a very high frequency of round, sterile-type pollen grains. The new CMS lines were compared with other CMS lines belonging to WA, O. perennis, and MS577A CMS sources during 1994-96 for pollen sterility characteristics and outcrossing traits. Besides stable sterility, the new CMS lines were found to have very high panicle exsertion (92-96%), good stigma exsertion (48-65%), and high outcrossing ability (38-52%) compared with other CMS sources. The search for restorers for the new CMS sources is in progress. The use of good hybrid combinations involving new CMS lines can pave the way for maximizing

Most commercial hybrids of indica rice are based on a wild abortive (WA) source of cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS). This cytoplasmic uniformity could lead to genetic vulnerability to disease and insect pests. There is thus an urgent need for cytoplasmic diversification of the male sterility source for hybrid rice breeding. Direct and reciprocal crosses were made between AA genome species Oryza nivara (Accessions 105879, 101508, 102464, 105343, 101871, and 106046), O. spontanea (106137), O. rufipogon (105616), O. barthii (100934), O. glaberrima (100139), and O. sativa cultivars Co 43, IR50, Co 45, ASD16, White Ponni, and IR64. These cultivars are restorers/weak restorers of WA cytoplasm. The F1 was evaluated and based on pollen or spikelet fertility. Progenies with >99% pollen or spikelet sterility O. nivara (105343)/Co 45, O. barthii (100934)/ASD16, O. barthii (100934)/ IR50, and O. nivara (101508)/IR64 were identified by their reciprocal difference. These sterile hybrids were backcrossed with the respective recurrent parents. Pollen sterility was determined in the BC1, BC2, BC3, and BC4 generations and these lines were found to be stable for complete male sterility. Subsequent backcrosses are in progress to transfer the character of the recurrent parents. s

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An indica source of male sterile cytoplasm and its fertility restoration for hybrid rice breeding
U.S. Natarajan, F.U. Zaman, M.J. Abraham, A. Mahendru, and E.A. Siddiq, Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India

Male sterile lines for hybrid rice breeding

C.P. Rao, Regional Sugarcane and Rice Research Station, Rudrur, Nizamabad 503188, India; and L.P. Yuan, China National Hybrid Rice Research Center, Mapoling, Changsha 410125, Hunan Province, China

The search for alternate sources of sterile cytoplasm in hybrid rice breeding is a priority because more than 90% of the rice hybrids released throughout the world are based on a single sterile cytoplasmwild abortive (WA). Because of the very narrow genetic base provided by the single cytoplasmic source, hybrids carrying this cytoplasm can become vulnerable to pests and diseases found associated with it. We observed reciprocal differences for pollen sterility in the F2 generation in a number of crosses. In one such cross (Pusa 743/Pusa 33), male sterile segregants were observed during 1992, whereas in another reciprocal (Pusa 33/Pusa 743) all the F2 plants were fertile. This indicated that Pusa 743 has sterility-inducing cytoplasm. Of several breeding lines tested for fertility restoration in this cytoplasm, 30% were found to be restorers. Initially, 21% of the lines were identified as maintainers. But only 10% showed a stable reaction for sterility maintenance in the later backcross generations. This indicated that fertility restoration was governed by a single dominant gene, although a majority of the crosses showed significant deviations from Mendelian segregation because of a deficit of recessives. Japonica rices are likely to maintain sterility in this cytoplasm. Three cytoplasmic male sterile lines with a stable sterility reaction were developed. Pusa 1127A was found to be agronomically promising. s

Experience with hybrid maize indicates the utility of diverse cytoplasms as a source of cytoplasmic male sterility. Crop heterogeneity is desirable for the sustainability of commercial hybrids. We studied the morphological and physiological characters of male sterile lines belonging to diverse cytoplasm. We studied eight male sterile lines belonging to wild abortive types (V20 A, Zhengshan 97 A, BO A, Jin 23 A, and Zhi A), IDR or Indonesian paddy rice type (U1 A), dwarf abortive type (Xieqinzao A), and BT or japonica type (80-4 A) during the winter season of 1993-94 in a randomized block design with three replications. Each line was planted in a single row, with a spacing of 20 20 cm. The crop was maintained as per recommended practices. From a nursery 10- , 20-, and 30-dold seedling samples were taken for study. Clean plant samples were collected from the nursery using a digging plate and the roots were freed of soil by washing them with water. From five seedlings per replication, observations were recorded on length, volume by water displacement in a burette, and weight of root and shoot portions. Total tillers, panicle-bearing tillers, and plant height at the vegetative (60 d) and flowering stages were also recorded for each test line. Pollen reaction was studied using an I-KI (1%) solution. The percentage of a certain type of pollen was calculated by the ratio of its occurrence to the total number of pollen grains in a microscopic field. Seed set on male sterile

lines was studied in isolation by bagging. Some lines that expressed good seedling growth and vigor in the nursery were Zhi A (root length, shoot volume, and shoot weight at 30 d), Xieqinzao A (root and shoot length at 30 d, root and shoot volume at 30 d), and Jin 23 A (shoot length at three stages of sampling and shoot weight at 20 and 30 d). Jin 23 A, Zhi A, and 80-4A were tall at the vegetative and flowering stages. The lines flowered in 85-95 d, with Jin 23 A being early and Zhengshan 97 A late to flower. The exsertion of stigmas outside the floret was well expressed in BO A, Jin 23 A, U1 A, and Zhi A. Lines Jin 23 A, V20 A, and Zhengshan 97 A showed 100% unstained and irregularshaped pollen, whereas Zhi A, BO A, and U1 A showed 99-99.5% sterile irregular pollen. Xieqinzao A had 5% stained pollen and 80-4 A had all pollen grains circular, of which 50% were stained. Line BO A had a maximum panicle-bearing tillers and was on a par with Jin 23 A, Zhi A, V 20 A, and Xieqinzao A. There was no seed set in the panicle bag. s

Fertility-altering conditions of promising thermosensitive genic male sterile lines in rice

O.U.K. Reddy, Directorate of Rice Research (DRR), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, 500030; E.A. Siddiq, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi 110001; J. Ali, Crop Improvement Department, Agriculture College and Research Institute; Navalur Kuttapattu, Trichy 620009; A.J. Hussain and M.I. Ahmed, DRR, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030, India

Characterizing thermosensitive genic male sterile (TGMS) lines with respect

Review of notes. The IRRN editor will send an acknowledgment card or an e-mail message when a note is received. An IRRI scientist, selected by the editor, reviews each note. Reviewer names are not disclosed. Depending on the reviewers report, a note will be accepted for publication, rejected, or returned to the author(s) for revision. Comments. If you have comments or suggestions about the IRRN, please write to the editor.

IRRN 1998

to fertility alteration and evaluating their utility in two-line heterosis breeding were the objectives of the present investigation. TGMS lines SA2, F61, JP8-8-1s, JP1, IC10, ID24, and JP24A identified at DRR, Hyderabad, and IR32364, IR68292, IR68294, IR68945, and IR68949, received from IRRI, Philippines, were screened. These TGMS lines were grown under constant and varying temperature and daylength combination regimes in a growth chamber. They were also grown in fields under staggered sowing and ratooning over seasons. Lines SA2, JP88-1s, F61, IC10, and ID24 were found to be interactive with photoperiod; therefore, they are designated as PTGMS. JP1 and the TGMS lines from IRRI were more or less independent of photoperiod influence. The critical fertility point, the temperature at which maximum fertility occurred, ranged from 20 to 26 C in various PTGMS lines and from 20 to 30 C for other TGMS lines. The critical sterility point, the temperature at which total sterility occurred, was at 25 C and above for PTGMS lines and at 32 C for TGMS lines. Reverse TGMS line JP24A showed total sterility below 26 C and complete fertility at 28 C and above. The temperature at which physiological sterility occurred (biological lower limit) and the temperature at which sensitivity for various lines was identified differed. PTGMS lines were stable for sterility under field conditions (March-June), whereas TGMS lines reverted back to fertility under cloudy weather and cooler night temperatures. Stable sterility in PTGMS lines may be because of the dual role of temperature and photoperiod or their interaction. Spikelet fertility under field conditions ranged from 7 to 21% and 11-70% seed set was recorded in a growth chamber for PTGMS lines. This warrants a search to identify critical areas for their seed multiplication.s

Identifying rice genotypes with the TGMS trait suitable for north India
N. Saxena and J.P. Singh, Genetics and Plant Breeding Department, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, India

The discovery of the environmentsensitive genic male sterility (EGMS) system laid the foundation for replacing the three-line system with the simpler and more efficient two-line system for hybrid rice seed production. EGMS includes photoperiod-sensitive genic male sterility (PGMS) and thermosensitive genic male sterility (TGMS) systems. The required daylength differences do not occur in our rice seasons for PGMS seed production. Therefore, we attempted to develop suitable TGMS lines in India. We studied fertility responses to temperature in 15 TGMS lines during 1995-96 under natural environmental conditions at Pantnagar, situated at 29 N latitude, 79.3 E longitude, and 244 m above sea level. The aim was to identify suitable TGMS lines for the northwestern regions of Uttar Pradesh. The TGMS lines were sown on various planting dates and maintained in the nethouse or glasshouse.

Five TGMS lines showed seasonal fertility-sterility transformation under field conditions. These lines were characterized by sterility under high temperature (mean daily average >29 C) and fertility transformation at low temperature (mean daily average 26-28 C). IR68292-10-34-6, IR68292-1034-25, and IR68949-5-31-34 were completely sterile when sown in February to April but partially fertile when planted after the second fortnight of May. IR68945-33-4-14-4 and IR6894533-4-14-7 showed complete sterility when sown in February to May and were partially fertile when sown in June and July. IR68292-10-34-6, IR68292-10-34-25, and IR68949-5-31-34 may be exploited for hybrid seed production with off-season sowing in February to April. Seeds of these lines can be multiplied by sowing in July to August, whereas TGMS lines IR6894533-4-14-4 and IR68945-33-4-14-7 can be used to produce hybrid seed in the main season, and parental lines can be multiplied by sowing in July and August. To exploit these lines in developing commercial hybrids, further studies are in progress to test their stability at several locations in the region and also under controlled temperature conditions. s

Genetics
Zhenong 921: a new indica rice variety with high yield and blast resistance
Shi Chunchai, Department of Agronomy, Zhejiang Agricultural University (ZAU), Hangzhou 310029, China; Chen Wenguang, Seed Corporation of Shaoxin County, Zhejiang 312000, China; Chen Guolin, ZAU; Zhang Genxian, Agriculture Popularization Station of Kaihua County, Zhejiang 324300, China; Shen Zongtan, ZAU; and Wu Jianguo, ZAU

Zhenong 921, a new semidwarf indica rice variety, is derived from Zhongzhe 1/K 125-34 and is suitable for the double-cropped area of southern China. It was registered by Zhejiang Province in 1997 as an early rice variety.

About 2,000 ha in southern China are planted to Zhenong 921, which has a growth duration of about 109 d. Zhenong 921 has a high, stable yield potential under normal fertilization. It yielded 6.7-7.5 t ha-1 in yield trials and its highest yield of 8.1 t ha-1 was 9.3% more than that of the check in 1994. Its leaf blast and neck blast resistance scores were 1.6 and 1.9, compared with check Zhe 852, which scored 4.6 and 3.4, respectively. Zhenong 921 has cold resistance in the seedling stage and good lodging resistance. Tables 1 and 2 show morphoagronomic characters. Zhenong 921 is awnless and medium-grained. The milled rice length and the ratio of length to width are 6.5 mm and 2.5,

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Table 1. Plant traits of Zhenong 921. Plants Year Duration (d) 104.9 112.8 109.3 109.0 195.0 156.0 162.0 171.0 (no. m-2) 406.5 339.0 411.0 385.5 Panicles Productive tillers (%) 77.4 76.6 73.5 75.8

Plant height (cm) 68.9 73.8 80.7 74.5

1994 1995 1996 Mean

Table 2. Agronomic traits of Zhenong 921. Panicle length (cm) 17.4 17.6 18.3 17.8 Grains (no. panicle-1) Fertilized grains (no. panicle-1) 64.3 70.6 75.0 70.0 Fertility (%) 1,000-grain weight (g) 27.6 27.6 27.2 27.5

Year

1994 1995 1996 Mean

85.9 98.3 88.3 90.8

74.9 71.8 84.9 77.2

respectively. It has 83.9% brown rice recovery, 75.5% milled rice recovery, 43.9% head milled rice recovery, 26.3% amylose content, 50 mm gel

consistency, an alkali spreading value of 3, and acceptable cooking or eating quality. s

Cytogenetics of alien chromosome addition lines in rice (Oryza sativa L.) with single chromosomes of O. punctata Kotschy
H. Yasui and N. Iwata, Plant Breeding Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-81, Japan

respective MtAALs and one of them was for a short arm of chromosome 9. An acrosome that consisted of a complete short arm and a heterochromatic proximal region of a long arm for chromosome 4 was observed in the MaAAL. Three MtAALs were

designated as MtAALs 2, 7, and 9S, respectively, and one MaAAL was designated as MaAAL 4S4L. Morphology, seed fertility, and transmission of the extra chromosome of the MtAALs and the MaAAL were compared with the respective primary trisomics and MAALs. The plant morphology of MtAAL 2 and MaAAL 4S4L was similar to that of the respective MAALs, but that of MtAAL 9S was similar to disomics and that of MtAAL 7 was similar to secondary trisomics for the short arm of chromosome 7. Seed fertility of the MAAL, which ranged from 6.6% for MtAAL 2 to 94.5% for MtAAL 7, was higher than the respective primary trisomics and MAALs. The transmission rates of the extra chromosome, which ranged from 22.0% for MtAAL 2 to 28.2% for MaAAL 4S4L, were similar to those of the respective MAALs. The mode of meiotic chromosome behavior of the MtAALs and the MaAAL was compared with that of the respective primary trisomics and MAALs (see table). The ratios of the pollen mother cells (PMCs) with a trivalent were clearly different between primary trisomics (32-67%) and

Monosomic alien addition lines (MAALs) of O. sativa carrying single chromosomes of O. punctata were developed (Yasui and Iwata 1991). In the progenies of these MAALs, we identified plants in which the extra chromosome was telocentric or acrocentric. Three monotelosomic alien addition lines (MtAALs) and one monoacrosomic alien addition line (MaAAL), each carrying single chromosomes of O. punctata, were isolated from the progenies of the respective MAALs for chromosomes 2, 4, 7, and 9. Mitotic and meiotic chromosomes of the MtAALs and an MaAAL were analyzed (see figure). A telosome as an extra chromosome was observed in the

Comparison of meiotic chromosome behavior of primary trisomics and MAALs each with a single chromosome of O. punctata. Number of cells Trisomics/ MAAL 12II+1I 11II+3Ia 45 158 26 31 171 50 47 54 155 25 60 41 Cells with trivalent (%) 31.8 3.1 0 66.7 0 0 63.9 0 0.6 67.1 0 0

11II+1III 21 5 0 62 0 0 83 0 1 51 0 0

Total 66 163 26 93 171 50 130 54 156 76 60 41

Triplo 2 MAAL 2 MtAAL 2 Triplo 4 MAAL 4 MaAAL 4S4Lb Triplo 7 MAAL 7 MtAAL 7 Triplo 9 MAAL 9 MtAAL 9Sc

a Two PMCs of MtAAL 2 and three PMCs of MtAAL 7 showed 11II+3I. bMonoacrosomic alien addition line carrying the complete short arm and the proximal long arm of chromosome 4 derived from O. punctata. cMonotelosomic alien addition line carrying the short arm of chromosome 9 derived from O. punctata.

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MAALs or Mt(a)AALs (approximately 0%). The telocentric and acrocentric chromosomes would originate from a misdivision of an alien chromosome and the following chromosome breakage in the PMCs of the respective MAALs at the first or second anaphase. The addition lines with small chromosomal fragments such as alien telocentric and acrocentric chromosomes will serve as a source to transfer useful genes from wild relatives to cultivated rice. Reference
Yasui H, Iwata N. 1991. Production of monosomic alien addition lines of Oryza sativa having a single O. punctata chromosome. In: Rice genetics II. Proceedings of the Second International Rice Genetics Symposium, 14-18 May 1990. Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. p 147-155. s

Chromosome constitution of three monotelosomic and one monoacrosomic alien addition lines of rice each carrying a telocentric or acrocentric single chromosome of O. punctata. Mitotic chromosomes of MtAAL 2 (a), MaAAL 4S4L (b), and MtAAL 7(c), and meiotic chromosomes of MtAAL 9S (d and e). Each arrow indicates the telocentric and/or acrocentric chromosomes derived from O. punctata.

Genetic, histological, and histochemical evidence for reversion to partial fertility in WA CMS line IR54752A
S.L. Kumari, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Pattambi; and M. Mahadevappa, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, India

The widely used wild abortive (WA) cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) line IR54752A for the hybrid rice program at IRRI and in India was reported to be unstable for male sterility characters and therefore restricted to use in seed production. We investigated the causes for the breakdown in sterility. All evidence gathered suggested the presence of multiple nuclear genes (minor) for fertility in the CMS line. Evidence included the presence of partially fertile plants in a cross with the isonuclear maintainer line, genetic studies using selfed and test-crossed progenies of the partially fertile plants, and the comparative ease of restoration of fertility of this CMS line in crosses with restorers

as well as maintainer lines of other CMS lines belonging to the same cytoplasmic source. Histological studies revealed normal behavior and functioning of anther wall tissues, including tapetum and endothecium, as well as normal development of microspores in CMS line IR54752A up to the liberation of microspores. The CMS pollen grains differed from other fertile pollen in histochemical components such as starch, proteins, and RNA at maturity, indicating that mobilization of metabolites to the pollen grains was hindered to some extent at maturity. This showed that factors within the microspore were responsible for the breakdown in sterility in IR54752A. s

Genetics of the thermosensitive genic male sterility trait in rice

Li Rongbai and M.P. Pandey, Genetics and Plant Breeding Department, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263145, India

UPRI 95-140 (P1), the thermosensitive genic male sterile (TGMS) line of lowtemperature fertility transformation type, was analyzed for its inheritance and transformation behavior. Parents, F1, F2, and six test crosses between TGMS (female parent) and UPRI 95-141 (P2), UPRI 95-165 (P3), UPRI 95-124 (P4), UPRI 95-117 (P5), and IR36 (P6)

Routine research. Reports of screening trials of varieties, fertilizer, cropping methods, and other routine observations using standard methodologies to establish local recommendations are not ordinarily accepted. Examples are single-season, single-trial field experiments. Field trials should be repeated across more than one season, in multiple seasons, or in more than one location as appropriate. All experiments should include replications and an internationally known check or control treatment.

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were screened in the field during the main season. In F1 progenies from all crosses, dominance of fertility over complete sterility was observed. F2 populations from P1/P5 and P1/P6 showed segregation for fertility and complete sterility in a ratio of 15:1. This indicated that thermosensitive male sterility was controlled by two pairs of recessive genes with duplicate inheritance. The remaining three crosses displayed monogenic control of this trait. The test cross progenies from P1//P1/P5 showed 3:1 segregation (2=0.0126). The results suggested two pairs of independent recessive genes

controlling the TGMS trait in UPRI 95140. Monogenic inheritance observed in the F2 populations of crosses P1/P2, P1/P3, and P1/ P4 was due to the allelic nature of one of the two pairs of recessive genes present in both the parents involved. Fertility transformation of TGMS plants in segregating populations of crosses depended on the genetic background of the male parents used. In the F2 generation, average maximum fertility of TGMS plants during spring 1996 was 37.7, 45.3, 60.5, and 65.4% in crosses P1/P5, P1/P6, P1/P2, and P1/ P4, respectively, as compared with 41.5% in UPRI 95-140, the female and

TGMS donor parent. Differential behavior of TGMS plants in the F2 for transformation from fertility to complete sterility was observed during the heading period: 25 Apr to 20 May for cross P1/P5, 1-10 May for P1/P6, 1-25 May for P1/P2, 1-10 May for P1/P4, and 1 May for the TGMS female parent. Eight lines identified with early transformation behavior were 97-7S from P1/P2; 34-2S and 69-2S from P1/P5; 206-8S, 206-9S, and 206-10S from P1/ P4; and 79-2S and 79-4S from P1/P6. These lines are being further evaluated for their agronomic performance and for possible exploitation in hybrid breeding.s

Biochemical markers for characterizing rice genotypes

V. Santhy, V. Niral, and M. Dadlani, Division of Seed Science and Technology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India

Eight frequently used genotypes in the hybrid rice program were characterized on the basis of (1) phenol color reaction; (2) electrophoresis profiles of total soluble seed proteins, albumin, and globulin; and (3) polymorphism with respect to esterase (EST), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), peroxidase (POX), alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) isozymes. These genotypes were IR58025A, IR58025B, IR62829A, IRR62929B, IR54742-22-19-3R, IR40750-

82-2-2-2-3R, IR10198-66-2R, and IR20933-68-21-1-1-2-1-R. Seven genotypes were grouped into two classes on the basis of phenol color reaction; IR20933-68-21-1-1-2-1R was distinct from the others because it did not develop color. A comparison of sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis profiles of soluble proteins, albumin, and globulin revealed maximum polymorphism among the genotypes for the albumin fraction. All the genotypes were distinct from each other except for the A and B lines, in which only the presence of a weak band of approximately 14,000 kD molecular weight differentiated IR58025A from its maintainer line. Maximum polymorphism was detected in the isozyme patterns of EST and POX, which differentiated all A

and R lines. The greater intensity of a POX band having an Rm of 0.93 differentiated IR58025A from its B line. A faint MDH band having an Rm of 0.67 was detected in IR62829A, but was absent in its corresponding B line. Thus, a combination of the albumin profile with a POX, EST, or MDH isozyme pattern could identify all eight lines studied. The phenol color reaction was useful in verifying the identity of IR20933-685-21-1-1-2-1R. Such characterization is useful in establishing or verifying the identity of a genotype and in differentiating one genotype from another. The uniformity of these patterns within the population of a genotype needs to be tested. The possibility of using isozyme markers to test genetic purity, particularly of A lines, is now being investigated.s

Identifying molecular markers for the gene(s) governing thermosensitive genic male sterility in rice
O.U.K. Reddy, Directorate of Rice Research (DRR), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad; E.A. Siddiq, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi 110001; J. Ali, Crop Improvement Department, Agriculture College and Research Institute, Navalur Kuttapattu, Trichy 620 009; A.J. Hussain, P. Arti, M.I. Ahmed, and N.P. Sarma, DRR, India

Thermosensitive genic male sterility (TGMS) in rice is advantageous in hybrid seed production compared with three-line breeding. Genetic studies revealed four putative genes imparting thermosensitive male sterility in rice. It was observed that the segregation pattern of this trait in the F2, F3, and backcrosses indicated that sterility caused by the TGMS trait was controlled by a single recessive gene. It was noted, however, that individual TGMS segregants drawn from the same

F2 population exhibited a differential pattern for fertility alteration, suggesting the influence of modifier genes. This makes the transfer of this character difficult to achieve, as selection has to be made for the appropriate fertility alteration level in addition to selection for the TGMS trait. Identifying a suitable molecular marker linked to genes of the TGMS trait may therefore aid in selection. The present study aimed at tagging genes pertaining to TGMS through a bulked

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IRRN 1998

segregant analysis. TGMS line SA2, selected from mutagenified populations, was nonallelic to other sources of TGMS genes and was designated as tms4. TGMS and fertile bulks were made from the F2 population of the cross SA2 (TGMS)/N22 (fertile). Seventy-five operon primers were used to examine polymorphism in SA2, N22,

and bulks. Seventeen polymorphic products were specific to the fertile parent N22 and 19 were specific to the TGMS parent SA2. Of these, the 0.7-kb amplicon of OPA12 and 1.9-kb amplicon of OPS1 were specific to the TGMS trait. TGMS line ID24 was allelic to Norin PL 12 (tms2) and was nonallelic to SA2.

Earlier studies on tagging the Chinese TGMS source reported that the 1.2-kb amplicon was closely linked. A bulked segregant analysis of the F2 of the cross ID24/N22 revealed that a 1.2-kb amplicon of OPB19 was specific to TGMS. Further studies related to mapping are in progress. s

Breeding methods
Heterosis over environments in crosses involving indica and tropical japonica rice cultivars
D.K. Dwivedi, M.P. Pandey, S.K. Pandey, and Li Rongbai, Genetics and Plant Breeding Department, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263145, India

The discovery of wide compatibility genes in rice recently shifted the emphasis on enhancing heterosis from intervarietal hybrids to intersubspecific hybrids. We therefore studied the nature and magnitude of heterosis in inter- and intrasubspecific crosses involving improved tropical japonica (J) parents (BSI 10 [P1], BSI 16 [P2], B4116 [P3], and B4122 [P4]) and indica (I) parents (Govind [P5], Manhar [P6], Pant Dhan 4 [P7], Sarjoo 52 [P8], Pant Dhan 12 [P9], and Narendra 359 [P10]). We evaluated all 45 hybrids and parents in a randomized complete block design under environments with

optimum sowing and high fertility (E1), optimum sowing and optimum fertility (E2), and late sowing and high fertility (E3). We studied 10 agronomic traits, including harvest index and grain yield, for heterosis, heterobeltiosis, and standard heterosis using Pant Dhan 4 as the standard variety. Analysis of variance indicated a large variation among hybrids and parents. Moderate to high heterosis for yield and agronomic traits across environments was recorded. Trends in the magnitude of heterosis were I/J > I/I > J/J for grain yield and plant height and I/J > J/J > I/I for days to flowering. Standard heterosis for grain yield percentage in the respective E1, E2, and E3 environments ranged from -64.5 to 146.1, -70.4 to 82.2, and -67.2 to 63.8. E1 (optimum sowing and high fertility) gave a better response for heterosis expression. Higher heterosis in grain yield accompanied heterosis in panicle number, total dry matter and/or

spikelet number, and grain number panicle-1. Almost 95% of the hybrids recorded negative heterosis for flowering and some were earlier by 11-27 d across environments. Hybrids P3/P8 in E1, P4/P6 in E2, and P1/P5 in E3 recorded 19.1, 20.1 and 20.4% standard heterosis for earliness and 146.1, 66.8, and 60.2% for grain yield, respectively. Standard heterosis for height was 2.0-13.7% across environments. Both parents having Sd1 genes caused F1 height to increase only slightly. Promising hybrids for direct exploitation were P3/P8, P1/P9, and P1/P10 in E1; P4/P7, P4/P6, and P4/ P10 in E2; P4/P7, P7/P9, and P7/P8 in E3; and P3/P8, P4/P7, and P4/P10 over environments. These hybrids showed good prospects for increasing potential yields and per-day productivity in the subtropics. Studies are in progress to improve parents for the thermosensitive genic male sterility trait and resistance against biotic stresses. s

Plant regeneration from protoplasts of wild rice, Oryza meyeriana Baill.

Lahong Sheng, Guangcun He, Lihui Shu, and Lanjie Liao, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China

Oryza meyeriana is a wild rice species distributed in southern China and Southeast Asia. An accession found in Chinas Yunan Province has a strong resistance to bacterial leaf blight. It is

difficult, however, to transfer the disease resistance character of O. meyeriana to cultivated rice (O. sativa) by sexual hybridization because of sexual incompatibility between the two species. Plant regeneration from protoplasts is important for rice breeding and is a prerequisite for genetic manipulation via somatic hybridization. Progress has been made in protoplast culture and regeneration of cultivated rice and other Oryza species. Plants have been recovered from cryopreserved calli in

O. meyeriana. Here, we report on successful plant regeneration from protoplasts of this wild rice. The immature panicles in the stamen and pistil differentiation stage were taken from cryopreserved callusregenerated plants and used as explants. Calli were induced on N6 medium containing 2 mg L-1 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 45 g L-1 sucrose, and 5 g L-1 agar at pH 5.8. Pale yellow primary calli with a dry appearance were transferred to liquid AA2 medium. Fine dispersed calli were

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selectively subcultured every 3 d and maintained in the dark at 25 C on a gyratory shaker at 120 rpm. The suspension cultures with a high regeneration frequency were established within 1 mo and were suitable for protoplast isolation. The suspension cells were precultured for 3 d on MS liquid medium before they were isolated by enzyme solution. The isolated protoplasts had dense cytoplasm and many starch grains were seen in them. The highest yield of protoplasts was 2 107 g-1 fresh weight cells. Protoplasts were cultured in KPR medium with the membrane nurse culture method. An aliquot of about 0.4 mL liquid KPR medium containing protoplasts (4 104) was plated onto a filter (Whatman, 0.2 m) placed over a layer of nurse cells. Nurse cells were embedded in KPR medium with 1% agarose. After 20-30 d of culture, the cell clusters formed could be seen by the naked eye. The rate of colony formation was about 0.0075%. When protocalli grew to 1-2 mm in diameter, they were transferred to N6 medium for proliferation and then to MS regeneration medium for plant regeneration. Green plantlets were regenerated from protocalli after 2-3 wk. The average plant regeneration frequency was 3 plants per 1 107 protoplasts. The total time from callus initiation to plant regeneration of protoplasts was 4-6 mo. Our results showed that the presence of nurse cells was required to induce division of protoplasts. In contrast to suspension cultures, it was difficult to isolate pure populations of intact protoplasts directly from the primary calli. Suspension cells with a good growth status, dense cytoplasm, and embryogenic characters played a critical role in successful culture. Protoplast division and colony formation also depended on the age and status of the suspension cells used for preparation of the layer of nurse cells. Establishment of a protoplast regeneration system makes it possible to transfer resistance genes from O. meyeriana into cultivated rice. s

Chinoor: a promising spontaneous mutant and high-quality rice variety of Madhya Pradesh, India
D. Sharma, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, I. G. Agricultural University, Raipur; and M.P. Janoria, J.N. Agricultural University, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India

Chinoor is a low-yielding, late, tall, and lodging-prone indigenous rice variety of Madhya Pradesh, India. It continues to be grown in spite of its low yield because of its high-quality aromatic slender grains that sell for more than twice the price of Mahsuri. Chinoor is also exported to Middle East countries to a limited extent. We began efforts to reduce duration and plant height of Chinoor in 1995 with a survey in farmers fields to collect possible spontaneous mutants of interest. Progenies of the 25 singleplant selections made were transplanted along with Chinoor in nonreplicated plots for observation. Each progeny plot consisted of 50 plants

grown in 2 rows 20 cm apart. Plants in a row were spaced 15 cm apart. Fertilizer was applied at the rate of 60-40-20 kg NPK ha-1. Twenty plants from each plot were selected randomly and tagged before flowering for observation. One of the progenies flowered 31 d earlier, matured 38 d earlier, and had 28 cm less height than Chinoor. A comparison of the mutant with Chinoor for grain yield, its components, and some physical quality characters was made (see table). Although kernel aroma and translucence apparently stayed the same, the mutant recorded 80% higher grain yield plant-1 than Chinoor. This high yield advantage of the mutant resulted largely from its 30% more panicles plant-1 and 20% higher grain weight panicle-1. The Chinoor mutant, with its higher yield potential and reduced duration and plant height, seems to have potential to not only replace Chinoor but also to be extended to new rice areas where it may enhance productivity and thus profitability of rice cultivation. s

Comparison of Chinoor mutant with Chinoor, Waraseoni, India, 1996 wet season. Character Chinoor mutant (mean SD) 89.6 114.7 113.2 12.8 211.3 15.3 2.4 8.1 2.1 6.0 1.9 3.9 3.2 31.6 2.4 1.6 1.9 1.7 4.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 2.0 Chinoora (mean SD) 120.7 153.0 141.0 8.8 184.1 16.8 2.0 7.5 1.9 5.8 1.7 4.0 3.4 17.5 2.5 1.3 2.5 1.5 7.6 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 2.7

Days to 50% flowering Days to maturity Plant height (cm) Panicles plant-1 (no.) Grains panicle-1 (no.) 1,000-grain weight (g) Panicle weight (g) Grain length (mm) Grain width (mm) Kernel length (mm) Kernel width (mm) L/B (grain) L/B (kernel) Plant yield (g plant1)
a

Av of 20 individuals.

Multiple submissions. Normally, only one report for a single experiment will be accepted. Two or more items about the same work submitted at the same time will be returned for merging. Submitting at different times multiple notes from the same experiment is highly inappropriate. Detection will result in the rejection of all submissions on that research.

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Combination selection method for rice breeding efficiency

Pak Chang Hong, Rice Research Institute, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Pyongyang Democratic People's Republic of Korea

Female male

F1

A new method of breeding was developed in which cross combinations are selected based on productivity in early generations of hybrids. The goal is to develop high-yielding varieties. In this method, crosses are made between superior lines adaptable to the climatic and soil conditions of a specific area as females, and improved lines, intersubspecies derivations, diseaseresistant lines, and new high-yielding varieties as males. The new method consists of the following steps (see figure): In the F2 generation, plants are transplanted at 3 hill-1 in a 10-m2 area, and a check variety is grown for every 4 combinations. Only those combinations with good character traits and that yield at least 90% of what the check yields are selected. 1. In the F3 generation, the same method as that for the F2 generation is followed, but combinations with good character traits and that yield at least 80% of what the check yields are selected. 2. In the F4 generation, 1 plant is transplanted hill-1 in an area of 66 m2 ~100 m2 for each combination, and individual plants are selected. 3. In the F5 generation, the plants selected in the F4 generation are linecultivated (3.3 m2 line-1), and lines with good productivity and traits are selected. 4. In the F6 generation, line tests, uniformity tests, and other preliminary tests are carried out with the promising lines. 5. In the F7 and subsequent generations, line tests, uniformity tests, preliminary yield tests, and comparison tests are made, and adaptability to specific agroclimatic conditions is evaluated and lines are selected.

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

20 plants, 1 plant hill-1, selfing test, quality test, trait test

v v v v v v v v F2 v v v v v v v v

v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v

v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v

v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v

3 plants hill-1, in 10 m2 (1 control per 4 combinations), 1,000 plants, quantity comparison, combination selection, quality test

v v v v v v v v F3 v v v v v v v v

v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v

v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v

v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v

3 plants hill-1, in 10 m2 1,000 plants, quantity comparison, combination selection, quality test

: F4 : :

: : :

: : :

: : :

: : :

: : :

: : :

: : :

: : :

: : :

: : :

: : :

1 plant hill-1, in 66 m2, 2,400 plants, individual selection

F5

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

3.3 m2 line-1, 100 plants, 30-50 lines combination-1, quantity comparison, quality test

F6

:: :: :: :: :: Line

:: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: comparison

:: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: Uniformity test

v v v v v Trait test

v v v v v

v v v v v

v v v v v

Preliminary and comparison test

F7 and further generations: line comparison, uniformity test, preliminary and comparison tests, test of adaptation, state variety comparison.

Design for combination selection in breeding.

The advantages of the method are as follows: 1. Selection of combinations can be made scientifically based on productivity and promising combinations can be adapted.

2. The numbers of lines can be reduced and the field experiments carried out in smaller areas with less labor. 3. The effect of selection is very high because a choice is made with only the relevant fixed plants.

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4. Accurate observations of plants and lines are possible because selection was made only from combinations of highly productive populations. This technique has been applied to develop high-yielding varieties since 1983 and two new high-yielding rice varieties, Toenonbyeo 2 and Pyongyang 24, were developed successfully. The mean yield of Toenonbyeo 2, in comparative tests from 1992 to 1994, was 9,475 kg ha-1, outyielding the check by 1,852 kg ha-1. The yield of this variety, under conditions of no-fertilizer application in 1995, was 8,101 kg ha-1 in Rakrang District, where soil fertility is high. Its record yield under experi-

Germination rate (%) of three varieties under low-temperature conditions at Pyongyang in 1995. Treatment 1a Variety 6d Pyongyang 24 Yomju 1 (tolerant check 1) Olbyeo 1 (tolerant check 2)
a

Treatment 2b 18 d 100 100 82 3d 90 100 91 6d 92 100 98 9d 91 100 100

12 d 98 96 78

80 12 10

15/10 C day/night temperature. b30/25 C day/night temperature.

mental conditions was 11,706 kg ha-1 with 120 kg ha-1 of applied N. The mean yield of Pyongyang 24 for 3 tests from 1993 to 1995 was 8,732 kg ha-1, which was 1,873 kg ha-1 higher than that of the check. This variety showed high yield under conditions of low-fertilizer application. It yielded

7,650 kg ha-1 in 1995 in the demonstration plot in Sariwon City, with the application of 200 kg ha-1 of ammonium sulfate. Its highest recorded experimental yield was 11,282 kg ha-1. Pyongyang 24 is also highly tolerant of cold (see table). s

Yield stability analysis of rice hybrids

S. Hegde and B. Vidyachandra, Regional Research Station, VC Farm, Mandya 571405, Karnataka, India

The stability of some promising rice hybrids released for yield and yield components (panicles plant-1, spikelets panicle-1, fertility, and grain weight) was studied at Mandya, Bangalore, Shimoga, Kathalagere, and Brahmavar in Karnataka. These locations represented different agroclimatic zones. Data from the 1994 wet season on five hybrids and four checks were analyzed as per the Eberhart and Russell model. Highly significant genotype environment interactions were observed for yield and yield components. No hybrid or check variety showed stability over the environments studied for yield. But all the hybrids showed an average performance with a regression coefficient (bi) equal to unity. This was mainly due to instability in the number of spikelets panicle-1 and the degree of fertility. Even though the regression coefficient deviated from unity, mediumduration hybrid IR58025A/KMR3 (KRH2) was the best performer at all the locations, except Brahmavar in coastal Karnataka. Another shortduration hybrid, IR58025A/IR9761-19-

1R (KRH1), also performed similarly, with a yield much superior to that of checks Rasi and Mangala at all locations except Brahmavar. The results from the correlation analysis between stability parameters (bi and s2di) for grain yield and yield components indicate that stability parameters in rice hybrids may be governed by different genes and gene interactions. s

Yield system analysis in rice hybrids

M.S. Ramesha, B.C. Viraktamath, M. IlyasAhmed, C.H.M. Vijayakumar, and S. Singh, Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030, India

Grain yield is a complex trait that is influenced by genetically controlled physiological components. The rate of accumulation of biomass and actual yield, as well as the ratio between these two components, can determine a genotypes yielding ability. At a similar level of harvest index, increased grain yield can come from increased total biomass or increased harvest index, or increased biomass and harvest index. We therefore investigated the physiological and genetic causes of yield superiority in rice hybrids in the 1994 wet season.

The test materials involved eight rice hybrids belonging to different maturity groups, their A, B, and R parents, and three check varietiesJaya, IR72, and Tellahamsa. They were grown in three replications using a randomized complete block design. Observations on shoot and root dry weights at different growth stages were recorded on five random and competitive plants in each replication. Grain yield, panicle dry weight, and spikelet fertility were also recorded. Based on the observations, total biomass at different growth stages and harvest index were calculated. Heterosis over the best check and better parent was calculated and subjected to a test of significance. Only IR58025A/Swarna, PMS3A/PR103, and IR58025A/IR32809 showed significant commercial heterosis for grain yield, total dry matter, and panicle dry weight at harvest despite a negative heterosis for spikelet fertility. These hybrids also showed heterosis for dry matter accumulation at many growth stages. IR58025A/IR52256 and IR62829A/IR53901 showed negative commercial heterosis for grain yield, harvest index, and spikelet fertility with no or very low heterosis for other growth parameters. The negative heterosis for spikelet fertility in all the hybrids clearly indicated a need to improve spikelet fertility in hybrids by

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resorting to special breeding to increase restoration ability. The superior yielding ability of the hybrids over the checks was found to come from increased total biomass and increased panicle weight, with almost the same level of harvest index. Harvest index and panicle weight, however, can be further increased by increasing spikelet fertility in hybrids, which can ensure an additional increase in total grain yield. s

PMS1A/RP2151-173-1-3 (33.21%), and PMS2A/Pusa 44-33 (32.86%) showed positive and signi-ficant standard heterosis for grain yield plant-1, panicles plant-1, and grains panicle-1. s

Standard heterosis of rice hybrids for yield and yield components

K.V. Sitaramaiah, Ch.V.D. Rani, and N.S. Reddi, Rice Research Unit, Agricultural College Farm, Bapatla 522101, India

Studying heterosis for grain yield and its components in hybrid rice
D.V.S. Panwar, R. Kumar, A. Singh, and B.S. Mehla, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Rice Research Station, Kaul 136021, India

Heterosis in hybrid rice was studied in the 1995 wet season under irrigated conditions. Some 22 F1 hybrids developed by using cytoplasmic male sterile lines IR58025A, PMS1A, PMS2A, PMS3A, and PMS10A and 18 restorers were grown along with the standard variety HKR126 in a randomized block design with three replications. Each line was planted in a single row 3 m long. Spacing between rows and plants was kept at 30 15 cm. Observations were recorded for grain yield plant-1, panicles plant-1, grains panicle-1, and 1,000-grain weight. The standard heterosis of F1 hybrids for these traits was calculated over HKR126. The standard heterosis was found to be significant for all four traits. It was both negative and positive for grain yield plant-1 (-0.57 to 54.75%), panicles plant-1 (-14.84 to 89.14%), and grains panicle-1 (-16.04 to 43.28%), and negative for 1,000-grain weight (-34.55 to -5.82%). Positive and significant standard heterosis was observed in 6 hybrids for grain yield plant-1, in 12 hybrids for panicles plant-1, and in 7 hybrids for grains panicle-1. The hybrids PMS1A/Pusa 44-33 (54.75%), PMS3A/RP2151-40-1 (40.86%), PMS2A/IR 31802-56-4-3-3R (37.37%), IR58025A/IRON89-54 (36.48%),

The exploitation of hybrid vigor is widely recognized as the only readily available means to raise the genetic yield ceiling in areas where yields have already approached their potential. In this approach, developing highly heterotic rice hybrids with superior yield performance and evaluating them across environments are important. We assessed the performance of 10 promising rice hybrids to estimate the standard heterosis over popular medium-duration rice variety Prabhat for yield and yield components. Significant differences existed among the hybrids for all characters studied, thus indicating considerable variability. Hybrids were of early to medium duration and had a semidwarf plant stature. Six hybrids had significantly higher grain yield over Prabhat. MTUHR2015 had the highest grain yield (5.65 t ha-1), followed by MTUHR2002 (5.13 t ha-1). The released hybrids APHR1 and APHR2 had the 4th and 5th positions, respectively. Though hybrids had long panicles with more spikelets panicle-1, the expected grain yields were not realized because of spikelet sterility and lower grain weight. The standard heterosis of hybrids for plant height was insignificant except in MTUHR2006, which showed a negative response (-17.8%). Similarly, MTUHR2020 and MTUHR2015 exhibited significant and positive heterosis for panicle length. All hybrids except MTUHR2006 exhibited a very high positive standard heterosis for number

of spikelets panicle-1. This was reflected in the positive high heterosis for grain yield. All hybrids showed negative and significant standard heterosis for 1,000grain weight because Prabhat had a bold grain with a high 1,000-grain weight of 32 g. Most of the hybrids possessed slender grains with lesser weight. Heterosis is a highly cross-specific phenomenon. To use heterosis successfully to improve grain yield, parental genotypes need to have a high potential yield. We need to reduce spikelet sterility and increase grain weight to realize the effect of high heterosis for number of spikelets panicle-1 in rice hybrids. s

Developing Pusa 5A, a stable indica CMS line with high outcrossing potential
M.J. Abraham, F.U. Zaman, U.S. Natarajan, A. Mahendru, and F. Mohammad, Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi 110012, India

From available germplasm and breeding lines at IARI, we have identified Pusa 150-2, a maintainer with excellent agronomic traits. Pusa 150-2 is a high-yielding semidwarf indica variety with excellent grain quality. When test-crossed with IR58025A, it produced F1 progeny with 100% pollen sterility. The F1 progeny was backcrossed to Pusa 150-2 and a population of approximately 750 BC1 plants was raised. All plants showed 100% pollen sterility under the microscope but segregated for various agronomic characters. Thirty plants showing characters comparable with those of Pusa 150-2 were backcrossed. All the progenies were 100% sterile. Fifteen of these progenies were selected for further backcrossing. All plants in the BC3 population showed 100% sterility. Five of these populations showing close similarity to Pusa 150-2 were further backcrossed and the BC4 population was raised. All five populations showed perfect pollen and

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spikelet sterility. In the BC5 also, pollen and spikelet sterility were maintained in the progenies. The CMS line derived from progeny 1 was named Pusa 5A. The outcrossing potential of this line was evaluated against IR58025 A, PMS2A, PMS 3A, and PMS10A using the respective B lines. Pusa 5A recorded a seed yield of 2.8 t ha-1 vs 2.0, 0.6, 0.7, and 0.8 t ha-1 of IR58025A, PMS2A, PMS3A, and PMS10 A, respectively. Pusa 5A had more tillers, longer panicles, more spikelets panicle-1, and better stigma exsertion than IR58025A. Pusa 5A may therefore prove to be a good alternative to IR58025A, the most popular cytoplasmic male sterile line used in India. s

Field evaluation of thermosensitive genic male sterile lines

C.H.M. Vijayakumar, M.Ilyas-Ahmed, B.C. Viraktamath, M.S. Ramesha, and S. Singh, Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030, India

The use of thermosensitive genic male sterility (TGMS) is well recognized in two-line heterosis breeding. The use of the TGMS system has several advantages over the cytoplasmic genic male sterility system, such as (1) its simple and efficient seed production system, and (2) its greater scope for enhancing heterosis because any genotype can be used as a male parent. To develop hybrids using the TGMS system, it is necessary to identify or develop lines that show a desirable transformation from fertility to sterility and vice versa. We evaluated several TGMS lines that carried TGMS genes introduced from IRRI. Besides intensive study under field conditions for five seasons, starting in 1994, we made simultaneous individual plant selections in these lines. The TGMS lines were (1) IR689454-33-14, (2) IR68948-12-3-7, (3) IR6894911-5-31, (4) IR68945-4-33-4-14, and (5) IR32364-120-1-3-2. Lines 1, 2, and 3 showed very good transformation between seasons. At Hyderabad,

during the wet season, the weather is unstable and daily mean temperatures below 25 C occur frequently. The daily maximum temperature is 29 C, which induces fertility in most of the IRRIbred TGMS lines. During the dry season, however, the daily mean temperature is always >25 C, with a daily maximum of >32 C beginning in the second week of March, which induces sterility in most lines, including the selected lines 1, 2, 3, and 4. During the 1995-96 dry season, 325 plant progenies of TGMS lines 1, 2, 3, and 4 were evaluated in two sets planted at 10-d intervals. The results showed that IR68945-4-33-14 still segregated for plant type, grain type, and sterility, whereas IR68948-12-3-7 and IR68949-11-5-31 were almost stable. Another line, IR68945-4-33-4-14, was uniform, but partially fertile, and appeared to be a very high-temperature sterile type. Plants showing stable sterility were selected and their stubble was planted in the 1996 wet season, in which all those lines transformed to fertility further confirmed their behavior. IR32364-120-1-3-2 did not set seeds in either season after 1994. Although the anthers were light yellow, they did not shed any pollen, which was >99% abortive type. Perhaps it is a very low-temperature fertile type. Lines IR68948-12-3-7 and IR68949-11-531, which also have desirable floral traits that influence outcrossing, will be used in hybrid rice breeding in the coming years. s

is one such possibility that emerged following the chance discovery of photoperiod-sensitive genic male sterile (PGMS) lines and thermosensitive genic male sterile (TGMS) lines in China. A study was conducted to identify a stable TGMS source from suspected and introduced TGMS lines under natural conditions. Thirty-eight lines were evaluated at Coimbatore (high temperature 38/23 C) and at Gudalur (low temperature 30/16 C) simultaneously during summer 1995. Pollen fertility in these lines was recorded during the flowering stage using I-KI (1%) solution. Panicles were bagged and spikelet fertility recorded. Lines TS 15 and TS 16 showed 100% pollen sterility at Coimbatore and 5580% pollen fertility at Gudalur. The sterile lines are maintained as stubble at Coimbatore for further evaluation in the wet season. These lines are also evaluated under controlled conditions to determine the critical sterility and fertility points of temperature. Crosses are also made simultaneously with agronomically superior lines to transfer the TGMS genes. s

Male sterility and fertility behavior of suspected thermosensitive genic male sterile (TGMS) lines
C.R. Elsy and M. Rangaswamy, School of Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641003, India

Developing thermosensitive genic male sterile lines in rice

K. Thiyagarajan, P. Jayamani, R. Latha, P. Suthamathi, and M. Rangaswamy, School of Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641003, India

The three-line method (A/B/R) of heterosis breeding is cumbersome and warrants development of alternate approaches to exploit hybrid vigor commercially in rice. Two-line breeding

The male sterility-fertility response in thermosensitive genic male sterile (TGMS) lines was studied to identify their adaptability to different temperature regimes. Twenty suspected TGMS lines available at the Paddy Breeding Station, Coimbatore, were used for the study. The plants of these lines, which were completely male sterile during summer 1995, were tagged and observed for their male sterility-fertility behavior in the ratooned tillers during winter 1995 and summer 1996 by staining pollen grains with I-KI. Panicle development stages, from the

16

IRRN 1998

formation of pollen mother cells to the late uninucleate stage of pollen grains, were considered as sensitive to temperature. These stages occurred 9-19 d prior to heading (or 9-17 d after panicle initiation). Therefore, the critical temperature at which plants showed variation in pollen sterility and fertility was calculated by considering the average daily temperature and average maximum temperature prevalent during 9-19 d prior to heading. Observations on the mean daily and maximum temperature during the sensitive stages of the identified TGMS lines indicated that these lines showed more pollen fertility when the mean daily temperature was 26 C, with a mean maximum temperature of <32 C. Similarly, a majority of the lines became male sterile when the mean temperature was >27 C, with a mean maximum temperature of >33 C. TGMS 6 (RP2161-106-1 S), TGMS 9 (mutant of IR50), TGMS 10 (C12 japonica purple S), TGMS 16 (IR6894533-4-14-40 S), and TGMS 18 (IR68949 S) showed sterility-fertility changes under such temperature conditions. These lines showed high pollen fertility in December and January and pollen sterility in April and May. TGMS 16 and TGMS 18 remained pollen-free with empty anther sacs in the peak summer months, indicating the more stable nature of these lines. TGMS 18 remained pollen-free up to the first fortnight of June. In November, TGMS 6 showed 25% pollen fertility at a mean daily temperature of 27 C and mean maximum of 31 C. When the mean daily temperature remained the same during March, but the mean maximum rose to 35 C, it showed 100% pollen sterility. This indicated the pronounced influence of maximum temperature on the sterilityfertility behavior of this line. For TGMS 18 also, the influence of maximum temperature became clearer, when the line showed 80% pollen fertility during September at a mean daily temperature of 27 C and maximum temperature of 32 C. The line turned out to be 100%

sterile when plants were exposed to the same mean daily temperature (27 C), but a higher maximum temperature (34 C). These TGMS lines can be successfully used in two-line breeding by undertaking hybrid seed production programs in areas where constantly high temperatures (mean daily temperature >27 C, mean maximum temperature >33 C) prevail in the summer months. Similarly, these lines can be maintained at high-altitude areas where the temperature is low or even in the plains during December-January. s

developed hybrid IR58025A/KS 282 is being field-tested. Target areas for seed production are being located. Grain quality analysis shows that both parents should have accep-table grain quality to develop rice hybrids possessing that same quality. s

Hybrid rice: status and future in Bangladesh

A.W. Julfiquar, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur-1701, Bangladesh

Hybrid rice research in Pakistan

Syed Sultan Ali and M.G. Khan, Rice Research Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, Pakistan

In Pakistan, hybrid rice research began in 1991-92. In evaluations made during 1992-95, IRRI hybrids outyielded local varieties KS 282 and IR6 by more than 50%. For practical exploitation of hybrid rice technology, local Basmati and non-Basmati germplasm is being converted into commercially usable cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) lines. 17156A is the newly developed Basmati CMS line (male sterility source, IR58025A). Restorers are being identified for this line. Less restorer and higher maintainer frequency were observed in local germplasm. Therefore, A R and R R crosses are being made to increase restorer frequency. Maintainer frequency is being increased using B B crosses. IR58025A, IR62829A, IR68897A, IR68896A, IR69617A, and 913A showed an excellent stigma exsertion ratio, outcrossing rate, and other floral characteristics that influence outcrossing. One recessive gene for aroma and two dominant genes for fertility restoration of wild abortive cytoplasm were observed. Anther length and pollen grain size were observed to be monogenically controlled traits. Thermosensitive genic male sterility and the wide compatibility trait are being studied. Recently

The Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) started hybrid rice research in 1993 through an informal collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Initial work involved testing F1 hybrids, and evaluating cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) and restorer lines received from IRRI. In CMS lines IR58025A and IR62829A, an outcrossing rate of 3% was recorded. The maintainers showed 80-90% spikelet fertility and a number of restorers were also identified. Some well-adapted varieties/lines were identified as maintainers or good restorers for the wild abortive cytosterility system. Some elite restorer lines are BR29, BR5876-6-2-1, BR483917-2-2-HR42, BR5690-62-23, BR588212-2-1 and BR5892-32-5-3. Some Chinese CMS lines and their maintainers were also evaluated for their adaptability and performance. These Chinese lines were not adapted to Bangladesh conditions and were highly susceptible to disease and insects. A number of IRRI-developed hybrids were tested in multilocational yield trials during the 1995-96 boro season at Gazipur, Comilla, Bhanga, and Habiganj. A number of rice hybrids outyielded the standard check variety of the same duration by more than 1 t ha-1. Grain quality characteristics of the tested hybrids were comparable with those of our recommended check varieties. These results have encouraged rice scientists and policymakers to develop and use hybrid rice technology in Bangladesh.

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A working group for hybrid rice has been formed with a plant breeder, seed production specialist, and plant pathologist and entomologist. This program involves collaborative research with the Bangladesh Agricultural Develop-

ment Corporation, and other public and private agencies engaged in seed production in the country. A specific, time-bound, and goal-oriented work plan has been made for developing hybrid rice technology for the boro

season. Routine evaluation of elite lines and introduced rice hybrids is continuing. Four hybrid combinations were found promising and these hybrids are undergoing on-farm trials. s

Grain quality
Donors for quality traits from the international aromatic nursery
N. Shobha Rani, B. Krishna Veni, P. Bhaskar Reddy, G.S.V. Prasad, and U. Prasada Rao, Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030, Andhra Pradesh, India
Number 35 30 16 25 20 15 10 3 5 0 Total Short bold Medium slender Long bold Long slender Amylose content 1 17 2 3 2 6 1 2
3

33

23

To identify some varieties with basmati background to be used as donors, the first International Fine Grain Aromatic Rice Observational Nursery (IRFAON), consisting of 33 entries including the international check Basmati 370 along with local check Pusa Basmati 1, was grown under normal cultural practices during the 1996 wet season. All the varieties were analyzed for 14 physicochemical characteristics at the Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad, using standard procedures. These characteristics involve grain size and shape, endosperm appearance, and milling and head rice recovery (HRR). Among the cooking and eating quality traits, water uptake (WU), volume expansion ratio (VER), kernel length after cooking (KLAC), elongation ratio (ER), gelatinization temperature (GT), and amylose (AC) content were studied. Of the entries tested, 22 belonged to long slender, 5 to long bold, 2 to medium slender, and 3 to short bold groups (Table 1) (see figure). In the long slender group, DR28 (7.38 mm), DR29 (7.37 mm), and Shah Pasand (7.35 mm) recorded high kernel length. Sixteen varieties showed >60% head rice, ranging from 60% (PK1656-48-2-2-1) to 69.7% (ARC11554). Among these entries, Basmati 385 and Shah Pasand exhibited high KLAC and ER, comparable with those of the checks. Basmati 385 recorded 14.5 mm KLAC and an

Number 1 4 1 9 3 Head rice recovery Gelatinization temperature

Number of entries promising for key quality traits, 1996 wet season.

Table 1. Number of entries identified as promising for key quality traits, 1996 wet season. Quality traits Category Number Head rice recovery (>60%) 9 3 2 2 16 Intemerdiate gelatinization temperature 3 1 1 1 6 Intermediate amylose content (%) 9 4 1 3 17

Long slender Long bold Medium slender Short bold Total

23 5 2 3 33

elongation ratio of 2.15 and Shah Pasand exhibited 14.2 mm KLAC and an elongation ratio of 1.93. Other entries that possessed moderate to high

KLAC combined with moderate ER were Binam, Domsiah, DR28, DR29, PK1379-9-1-1, PK1399-12-1-1, and Super Basmati.

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IRRN 1998

Table 2. Summary of grain quality characteristics of promising varieties in the International Fine Grain Aromatic Rice Observational Nursery, 1996 wet season. Variety Long slender group DR28 DR31 Domsiah PK1379-9-1-1 PK165648-2-2-1 DM 38 Long bold group Azucena Short bold group ARC 11554 Tulsimanjari 14-2 Origin HRRa (%) KL (mm) L/B Alk val. WU (mL) VER KLAC (mm) ER AC (%) Scent Grn. chalk

Pakistan Pakistan Iran Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan

61.0 61.8 52.0 56.3 60.0 64.2

7.38 6.88 6.80 6.62 6.50 6.53

3.53 3.31 3.54 3.15 3.16 3.27

7.0, 7.0 7.0, 7.0 4.8, 5.0 6.0, 6.0 7.0, 7.0 3.1, 3.1

310 230 290 250 270 130

4.0 3.8 4.7 4.3 4.3 4.0

13.2 11.3 13.2 13.2 12.2 12.1

1.82 1.64 1.94 1.99 1.88 1.85

26.1 26.4 18.2 19.0 22.6 21.4

3 2 3 3 2 3

VOC VOC VOC VOC A OC

Philippines

64.8

6.39

2.88

4.2, 3.2

130

4.0

11.3

1.77

20.9

OC

India India

69.7 67.5

4.17 4.20

2.12 2.19

5.0, 4.3 3.0, 3.0

110 100

4.3 4.3

7.6 7.9

1.82 1.88

21.8 21.0

2 2

A A

a HRR = head rice recovery, KL = kernel length, L/B = length/breadth, Alk val. = alkali value, WU = water uptake, VER = volume expansion ratio, KLAC = kernel length after cooking, ER = elongation ratio, AC = amylose content, scent: 3 = strong, 2 = moderate, Grn. chalk = grain chalkiness: A = absent, VOC = very occasionally present, OC = occasionally present.

Seventeen varieties had the most desirable AC range of 20-25%, and six varieties showed intermediate GT. Three varietiesARC11554, Azucena, and Basmati 385possessed both intermediate AC and GT. Except for PK1385-6-3-1-2, all other varieties had an aroma, which is the typical characteristic of basmati rice.

With excellent phenotypic acceptability, DR28 and DR31 (Pakistan) had >60% HRR, moderate to high KL and KLAC, and slightly higher AC (Table 2). Domsiah (Iran) was another variety that possessed all the quality traits in a desirable range, with a slightly low AC. Other varieties from Pakistan having moderate to high

HRR, KL, and KLAC coupled with good phenotypic acceptability are PK1379-91-1, PK1756-49-2-2-1, and DM38. With the emphasis now shifting toward the development of dwarf short-grained aromatic rice for domestic and export purposes as well, Azucena, ARC 11554, and Tulsimanjari 14-2 may also be used as donors depending on the objectives. s

Effect of bran removal on oil recovery

J.P. Pandey, Department of Post-Harvest Processing and Food Engineering, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263145, Nainital, India

Effect of bran removal on degree of polish and oil recovery of rice bran. Time of milling (s) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Basmatia Dp (%) 0 3.33 3.94 5.08 6.32 7.02 7.83 8.13 8.51 8.84 8.94 9.05 Or (%) 0 15.70 18.57 19.25 19.52 20.91 20.91 19.95 19.51 18.76 17.60 17.07 Wg (g) 0.02299 0.02146 0.02055 0.02010 0.01956 0.01909 0.01801 0.01755 0.01760 0.01700 0.01620 0.01618 Dp (%) 0 2.75 3.49 4.46 5.06 5.34 5.81 6.25 6.56 6.97 7.18 7.57 UPR79 Or (%) 0 14.57 14.90 15.56 16.55 17.46 17.90 17.02 16.34 15.72 15.58 15.07 wg (g) 0.02145 0.02054 0.02032 0.01962 0.01732 0.01730 0.01676 0.01615 0.01610 0.01600 0.10536 0.01480

For the past two decades, India has been meeting a shortage of oils by importing this commodity at extremely high costs in terms of foreign exchange. The demand for vegetable oils in the year 2000 will be 8.75 million t. To augment oil and fat resources in India, rice bran oil needs to be made available to the maximum extent. Experiments were conducted with two popular and common varieties of parboiled rice: coarse (UPR79) and fine (Basmati) rice grown in the Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh, India. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of bran removal on oil recovery. Clean rice samples were collected from a commercial rice mill.

Statistical parameters of Or = aDp - bDp2 Variety Basmati UPR79 a 6.367 6.348 b 0.4859 0.5822 r 0.999 0.991 SEE 0.721 0.699

a Dp = degree of polish on brown rice basis, %; Or = oil recovery of rice bran, %; Wg = weight of one grain, g; r = correlation coefficient; SEE = standard error of estimate.

The moisture content of collected samples of UPR79 and Basmati was determined by the oven method. Both varieties had an average moisture

content of about 14%. The collected rice samples were shelled and milled/ polished via a Satake rice sheller and polisher. Milling time varied from 0 to

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110 s, with an interval of 10 s to control bran removal (degree of polish). The degree of polish ranged from 0 to 9.05% and 0 to 7.57% for Basmati and UPR79 rice, respectively. The collected bran at the end of each interval of milling was used to extract the oil using Soxtec HT. The table shows the effect of time of milling on the degree of polish and oil recovery of bran. Oil recovery ranged from 15.70 to 20.91% for Basmati and 14.57 to 17.90% for UPR79. The maximum oil content was observed at 10 s milling time, for which the degree of polish was 3.33% for Basmati and 2.75% for UPR79. For both varieties of rice bran, the oil recovery starts increasing from 0 to 60 s time of milling samples of bran and then decreases from 70 to 110 s. The oil content of both varieties was maximum at 7.83 and 5.81% degree of polish for Basmati and UPR79, respectively. Weight of a rice grain at the end of each time of milling is shown in the table. Various mathematical models were tested for their suitability (least error prediction criterion) to describe the oil recovery (Or) of bran. The following model was found to correlate the experimental observations satisfactorily: Or = aDp - bDp2 The coefficients a and b and statistical parameters of the equation are given in the table. In view of the high r value and low associated error, the above model has been accepted and tested for validity in commercial rice mills. s

decline in production and productivity in the state of Assam. There is therefore scope for bringing chronically floodaffected and waterlogged winter rice areas under summer (boro) rice cultivation. With the increase in irrigation facilities, summer rice area is increasing fast. But a suitable summer variety for flood-affected areas must be of 160-170 d duration so that it can be harvested before the onset of flooding in mid-May. We therefore developed Jaymati (TTB 103-2), a medium-tall (130 cm) rice variety from the cross Jaya/ Mahsuri by the pedigree method of breeding. Jaymati is photoperiodinsensitive and suitable for transplanting in summer and autumn, and has well-exserted panicles and a brownish husk. Grains are awnless and medium in size. The variety has a 1,000-grain weight of 20.2 g. Kernels are white, with a nonglutinous endosperm. The
Yield performance of Jaymati.

length and width of the kernels are 6.34 mm and 2.16 mm, respectively. Milling recovery is 66.5%. Jaymati is moderately resistant to bacterial blight, gall midge, and stem borer. The duration of Jaymati from seed to seed is 170 d for summer and 130 d for autumn and winter rice. The varietys good grain quality gives it an advantage for growing autumn rice. Most autumn varieties grown by Assam farmers have coarse grains. Because farmers need a Mahsuri type of grain for autumn cultivation, some farmers grow Mahsuri in autumn. But because its longer growth duration is not suitable in that season, Jaymati would be a better choice. Jaymati was tested at several locations throughout the state and it performed well as a summer crop (see table). It was recommended for summer cropping in the Central and Brahmaputra Valley zone of Assam by the state for 1996. s

Yield (t ha-1) Location Year Season Jaymati RARS, Titabar 1989 1990 1991 1991 1991 National trial AICRIP (IET13316), 1991, winter Chiplima Sindri Masodha Kanpur Raipur Titabar Autumn Autumn Autumn Winter Summer 3.4 4.8 3.3 4.4 3.2 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.0 2.2 0.70 1.00 1.25 1.70 0.30 Jaya/local LSD (0.05)

7.7 6.0 4.3 3.7 2.8 4.4

7.0 5.3 4.2 2.9 2.8 4.0 Yield (t ha-1)

1.26 1.35 0.50 0.26 0.72 1.72

Location

Year

Season Jaymati Mahsuri Jagliboro LSD (0.05)

Jaymati, a high-yielding summer rice variety with good grain quality for Assam
T. Ahmed, K.C. Sarma, A.K. Pathak, H. Borah, K. Sharma, S. Hussain, and S. Ali, Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS) , Assam Agricultural University, Titabar 785630, Assam, India

Flooding causes a heavy decrease in winter rice area, with a resulting

RARS, Shillongani, Nagaon 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 On-farm testing 1994-95 Tokowbari Dablongati Bengenati Bahuabheti Pooled average over season and year Autumn Winter Summer Overall

Summer Summer Summer Summer

7.3 6.9 6.4

6.3 6.2 6.2

4.0 4.0 4.0

0.65 0.52 0.81

6.2 4.0 3.3 6.0 3.83 4.76 5.41 4.88

3.2 3.2 3.2 4.8 3.40 4.31 3.58 3.84

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IRRN 1998

Integrated germplasm improvement

Wide adaptability of new rice cultivars developed by the Japan-China collaborative project in Yunnan, China
K. Ise, Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS), Ohwashi 1-2, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan; Sun Youquan, Liu Jishin, Zhou Tiande, and Jiang Zhinong, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences (YAAS), Kunming, Yunnan, China; S. Kudo, Mountainous Region Agricultural Research Institute, Inabu, Aichi, Japan; and Y. Sunohara, Fujisaka Branch of the Aomori Agricultural Experiment Station, Towada, Aomori, Japan
Agronomic performance of Hexi 34 and Hexi 35 in regional trials in Yunnan, China. Character Hexi 34 Hexi 35 Yunkeng 9 (standard) 185 111 16.4 387 131 71.5 22.7 100 S MR R Poor Poor

Growth duration (d) Culm length (cm) Panicle length (cm) Panicles (no. m-2) Grains panicle-1 (no.) Panicle fertility (%) Single-grain weight (mg) Yielding ability (%) Lodging resistance Cool-weather resistance Blast resistance Grain appearance Eating quality
a

187 92 19.0 417 109 79.3 26.3 123 HRa MR HR Good Good

178 93 17.8 388 118 81.4 25.8 126 HR MR M Good Good

HR = high resistance, MR = moderate resistance, M = moderate, S = susceptible.

Chinas Yunnan Province is considered to be one of the centers of genetic diversity in Asian cultivated rice. A collaborative research project between JIRCAS and YAAS for lowland japonica rice breeding using a wide diversity of genetic resources has been conducted in Yunnan since 1982. New rice cultivars developed through the joint project have been grown widely in and around the province since 1989. In 1997, the total area of these cultivars covered more than 200,000 ha, accounting for more than 40% of the japonica rice-growing area and about 20% of the total rice-growing area in Yunnan. In 1996, two rice cultivars, Hexi 34 and Hexi 35, were developed and released by the project; they were officially registered in 1997 by the Yunnan provincial government. Hexi 34 was developed from the cross Yunxi 2/ Dianyu 1, and Hexi 35 from the cross Hexi 15/Hexi 4. The pedigree of these new cultivars can be traced to some Japanese rice genetic resources: highyielding cultivar Todorokiwase, blastresistant germplasm accessions BL 1 and BL 6, and others. Todorokiwase, especially, was the most useful Japanese cultivar, with resistance to cool weather and blast resistance for improving the grain quality and high yielding ability of Yunnan rice in the breeding program.

The principal reason for releasing these two cultivars is that they have a higher yielding ability than current japonica rice cultivars grown in Yunnan, which is the most important factor in crop production in China. Hexi 34 and Hexi 35 performed very well in the uniform trials conducted at 12 sites representative of japonica ricegrowing areas in the central and northern parts of Yunnan (see table). In 24 tests across 12 locations during a 2-yr period, the average yields of Hexi 34 and Hexi 35 were 8.4 and 8.6 t ha-1, respectively, compared with 6.9 t ha-1 for the standard cultivar Yunkeng 9. We conducted a statistical analysis of adaptation based on the data of the uniform trials using the linear regression method. The regression coefficients on the mean yield of each environment for Hexi 34 and Hexi 35 were smaller than those for other cultivars tested (see figure). The findings indicate that these cultivars with high yield potential are well adapted to different environments in Yunnan. The cooking and processing qualities of Hexi 34 and Hexi 35 are superior to those of standard cultivar Yunkeng 9 in Yunnan. Milled kernels of Hexi 34 and Hexi 35 are nonglutinous and nonaromatic; they are translucent in contrast to those of Yunkeng 9, which show a pronounced white belly. Taste panelists rated Hexi 34 and Hexi 35 as

satisfactory in sensory tests of steamed rice. The rapidly rising living standard in urban areas of China has resulted in a remarkable increase in demand for rice with a good taste. These two new cultivars will meet the demand for goodquality rice and could be widely grown in and around Yunnan Province because of their high yielding ability and high grain quality. Finally, we should pay careful attention to the shift in the frequency of blast fungus races. Hexi 34 and Hexi 35 exhibit a race-specific resistance to rice blast disease, the most devastating disease in Yunnans japonica rice-growing areas.
Genotype mean (t ha-1) 9.0 8.5 8.0 7.5 7.0
Hexi line

6.5 6.0 0.6

Standard Others

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

Regression coefficient

Cultivar performance by regression coefficient and mean yield in 24 environments in Yunnan, China.

Vol. 23, No. 2

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But the breakdown of blast resistance is common in many rice-growing areas, often shortly after the release of culti-

vars with race-specific resistance. We should therefore develop breeding strategies for durable resistance to

reduce the impact of rice blast disease by using the abundant rice genetic resources of Yunnan and Japan. s

Integrated germplasm improvement irrigated

Karnataka rice hybrids
R.M. Radhakrishna, B.V. Chandra, S. Lingaraju, and S. Gangadhariah, Regional Research Station, VC Farm, Mandya 571405, Karnataka, India

For more than a decade, farmers in the irrigated area of Karnataka harvested yields of up to 7 t ha-1. No new technologies could help them increase yield further. Therefore, the major objective of the hybrid rice research begun at Mandya was to identify a suitable hybrid that could yield at least 1 t more than the check varieties. This objective was fulfilled by the release in 1994 of Karnataka Rice Hybrid 1 (KRH1) and in 1996 of Karnataka Rice Hybrid 2 (KRH2). The hybrid KRH1 (IR58025A/ IR9761-19-1R) has a yield potential of 7.5-8.5 t ha-1 and matures in 125 d. In 150 on-farm irrigated trials conducted in farmers fields in different districts, KRH1 had a yield advantage of 1.5 t ha-1 over the check varieties. This hybrid possesses field tolerance for major pests and diseases. Medium-duration hybrid KRH2 (IR58025A and KMR3) matures in 135 d and yields at least 1.0 t ha-1 more than the best check variety, Jaya. In addition, it has a better straw yield and exhibits tolerance for blast. Therefore, farmers are impressed by its performance. This hybrid is semitall with long, slender grains. In 15 other trials conducted at Mandya from 1992 to 1995, KRH2 produced an average of 9.3 t ha-1 with a yield advantage of 1.5 t ha-1 over Jaya. Similarly, multilocation, multiseasonal experiments conducted at different research stations in Karnataka in irrigated areas also confirmed the superiority of KRH2, with at least 1.2 t ha-1 more yield than Jaya. This hybrid was found to be more stable over locations. KRH2 recorded the highest yields in national trials during 1995, with a yield

advantage of more than 0.9 t ha-1 over Jaya. Agronomic experiments with these hybrids indicated that the recommended dose of 100-50-50 kg NPK ha-1 for semidwarf varieties is also suitable for these hybrids. Planting one seedling hill-1 and 20- 10-cm spacing are recommended for this hybrid. A seed rate of 20 kg ha-1 is sufficient. s

TNRH16: a salttolerant rice hybrid

A.J. Ali, M. Rangaswamy, R. Rajagopalan, S.E.N. Mohamed, and T.S. Manickam, Crop Improvement Department, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Navalur Kuttappattu, Tiruchirappalli 620009, India

Among abiotic stresses, salinityalkalinity is the major constraint to yield in rice. Experience in other crops indicates that hybrids perform better than varieties under adverse growing conditions. A study was therefore made to evaluate hybrids involving salttolerant parental lines. Ten male sterile lines with their respective B lines and 24 restorer lines were screened under natural salt-stress conditions (pH 9.0

and EC 0.21 dS m-1). Of these, IR62829A, IR66707A, and IR58025A were more tolerant. A similar response was recorded in their respective B lines. Of the 24 restorer lines, only six had good phenotypic acceptability at all stages of growth. Assuming that the additive complementary effect of tolerant A and R lines in the hybrid would enhance the level of salt tolerance, hybrids involving such parental lines were evaluated for salt tolerance. All F1 hybrids derived using IR62829A and IR58025A as male sterile lines, though poor yielders, proved quite tolerant, with high phenotypic acceptability at all stages of growth from seedling to flowering. A high pollen or spikelet number during the last phase possibly resulted in poor grain yields. TNRH16, derived from moderately salt-tolerant parents (IR58025A/C20R), was the only exception. This hybrid recorded a grain yield of 5,002 kg ha-1, whereas the salttolerant check, Co 43, recorded 4,160 kg ha-1. The standard heterosis was 23%. The higher grain yield of TNRH16 may also be attributed to the fact that parental characters for sodicity tolerance get complemented in the F1 hybrid. s

Pest resistance diseases

Differentiation of rice tungro spherical virus variants by RTPCR and RFLP
M.L.M. Yambao, P.Q. Cabauatan, and O. Azzam, IRRI

Rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV) is one of the two causal agents of rice tungro disease, the most important viral disease of rice in South and Southeast Asia. RTSV assists in the semipersistent transmission of rice

tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV), the other causal agent, which causes the symptoms. RTSV is a single-stranded RNA virus of 12,180 nucleotides (Hull 1996). Genome organization shows that it encodes a large polyprotein of 393 kDa, which contains the three coat proteins (CP1, CP2, and CP3), motifs for nucleotide triphosphate (NTP) binding domain, protease (PRO), and polymerase (POL). The polyprotein is thought to be cleaved by the virus-

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RTSV-A 1 3000 1500 1000 700 500 400 300 200 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3

RTSV-V16 4 5 6 7

RTSV-A

RTSV-V16

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Western blot of coat proteins (CP) 1, 2, and 3 of RTSV strains A and Vt6. CPs were separated by SDS-PAGE, transferred to a nylon membrane, and incubated with polyclonal antiserum and antiserum specific to each CP. The size of the molecular weight markers (in kiloDaltons) is indicated on the left. H = healthy extract.

2. Amplification of coat protein regions of RTSV variants by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). (A) 1.5% agarose gel electrophoresis analysis of RT-PCR amplified cDNA using CP1 primers (lane 2), CP2 primers (lane 3), CP3 primers (lane 4), CP1-2 (lane 5), CP2-3 (lane 6), and CP1-3 (lane 7). (B) Autoradiograph of the same gel when blotted onto a nylon membrane and hybridized with an RTSV CP2-3 specific probe. Lane 1, high marker. U = undigested PCR product, H = HindIII digested PCR product, B = BstY1 digested product.

and/or cell-encoded proteases. The genome also contains two short open reading frames at the 3' end. Recent studies have demonstrated that rice cultivars react differently to RTSV variants. TKM6, resistant to type variant A, is susceptible to the RTSVVt6 variant (Cabauatan et al 1995). Discrimination between these two variants cannot be achieved by serological means (Fig. 1). To look for polymorphic molecular markers that will differentiate the two RTSV variants, specific oligonucleotides were used to amplify the coat protein gene fragments of RTSV by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The CP1-2 region was then selected, amplified using RSCP1V2453 and RSCP2C3607 primers, and digested with different restriction enzymes. RSCP1V corresponds to nucleotides (nt) 2453 to 2472 and RSCP2C corresponds to nt 3548 to 3607 in the RTSV-A RNA nucleotide sequence. Briefly, the first-strand cDNA synthesis was performed using 0.1 ng of purified virus or 1 g of total RNA extracts and RSCP2C primer. The mixture was denatured at 70 C for 10 min, chilled on ice for at least 1 min, and after the adjustment to 200 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.4), 500 mM KCl, 25 mM MgCl2, 10 mM dNTP, and 0.1 M DTT in 20 l total volume, the reaction was incubated at 42 C for 5 min. Fifty U of

SuperScript II reverse transcriptase (Gibco BRL) were added and the reaction proceeded at 42 C for 50 min. The reaction was terminated at 70 C for 15 min followed by a chill on ice. The first-strand cDNA was amplified using PCR mixtures containing 200 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.4), 500 mM KCl, 25 mM MgCl2, 10 mM dNTP, a mix of RSCP1V and RSCP2C primers, 5 U of Taq polymerase, and the cDNA to make a total volume of 50 L, and was overlaid with mineral oil. Reaction mixtures were heated at 95 C for 1 min, 95 C for 1 min, 50 C for 1 min, and 68 C for 5 min for 30 cycles, and at 72 C, for 7 min as a final extension. PCR aliquots were analyzed in 1.5% agarose gels, using 45 mM Tris-borate, pH 8.0, 1 mM EDTA (TBE) as electrophoresis buffer. Five L of the product were restricted with HindIII or BstYI (XhoII) at 37 C for 16 h in a final volume of 50 L in the buffer supplied by New England Biolabs Co. Restriction fragments were also observed on 1.5% agarose gels. Using the RT-PCR technique, the three coat protein regions of both RTSV variants were amplified (Fig. 2). The identity of the PCR products was confirmed by Southern blot hybridization using the RTSV-specific CP2-3 probe (a gift from Dr. R. Hull, JIC, England). Digestion of the RT-PCR products from the CP1-2 region using HindIII and BstY1 showed a distinct

banding pattern between the two RTSV variants (Fig. 3). For RTSV-A, restriction digestion with HindIII produced two fragments of about 600 bp each and with BstYI two fragments of about 800 bp and 300 bp. These patterns were identical to those expected from the published sequence of the RTSV CP1-2 region: two fragments of 579 bp for HindIII digestion and two fragments of 807 bp and 284 bp for BstYI digestion (Shen et al 1993). For RTSV-Vt6, restriction digestion with HindIII did not produce any size change in the PCR product, but with
RTSV-A 1 U 2 H 3 B 4 RTSV-V16 U 5 H 6 B 7

1000 700 500 400 300 200

3. RFLP differences between the RT-PCR products of RTSV variants when digested with HindIII or BstY1. Lane 1, low biomarker; 2, undigested RTSV A (U); 3, HindIII digested RTSV A (H); 4, BstY1 digested RTSV A (B); 5, undigested RTSV Vt6 (U); 6, HindIII digested RTSV Vt6 (H); 7, BstY1 digested RTSV Vt6 (B).

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BstYI, two fragments of about 700 bp and 300 bp were observed. Sequence analysis of the CP1-2 region from RTSV-Vt6 (unpublished results) confirmed the absence of the HindIII site and the presence of three fragments after BstYI digestion: 707 bp, 284 bp, and 108 bp. Variation between the two viral strains was confirmed at nt positions 2556 and 3032 based on the published sequence. The RT-PCR method can therefore be used to study RTSV coat protein variation in natural field populations. References
Cabauatan PQ, Cabunagan RC, Koganezawa K. 1995. Biological variants of rice tungro viruses in the Philippines. Phytopathology 85:77-81. Hull R. 1996. Molecular biology of rice tungro viruses. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 34:275-297. Shen P, Kaniewska M, Smith C, Beachy RN. 1993. Nucleotide sequence and genomic organization of rice tungro spherical virus. Virology 193:621-630. s

Mechanism of resistance to rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV)

P.Q. Cabauatan and O. Azzam, IRRI

RTSV is one of two viruses that cause tungro disease. RTSV is independently transmitted, whereas the other virus, rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV), is dependent on RTSV for its transmission by the green leafhopper (GLH), Nephotettix virescens. The occurrence and spread of tungro disease therefore depend on the presence of RTSV in the field. Resistance to RTSV infection would slow down the spread of the disease. One of the most important components of a tungro management strategy has been the use of resistant varieties. After a few years of intensive cultivation, however, these varieties succumb to tungro infection. Changes in field response to tungro infection have been

attributed to a shift in GLH virulence to the varieties over time as shown by experiments conducted under natural and artificial conditions (Dahal 1988, Dahal et al 1990, Cabunagan and Ling 1982). Although these studies indicate that the mecha-nism of resistance to tungro might be vector-dependent, other results showed a different phenomenon. For example, GLH selected on Pankhari 203, TAPL 796, and IR20 for 9-19 generations did not cause a significant increase in RTSV transmission to these varieties (Heinrich and Rapusas 1984, Dahal 1988, Hibino et al 1988). Hence, the mechanism of resistance to tungro may not be vector-dependent only and GLH adaptation may not be the only factor involved in resistance breakdown. In 1995, a new strain of RTSV, designated as Vt6, was isolated from rice variety TKM6 in Midsayap, North Cotabato, Philippines (Cabauatan et al 1995). TKM6 is highly resistant to the IRRI strain of RTSV (strain A) and is the common parent of IR20, IR26, IR30, and IR40. These varieties have moderate resistance to GLH and have shown consistent resistance to RTSV since they were released in the 1970s (Hibino et al 1988). We used IR26 to study the role of GLH adaptation and strain variation in the mechanism of resistance to RTSV and found that resistance to RTSV is both vector- and virus-dependent. GLHs were collected from a field in Polangui, Albay, Philippines, and reared on rice variety TN1 for two generations. The progenies were then

tested for their transmission of RTSV strains A and Vt6 to TN1 (RTSVsusceptible) and IR26 (RTSV-resistant). Afterwards, the GLH colony was divided into two; one-half was reared on TN1 (GLH-susceptible) and the other half on IR26 (GLH-resistant) for 11 generations. The GLH colonies were then tested again for RTSV strain transmission on both TN1 and IR26. Transmission of RTSV strains A and Vt6 by each GLH colony was compared on both varieties before and after selection. RTSV transmission efficiency of selected colonies was also tested on rice varieties TKM6 and Adday Sel., varieties with known resistance to RTSV. All transmission tests were conducted in test tubes at 1 insect seedling-1 for an overnight inoculation access. RTSV was detected in inoculated plants by the enzymelinked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). After 11 generations, the GLH colony on IR26 reproduced as well as the one on TN1. It was reported that a biotype of GLH could be selected by being reared on a resistant rice variety (Kobayashi et al 1983); therefore, the GLH colony on IR26 can be considered to be adapted to its host. Transmission tests showed that the reaction of IR26 to RTSV-Vt6 changed from resistant (23% infection rate before selection) to susceptible (62.8% infection rate after 11 generations on IR26), while the reaction of IR26 to RTSV-A remained resistant (0% infection rate) (Table 1). These results indicate that the resistance of IR26 to RTSV is both

Table 1. Transmission (%) of RTSV strains A and Vt6 to IR26 and TN1 by field-collected GLH before selection on IR26, TN1, TKM6, and Adday Sel. and after selection for 11 generations. Variety Before selectionb TN1 AC TN1 IR26 TKM6 Adday Sel.
a

After selection on IR26 Vt6 82 29 59 0 A 59 0 0 0 Vt6 82 63 31 0

Vt6c 78 23 d

A 82 0 0 0

97 0

One insect seedling1, overnight inoculation access; 40 seedlings treatment1. bField-collected (Bicol) GLH was reared on TN1 for two generations and adult progenies were tested for transmission of RTSV A and Vt6 before selection on IR26. cTested by ELISA 3 wk after inoculation. dNot tested.

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vector- and virus-dependent. In the presence of a resistance-breaking strain, such as Vt6, a shift in GLH virulence (adaptation) results in a breakdown of resistance. On the other hand, the resistance of IR26 did not break down in the presence of RTSV-A. Selection of GLH on this variety for 11 generations did not result in increased RTSV-A infection. TN1 is susceptible to both virus strains regardless of the GLH colony used for inoculation. TKM6 is a differential host for both strains. Although the selected colonies did not transmit RTSV-A, they transmitted RTSV-Vt6 at varying efficiency, depending on the GLH colony used. Variety Adday Sel. (IRGC Acc. No. 180) was highly resistant to both strains regardless of the GLH colony used. Table 2 summarizes the mechanism of resistance of IR26 to RTSV. This study demonstrated that breakdown of resistance to tungro disease can be both virus- and vectordependent. This study also showed that some rice cultivars have true

Table 2. Mechanism of resistance of IR26 to RTSV. Virus strain RTSV-A RTSV-A RTSV-Vt6 RTSV-Vt6 GLH colony Nonadapted Adapted Nonadapted Adapted Reaction Resistant Resistant Resistant Susceptible Mechanism of resistance R to both virus and vector R to virus R to vector

resistance, that is, race-specific resistance, to the virus strain(s) as exhibited by IR26 and TKM6 against RTSV-A and Adday Sel. against both RTSV strains. This information should be considered when formulating effective control strategies against tungro. References
Cabauatan PQ, Cabunagan RC, Koganezawa K. 1995. Biological variants of rice tungro viruses in the Philippines. Phytopathology 85:77-81. Cabunagan RC, Ling KC. 1982. Resistance to tungro: a case of IR34 variety. Philipp. Phytopathol. 18:18. (abstr.) Dahal G. 1988. Transmission of tungroassociated viruses by field and selected colonies of Nephotettix virescens (Distant) and

their mode of feeding on selected cultivars. Ph D thesis, University of the Philippines Los Baos, Laguna, Philippines. 139 p. Dahal G, Hibino H, Cabunagan RC, Tiongco ER, Flores ZM, Aguiero VM. 1990. Changes in cultivar reaction due to changes in virulence of the leafhopper vector. Phytopathology 80:659-665. Heinrich EA, Rapusas HR. 1984. Feeding, development, and tungro transmission by the green leafhopper, Nephotettix virescens (Distant) (Homoptera: Cicadelidae) after selection of resistant rice cultivars. Environ. Entomol. 13:1074-1078. Hibino H, Daquioag RD, Cabauatan PQ, Dahal G. 1988. Resistance to rice tungro spherical virus in rice. Plant Dis. 72:893-847. Kobayashi A, Supaad A, Othman O. 1983. Inheritance of resistance of rice to tungro and biotype selection of green leafhopper in Malaysia. JARQ 16:307-311. s

Seed technology
Leaf number: a reliable parameter for determining seeding intervals between parental lines in hybrid rice seed production
B.C. Viraktamath, C.H.M. Vijayakumar, M.I. Ahmed, S. Singh, and M.S. Ramesha, Hybrid Rice Laboratory, Directorate of Rice Research (DRR), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030, Andhra Pradesh, India

Because parental lines of rice hybrids usually differ in their growth duration, obtaining well-synchronized flowering is a major problem in hybrid rice seed production. The present method of staggered sowing of parental lines based on their growth duration difference, though simple, is not always effective, especially in areas where temperature changes are frequent. Reports from China indicate that because the leaf number of a rice

cultivar is fairly stable, leaf number difference can be used to decide the seeding dates of parental lines in hybrid rice seed production. Before using this method, however, the leaf number of the prospective parental lines to be used in hybrid rice seed production should be ascertained. We conducted an experiment to determine the leaf number of two cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) lines and five promising restorers during the 1994 wet season (WS), 1995 WS, and 1995 dry season (DS) at the DRR research farm. We also compared the extent of variation for leaf number and days to flowering over the seasons. Seedlings were raised in wet beds, 10 seedlings were marked, and leaf counting started from the tenth day. After 25 d, the same seedlings were transplanted to the main field and leaves were counted at intervals of 5 d

until the opening of the flag leaf. Incomplete leaves were numbered by comparing their length with the previous leaf, using a 10-point scale (see figure). The table presents data for leaf number and days to 50% flowering. Leaf number ranged from 15.3 (IR58025A) to 18.5 (Vajram). The coefficient of variation for leaf number over seasons varied from 0.65 to 1.89 and a wide range of variation was observed for growth duration (CV 6.2312.53). Variation for leaf number between WS and DS was negligible, whereas growth duration varied widely between the two seasons. In view of the relative stability of leaf number over seasons, this parameter can be used to determine the seeding intervals between parental lines to obtain better synchronization in flowering.

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Leaf number difference between two parental lines can be used to determine the seeding interval when the leaf growth rates (leaf growth rate = number of days taken to produce the first 7 leaves divided by 7) of the parental lines are the same. For example, the leaf growth rate of CMS line IR58025A and restorer IR40750-822-2-3R is the same (6.4) and the leaf number difference between them is 1.3 during the DS. Therefore, for seed production of hybrid IR58025A/ IR40750-82-2-2-3R during the DS, the male parent is sown first and the female parent is sown later, when the earlier sown male parent has produced 1.3 leaves. In cases where parents differ in their leaf growth rate, the seeding interval is determined by using the following formula: seeding interval (d) = leaf number difference leaf growth rate of the early sown parent. s

5th leaf

4th leaf 3rd leaf 4th leaf 3rd leaf 3rd leaf

4th leaf

2nd leaf

2nd leaf

2nd leaf

1st leaf Coleoptile

1st leaf Coleoptile

1st leaf Coleoptile

Leaf no. 3.3

Leaf no. 3.7

Leaf no. 4.4

Rice seedlings showing different leaf numbers.

Leaf number and growth duration of parental lines of promising hybrids at Hyderabad, Indiaa. Leaf number Parental line 1994 WS IR58025A IR62829A Vajram IR10198-66-2R IR40750-82-2-2-3R IR54742-22-19-3R IR29723-143-3-2-1R
a

Days to 50% flowering Mean 15.3 16.0 18.5 15.3 16.2 18.4 17.4 CV 1.83 0.81 0.75 1.64 0.61 1.89 1.69 1994 WS 103 96 112 90 111 111 119 1995 WS 98 89 119 87 102 109 116 1995 DS 113 106 144 101 125 142 143 Mean 104.6 100.0 125.0 92.6 112.6 120.6 126.0 CV 6.23 7.59 10.98 6.49 8.40 12.53 9.58

1995 WS 15.3 16.0 18.6 15.4 16.1 18.0 17.8

1995 DS 15.0 15.9 18.6 15.0 16.3 18.8 17.3

15.7 16.2 18.3 15.6 16.1 18.5 17.1

WS = wet season, DS = dry season, CV = coefficient of variation.

Adapting hybrid rice seed production technology

A.S. Ponnuswamy, M. Rangswamy, P. Rangaswamy, and K. Thiyagarajan, Hybrid Rice Scheme, School of Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641003, India

The success of hybrid rice cultivation in India depends on a successful seed production program. Optimizing row ratio, determining the economic dose of

GA3 and its stage of application, and identifying a suitable substitute for GA3 are required for hybrid rice seed production. An experimental study revealed that the row ratio of female to male of 6:1 recorded the highest hybrid seed yield of 1,921 kg ha-1. GA3 application increased plant height, panicle exsertion, flag leaf angle, seed setting percentage, and seed yield. Comparatively, the proportionate increase in seed set and yield was high

when applying GA3 at 125 g ha-1. For GA3 application, the 15-20% panicle exsertion stage was found to be ideal for obtaining maximum seed set and seed yield. Besides GA3, applying a 2% foliar spray of juvenile leaf extract of Albizia amara and 2% urea spray enhanced seed yield by increasing panicle exsertion and seed set in the cytoplasmic male sterile line. s

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Analyzing leaf number in parental lines for hybrid rice seed production
C.H.M. Vijayakumar, M.S. Ramesha, B.C. Viraktamath, S. Singh, and M. Ilyas-Ahmed, Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030, India

Determining the seeding interval between two parents in any hybrid combination at a given location is of prime importance for achieving perfect synchronization in a hybrid rice seed production plot. Fixed growth duration, commonly practiced in India, is a simple and easy method to adopt. But fluctuations in temperature and other weather conditions influence maturity. Leaf number, unlike growth duration of a rice variety, is reported to be relatively stable over seasons and years. We studied leaf number and growth duration in promising parental lines

and their utility in hybrid rice seed production. The experimental material included male sterile lines (IR58025A and IR62829A), restorer lines (IR10198R, IR40750R, IR54742R, and IR29723R), and inbred variety Vajram. They were grown in the field in the 1994-95 wet season (WS) and dry season (DS). A threedivision method of counting leaves was adopted; the values for developing leaves are given as 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 for just-emerged, half-emerged, and almostopened leaf, respectively, keeping the fully opened previous leaf as a reference. Besides growth duration, observations were recorded on leaf number by using 12 competitive plants in each entry and counting leaves at an interval of 5 d from the 3rd leaf stage until the flag leaf stage. Results revealed that growth duration fluctuated and depended on season and year. This fluctuation was less (3-14 d) in cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) and restorer lines of medium

durationIR58025A, IR62829A, IR10198R, and IR40750Rcompared with late-maturing restorers (3-29 d). The leaf number of a variety or A and B lines did not vary over seasons or years. The rate of leaf emergence depended on season and stage of plant growth. Leaf emergence is faster in the WS (5 d to emerge) than in the DS (7-8 d). During the growth period, the rate of leaf emergence declined after 65 and 75 d after sowing in the WS and DS, respectively. In general, early-duration varieties showed a lower number of leaves than late-maturing varieties. We have not found any appreciable difference among CMS lines and early and late restorers for their rate of leaf emergence. Based on this study, we suggest adopting 3-4 staggered sowing of parental lines at an interval of 5 d so that leaf number index can be used as an aid in hybrid rice seed production. s

Identifying some favorable environments for hybrid rice seed production in Andhra Pradesh, India
R.V. Kumar, M.S. Rao, and P.V. Satyanarayana, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Agricultural Research Station, Maruteru 534122, India

Outcrossing in rice mainly depends on climatic factors. Favorable environments increase hybrid seed production. Likewise, synchrony in flowering of male and female parents also increases seed set. We therefore conducted two trials to investigate these two important aspects. A trial was conducted in semiarid and humid zones of Andhra Pradesh during the 1991-92 wet season (WS) and dry season (DS), using IR62829A and IR62829B in a row ratio of 4A:2B. Sowings of A and B lines were staggered. Leaf clipping and rope pulling were adopted. The outcrossing percentage was higher at Palem and Warangal, located in the semiarid zone (>40%), than at Maruteru, located in the

humid zone (<20%) in both seasons. Seed yield was also higher in the semiarid regions in the 1991 WS (Palem, 959 kg ha-1; Warangal, 1,191 kg ha-1) and 1992 DS (Palem, 1,527 kg ha-1) than in the humid zone (Maruteru, WS 408 kg ha-1 and DS 851 kg ha-1). To achieve flowering synchronization in the seed production plots, precise information on the phenological behavior of the parental lines is essential in the target environments. With this objective, a second trial was conducted during the 1995 WS at seven locations representing four different agroclimatic zones in Andhra Pradesh. The material for this study included parental lines (A and R lines) of released and prerelease hybrids. In different agroclimatic zones, from location to location, in all three CMS lines and five restorer lines, flowering duration varied: 81-105 d in IR58025A, 77-105 d in IR62829A, and 90155 d in PMS 3A. A similar trend was also observed in the restorer lines. The differences in flowering duration in each R line varied from 26 to 34 d in different agroclimatic zones. s

Seasonal influence of flowering behavior and plant growth characters on parental lines of hybrid rice
S.R. Prabagaran, Center for Biotechnology, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry 605104; and A.S. Ponnuswamy, Seed Technology Department, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India

Parental lines of hybrid riceA lines (IR62829A and IR58025A), B lines (IR62829B and IR58025B), and R lines (IR10198-66-2R, AS 89044, and Pusa 150R)were raised at monthly intervals from August 1994 to July 1995. The recommended cultivation practices were adopted and observations were made in 10 randomly selected plants from each population. During the cropping period, data on maximum and minimum temperature and hours of sunshine and daylength were obtained from agrometeorological documentation records. From this, heat unit conceptsgrowing degree days (GDD), relative temperature disparity

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(RTD), photothermal units (PTU), and heliothermal units (HTU)were derived for correlation and regression studies. Variations were observed in different parameters, not only because of genotype characters and seasonal influence but also because of the interaction between them. Most floral characters were better expressed in the summer season (February to May) than in the samba season (October to January). Among the parental lines, the A lines recorded higher values for days to first flowering, 50% flowering, duration of flowering in a panicle, period of anthesis, stigma exsertion, and productive tillers than their respective maintainers. Correlation studies with days to first flowering, duration of flowering in a panicle, and panicle exsertion proved significant in all the parents except AS 89044. All the heat unit concepts showed a significant correlation for IR10198-66-2R. Among the heat unit concepts, HTU played a limited role in altering floral characters. Regression equations were fitted to predict the flowering behavior of these parental lines. These studies will be useful in identifying parental lines with stability against seasonal influences. Staggered sowing of B/R lines based on the season of seed production can be done based on such results. s

Flowering duration in the male and female lines differs, and, therefore, there will not be any synchrony in flowering of the male and female lines if they are sown on the same day. Parental lines differing in their growth duration can be sown on different days in nursery beds so that they can reach flowering at the same time in the main field. To determine the seeding interval of the parents of KRH2 and CMS line IR58025A, studies were conducted in the 1995 wet season. IR58025A flowered in 90 d whereas its maintainer, IR58025B, flowered in 85 d. KMR-3R, the restorer parent of KRH2, flowered in 98 d. Therefore, the growth duration difference between IR58025A and KMR-3R was 8 d. But maintainer line IR58025B flowered 5 d earlier than the A line. The leaves on the main culm in each of the parents were counted. The parents, IR58025A, IR58025B, and KMR-3, produced 15, 14, and 16 leaves at flowering, respectively. The results indicated that IR58025B should be sown 5 d after sowing IR58025A or when IR58025A produces one leaf in the nursery for CMS multiplication. For KRH2 hybrid seed production, IR58025A should be sown 8 d after sowing restorer line KMR-3R or when the restorer line produces 1.4 leaves in the nursery. s

Determining seeding intervals of parents in hybrid rice seed production

A.H. Krishnamurthy, B.V. Chandra, R.M. Radhakrishna, and S. Lingaraju, Regional Research Station, VC Farm, Mandya 571405, Karnataka, India

Adjusting flowering of a CMS line in hybrid rice seed production

S. Lingaraju, B.V. Chandra, V. Bhaskar, and S. Gangadhariah, Regional Research Station, VC Farm, Mandya 571405, Karnataka, India

For hybrid seed production, two parentsa cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) line (female) and restorer (male) linesare planted in alternate rows. Similarly, to multiply CMS lines, the CMS and maintainer lines are planted in alternate rows. Simultaneous flowering in both male and female lines is highly essential for seed set.

Seed production of hybrids, unlike that of inbred varieties, involves difficult procedures. In hybrid rice seed production, two parentsa cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) line (female) and restorer line (male)are grown in alternate fixed row ratios, one after the other. The female line, which is male sterile, receives pollen from the male, which is fertile and set the seed. Therefore, it is

essential that both male and female parents flower at the same time. Techniques such as the leaf count method and growth duration difference method are used for the differential seeding of male and female parents. Flowering in male and female parents often fails to synchronize because of environmental conditions. In China, where hybrid seed is produced on a large scale, several techniques have been adopted to synchronize flowering at the early stages of panicle development. Because seed growers in Karnataka found it difficult to identify the early stages of panicle development, we attempted to develop simple techniques that could be adopted at the later stages of panicle development (at the half and full boot leaf stage). IR58025A was the common CMS line used for different hybrids in Karnataka. Adjustment of flowering in this line was studied during the 1995 wet season. Techniques such as spraying gibberellic acid (GA3) and urea and applying potash, phosphorus, and urea to the base of plants were tried. The results indicated that the above treatments at the half boot leaf stage had no effect on flowering. At the full boot leaf stage, however, a GA3 spray at 60 ppm advanced 50% flowering by 3 d and full flowering by 5 d. The total duration of flowering was reduced by 5 d. Applying urea at 20 kg ha-1 to the base of plants at the full boot leaf stage delayed both 50 and 100% flowering by 2 d. Similarly, the total duration of flowering also increased by 2 d. Applying phosphorus at the rate of 20 kg ha-1 at the full boot leaf stage delayed 50 and 100% flowering by 2 d, but flowering duration decreased by 3 d. Therefore, by spraying GA3 at 60 ppm at the full boot leaf stage, we can advance flowering in CMS line IR58025A. With an application of urea or phosphorus at 20 kg ha-1, flowering can be delayed, when necessary, by 2 d in CMS line IR58025A. This method can be used to synchronize flowering adequately. s

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Stress tolerance adverse soils

Effective amount of N fertilizer for direct seeding on wet surface of reclaimed saline soil in Korea
K.S. Lee, J.H. Jun, and H.T. Shin, Honam National Agricultural Experiment Station, Iksan 570080, Korea
Table 1. General characteristics of rice as influenced by N fertilizer under wet seeding in reclaimed saline soil, Gyehwa, Korea, 1996-97. Cultural method N amount (kg ha-1) 100 150 180 210 210 Seedling establishment (no. m2) 100 110 115 99 _ Heading date Culm length (cm) Field lodginga

Direct seeding

The demand for changing cultural methods from machine transplanting to direct seeding is a current trend in Korea. We identified the appropriate amount of N fertilizer for direct seeding on a wet surface of reclaimed saline soil in Korea. The experiment was conducted at the Gyehwa substation of the Honam National Agricultural Experiment Station during 1996-97 using a randomized complete block design with three replications on saline soil that contained 0.2-0.4% NaCl in soil solution. Four N levels were tested with a control of 210 kg N ha-1 as standard fertilization for machine transplanting. The results showed that seedling establishment increased slightly up to 180 kg N ha-1 but decreased at 210 kg N ha-1 in direct seeding. Culm length is higher in direct seeding with 210 kg N ha-1. Field lodging in the maturing stage is more serious in direct seeding than in transplanting, as noted by the score of 5 out of 9 under visual assessment (Table 1). Panicle number and spikelet number per unit area increased significantly at above 180 kg N ha-1 compared with machine transplanting at 210 kg N ha-1 as a control. The percentage of ripened grains and 1,000-grain weight were higher for machine transplanting than direct seeding at the same amount of N. Milled rice yield showed no significant differences between direct seeding and machine transplanting at the same amount of N (Table 2). As a result, we found that the appropriate N level for direct seeding in reclaimed saline soil was 180 kg ha-1. This amount will best prevent field lodging and save on fertilizer and labor costs. s

Machine transplanting (standard)

a

12 Aug 12 Aug 13 Aug 14 Aug 16 Aug

79 81 83 84 80

0 1 3 5 3

On a scale of 0-9, where 0 = none, 1 = low, and 9 = high.

Table 2. Yield components and yield according to amount of N fertilizer under wet seeding in reclaimed saline soil, Gyehwa, Korea, 1996-97a. Cultural method N amount (kg ha-1) 120 150 180 210 210 Panicles (no. m-2) Spikelets (no. m-2) 103 26.6 c 28.8 b 30.9 a 31.9 a 27.2 bc Ripened grain (%) 85.1 b 85.3 b 84.1 bc 83.2 c 89.7 a 1,000grain weight (g) 24.6 a 24.5 a 24.9 a 23.8 b 25.3 a Milled rice yield (t ha1) 4.6 b 4.7 b 4.8 a 4.7 ab 5.1 a Yield index

Direct seeding

Machine transplanting (standard)

a

375 b 381 b 397 a 401 a 346 c

91 93 96 94 100

Means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by Duncans multiple range test.

Identifying optimum seeding time for direct seeding on a wet field surface in reclaimed saline soil in Korea
K.S. Lee and J.H. Jun, Honam National Agricultural Experiment Station, Iksan 570080, Korea

Rice cultivation in Korea is changing from machine transplanting to direct seeding to save on labor costs and to increase profits. We therefore identified the appropriate seeding time for direct seeding on a wet field surface in

reclaimed saline soil in the southern part of Korea. The experiment was conducted at the Gyehwa substation of the Honam National Agricultural Experiment Station during 1996-97 using a splitplot design with three replications in a saline soil that contained 0.2-0.4% NaCl in soil solution. Three varieties were used to represent each maturing type: Shinunbongbyeo (early maturing), Gancheokbyeo (mid-maturing), and Gyehwabyeo (late maturing). The results showed that for Shinunbong-

Table 1. Seedling establishment (no. m-2) according to seeding times on a wet field surface in reclaimed saline soila, Gyehwa, Korea, 1996-97. Seeding time 10 May 20 May 30 May 10 Jun
a

Shinunbongbyeo 103 a 97 a 92 a 89 a

Gancheokbyeo 104 a 109 a 98 a 79 b

Gyehwabyeo 108 a 107 a 93 a 76 b

Means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by Duncans multiple range test.

Vol. 23, No. 2

29

byeo, seeding time had no effect on seeding establishment and for Gancheokbyeo and Gyehwabyeo, seeding establishment adversely affected them if they were seeded after June (Table 1). Panicle number per unit area for Shinunbongbyeo was not significantly different for seeding time; for Gancheokbyeo and Gyehwabyeo, panicle number per unit area decreased if they were seeded after 10 Jun. For 1,000grain weight, seeding time had no effect on all three varieties. Spikelet number per unit area and percentage of ripened grains were reduced significantly when the seeding time was 10 Jun for all maturing types. Milled rice yield for Shinunbongbyeo was not affected by seeding time. For Gancheokbyeo and Gyehwabyeo, milling yield was reduced significantly

Table 2. Yield components and yield according to seeding times on wet field surface in reclaimed saline soila, Gyehwa, Korea, 1996-97. Cultivar Seeding time Panicles (no. m-2) Spikelets (no. m-2) 104 Ripened grain (%) 89 a 89 a 87 ab 86 b 90 a 92 a 92 a 86 b 90 a 90 a 87 b 84 c 1,000grain weight (g) 21.7 a 21.4 a 21.5 a 21.3 a 22.7 a 23.0 a 23.1 a 22.2 a 24.0 a 24.3 a 23.9 a 23.1 a Milled rice yield (t ha-1) 4.5 a 4.4 a 4.3 a 4.1 a 4.5 a 4.6 a 4.6 a 3.8 b 4.5 a 4.8 a 4.4 b 3.4 c

Shinunbongbyeo

Gancheokbyeo

Gyehwabyeo

10 May 20 May 30 May 10 Jun 10 May 20 May 30 May 10 Jun 10 May 20 May 30 May 10 Jun

417 a 414 a 406 a 399 a 411 a 405 a 397 a 361 b 421 a 412 a 398 a 355 b

30.7 a 30.6 a 28.3 ab 27.2 b 31.6 a 32.9 a 31.5 a 25.3 b 29.3 a 31.0 a 28.4 ab 24.4 b

Means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by Duncan's multiple range test.

when the seeding time was late May and later (Table 2). The results indicated that the best seeding time for earlymaturing types was from May to early

June. The most appropriate seeding time for mid- and late-maturing varieties was the middle of May. s

Stress tolerance excess water

Distinguishing seedling traits in deepwater rice (Oryza sativa L.)
P.M. Mohapatra and A.R. Panda, Division of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006, Orissa, India
Length of mesocotyl and second leaf blade of deepwater and nondeepwater rice varieties (data pooled over two seasons). Mesocotyl length (mm) Variety 4 cm Deepwater rice Jalamagna TCA4 Jalanidhi NDGR410 NDGR413 LPR85 TCA12 Chakia 59 Madhukar Jalapriya Mean Nondeepwater rice Khao Y Khao IET7590 Kwan-Fu-1 Mtu-6 TK Deep straw 34-774 Deep straw 24-500 Samson Polo (YS386) Daeng Laem Basmati 802 Savitri Mean Seeding depth 6 cm 8 cm Germination in dark Length of second leaf blade (mm)

Deepwater rice genotypes are characterized by their elongation ability under excess water. This character is expressed approximately 4-6 wk after seeding. However, young germinating seedlings within 7-15 d after seeding can be identified for elongation ability from morphological characters such as mesocotyl elongation and length of the second leaf blade, which can be used to distinguish deepwater types from their nondeepwater counterparts. A comparative assessment was made for these two parameters taking 10 genotypes from both deepwater and nondeepwater rice during the dry and wet seasons, 1996, at the Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack. Seeding was done at three depths4, 6, and 8 cmunder normal pot culture as well as under dark with seeds germinated in petri dishes. Observations were recorded for mesocotyl elongation and length of the second leaf blade on 1-wk-

26.15 28.75 25.95 27.25 28.00 27.05 28.45 26.55 26.55 32.40 27.71 17.25 21.85 21.10 22.10 17.55 12.40 21.45 17.85 19.25 13.25 18.41

37.10 42.40 31.65 44.40 34.50 36.75 33.90 38.00 34.50 39.55 37.28 26.25 28.15 20.75 28.75 26.20 19.35 25.05 18.85 21.35 15.80 23.05

53.40 63.35 38.05 63.75 43.75 50.80 43.55 43.25 46.05 47.20 49.32 29.55 36.15 27.20 38.35 27.40 21.20 37.85 22.90 24.05 19.90 28.46

3.75 5.20 2.15 3.08 1.75 2.25 1.35 1.60 1.87 2.25 2.33 0.38 0.40 0.23 0.58 0.10 0.05 0.55 0.45 0.43 0.28 0.34

37.40 38.25 49.10 49.35 47.80 47.10 49.90 48.10 48.15 45.45 46.06 59.15 59.90 63.50 56.45 50.60 58.95 54.25 62.65 57.10 51.00 57.36

old seedlings by taking a sample of 10 seedlings from each type. The two seasons were found to be homogeneous, with nonsignificant differences for the two characters as tested

by Bartletts test. The pooled data over two seasons (see table) indicated higher mesocotyl elongation for deepwater rice than for nondeepwater rice varieties for both pot culture and dark petri

30

IRRN 1998

dish culture. It was also evident that elongation was greater at higher seeding depths in all the test genotypes. On the contrary, the length of the second leaf blade as measured in seedlings raised under normal pot culture showed a reverse trend, i.e., the length was less for deepwater rice genotypes than for nondeepwater types. These two seedling characters were used as morphological markers to evaluate germplasm and segregating lines for tolerance for deepwater conditions in our subsequent experiments. s

Tolerance for submergence in rainfed lowland rice under repetition of flooding

R.K. Sarkar, R.K. Sahu, and R.N. De, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006, Orissa, India

given to the regenerated seedlings for another 10 d under 80 cm of water. A survival count was taken visually immediately after drainage of the water, and was confirmed after 15 d. Dissolved oxygen concentration was measured using a submersible polarographic oxygen electrode (Syland Model 610, Heppenheim, Germany). Light transmission was measured using a quantum underwater light sensor (Licor, Model 185B). To determine yield and yieldcontributing characters, an experiment was conducted under rainfed lowland conditions where water depth varied between 0 and 50 cm. Light penetration inside the floodwater was comparatively less in second submergence than in first submergence, which suggested that the floodwater was more turbid during second submergence. Oxygen concentration

measured around 12 noon was above the air saturation (>7.36 ppm) level (Table 1), but susceptible checks were ruined because of the severe pressure of submergence (Table 2). After second submergence, a few genotypes survived. Survival percentage was maximum in Matia (87%), followed by FR13A (85%), CR380-10 (60%), and ARC18112 (56%) and 18101 (51%). Sabita, a submergence-tolerant cultivar, identified earlier on the basis of single-submergence treatment, showed only 35% survival. After first submergence, when water receded, the elongated top leaves descended to the ground and ultimately decayed. Therefore, plant height just before second submergence was less than the height just after the completion of first submergence. Yield and yield-contributing characters showed great variation

In South and Southeast Asia, rainfed lowland rice is generally affected by submergence during flash floods when the plant remains completely under water. The frequency and duration of floods differ from place to place and year to year, causing different degrees of plant mortality. Information on tolerance for single submergence is available, but it is lacking on cultivar survival because of recycling of flooding. These experiments were conducted to identify rice cultivars that could withstand different cycles of flooding. The experiments were carried out during the wet season with 242 cultivars of the Assam Rice Collection (ARC), which is considered to be a rich source of germplasm because of its high degree of phenotypic divergence. The genotypes were direct-seeded with a spacing of 20 10 cm. Two seedlings hill-1 were maintained by thinning after 10 d of germination. Twenty-day-old seedlings were submerged for 12 d under 60 cm of water followed by normal conditions with 10 cm of water. After 10 d from the removal of water pressure, that is, 42 d after sowing, a severe submergence treatment was

Table 1. Floodwater characteristics at around 12 noon. Data given as mean +SE. Water depth (cm) Days after first submergence 2 5 70.4 0.3 64.5 0.9 53.6 0.4 62.8 9 73.3 1.2 62.3 1.0 53.5 1.0 63.0 7.40 0.07 7.57 0.02 7.55 0.04 7.51 2 68.4 0.3 56.0 0.7 50.1 0.4 58.2 7.65 0.04 7.57 0.01 7.95 0.03 7.72 Days after second submergence 5 67.1 0.6 53.6 1.1 42.2 1.1 54.3 7.82 0.03 7.77 0.04 7.90 0.02 7.83 5 62.2 0.3 45.9 0.4 37.6 0.4 48.6 7.95 0.05 7.90 0.05 7.72 0.05 7.86

Light transmission (%) 5 72.6 0.4 30 62.2 0.6 60 53.7 0.5 Mean 62.8

Oxygen concentration (ppm) 5 7.37 0.02 7.92 0.14 30 7.47 0.06 7.75 0.13 60 7.92 0.02 7.50 0.12 Mean 7.59 7.72

Table 2. Survival percentage and changes in plant height because of repetition of flooding. Seedling height (cm) Germplasm/ cultivar First submergence Before FR13A Sabita CR380-10 Matia ARC18112 ARC18101 ARC18104 ARC18172 ARC18198 Tulasi Mahsuri Mean 23 29 34 35 27 28 28 32 29 25 23 26 After 76 97 100 107 91 90 87 91 83 70 76 88 Second submergence Before 48 44 53 61 34 41 36 41 42 34 35 43 After 72 74 98 100 86 85 83 81 80 52 63 79 85 35 60 87 56 51 46 42 40 03 02 46 Survival (%) after second submergence

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31

Table 3. Grain yield and its contributing characters under waterlogged (0-50 cm depth) conditions. Germplasm/ cultivar Plant height (cm) 158 184 169 178 154 158 152 185 122 145 160 11.4 Days to 90% flowering 145 141 149 149 98 121 131 110 92 141 128 15.8 Single panicle weight (g) 3.63 4.46 4.20 2.58 2.59 3.03 3.75 2.50 2.34 4.23 3.33 23.2 PBT (no. m2)
a

Harvest index (%) 23.1 31.0 33.5 21.6 24.9 31.2 29.4 27.9 38.4 29.4 29.0 16.3

Grain yield (g m-2) 386 421 472 215 260 261 347 212 267 516 336 30.8

FR13A Sabita CR380-10 Matia ARC18112 ARC18101 ARC18104 ARC18172 ARC18198 Tulasi Mean CV
a

135 95 138 110 118 100 104 109 133 153 119 15.2

(Table 3). For the rainfed lowlands of eastern India, plants with different maturity periods are desirable for different locations. Therefore, plant breeders could employ the genotypes mentioned here. s

Comments. If you have comments or suggestions about the IRRN, please write to the editor.

PBT = panicle-bearing tillers.

Yield potential
Physiological basis of heterosis in rice
A.K. Singh and F.U. Zaman, Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India

New plant types and hybrids are physiologically more efficient. They have a higher biomass than inbred varieties and a comparable harvest index. Increasing biomass yield and maintaining a high harvest index are the main breeding strategies for achieving another breakthrough in rice yield. Biomass is a complex trait governed by a number of morphophysiological components. We attempted to analyze the physiological components of biomass and to study the character association and path relationship among its components. A strategy to select parents for developing hybrids and pedigree breeding based on physiological efficiency are outlined. The material for this study consisted of 15 F1s and 6 parents from a 6 6 half diallel involving diverse parents for physiological efficiency. The experiment was conducted in a randomized block design with three replications. Data were recorded on characters such as biological yield, grain yield, harvest index, days to 50% flowering, grainfilling duration, days to maturity, cumulative growth rate (CGR), relative growth rate (RGR), net assimilation
32 IRRN 1998

rate (NAR), leaf area ratio (LAR), leaf area index (LAI), leaf area duration (LAD), and leaf area plant-1 at different growth stages. Correlation, path effects, and heterosis were estimated. Grain yield, CGR, LAI, LAD, and leaf area at seedling, tillering, flowering, and maturity showed a highly significant positive association with biological yield. The cross, Jaya/ Swarnaprabha, which exhibited a high heterobeltiosis for biological yield (54.9%), also showed a significant positive heterosis for grain yield, harvest index, CGR, LAI, and leaf area plant-1. Characters that showed a negative association with biological yield did not exhibit any positive heterosis. It is therefore evident that, to develop heterotic hybrids, we should identify parents with high physiological efficiency in terms of CGR, LAI, LAD, and leaf area plant-1. Because characters such as NAR, LAR, LAD, and leaf area showed a high positive direct path effect, direct selection for these traits should be effective. With this understanding of the key physiological determinants of biological yield, the interrelationship among these components, and their direct and indirect effects on biological yield, we can make a better selection of parents. This approach should help develop superior hybrids and generate valuable breeding material for pedigree selection. s

Physiological efficiency of rice hybrids

K.V. Sitaramaiah, J. Madhuri, and N.S. Reddy, Rice Research Unit, Agricultural College Farm, Bapatla 522101, India

Heterosis observed in hybrids is the result of various physiological processes that occur at different stages of plant growth. A precise knowledge of the factors that contribute to heterotic vigor would help to manipulate heterosis expression in hybrids. We made a study to assess the physiological efficiency of rice hybrids during the crop growth period and to analyze the factors that contribute to heterosis expression. Six promising experimental rice hybrids were evaluated along with the popular check varieties Samba Mahsuri and Chaitanya during the 1995 wet season. Crop growth rate (CGR), leaf area index (LAI), and biomass production (BMP) were estimated at 15-d intervals from 15 to 60 d after planting (DAP). Harvest index (HI) and grain yield were recorded at harvest. CGR increased up to 45 DAP and decreased later in all hybrids and checks. LAI, however, consistently increased from 15 to 60 DAP and hybrids recorded a higher LAI from 30 DAP onward compared with the checks. The high initial CGR was not maintained to the later growth stages

or translated into higher yields. Early vigor was probably sacrificed to ensure a better canopy structure at the late growth stages and better partitioning of photosynthates to grain. This was well exhibited by the hybrids, especially MTUHR2033, MTUHR2020, and MTUHR2037, which had significantly higher grain yields. These hybrids also recorded greater BMP and HI. Though the check varieties and hybrids did not differ for BMP, the hybrids showed a superior performance because of more grains per panicle, which was indicated by a higher HI. Two hybrids, MTUHR2024 and MTUHR2029, however, showed an inferior performance compared with the best check Chaitanya in BMP, HI, and grain yield. Heterosis is a highly cross-specific phenomenon. To use heterosis successfully to increase grain yield, parental genotypes need to be selected from modern cultivars with a high potential. The physiological efficiency of F1 hybrids at the vegetative stage is a useful indication of heterosis for grain yield. MTUHR2033 and MTUHR2020, which showed such physiological efficiency, hold good promise. s

Performance of hybrid rice in south Karnataka

M. Rudraradhya, S. Panchaksharaiah, and B. R. Patil, University of Agricultural Sciences, Shimoga Unit, Bangalore, India

At the agricultural research stations at Honnaville and Kathalagere, we evaluated elite hybrids. We also investigated the fixing of isolation distance, number of seedlings to be planted hill-1, and N management. Among the various hybrids tested in 1991-94, IR58025A/ IR9761-19-1R was found to be superior to inbred variety Mangala. This hybrid recorded an average yield of 5.6 and 4.9 t ha-1, respectively, at Honnaville and Kathalagere. Mangala yielded 3.8 and 3.6 t ha-1, respectively, at those two centers. This hybrid also performed well in on-farm trials in the districts of Chikamagalore, Hassan, Mysore, and Shimoga, with a mean grain yield of 5.9 t ha-1 vs 4.7 t ha-1 for Mangala. This hybrid was named Karnataka Rice Hybrid 1 (KRH1) and released for general cultivation in the southern transition zone.

Similarly, another F1 hybrid, IR58025A/ KMR 3, had an average yield of 6.6 t ha-1 vs 5.1 t ha-1 for Jaya. This hybrid was found promising because it matured in 125-130 d, similar to the popular inbred variety. In 12 onfarm trials, this hybrid registered a mean grain yield of 7.3 t ha-1 vs 6.0 t ha-1 for the standard check Jaya. This hybrid was named Karnataka Rice Hybrid 2 and released for general cultivation in 1996. The present recommended dose of 100-50-50 kg NPK ha-1 for the varieties was found to be equally effective for the two hybrids. There was no difference in yield among plots planted with one, two, three, four, or five seedlings hill-1 in both the dry and wet seasons. Tillering ability in the hybrids was found to be very good. Therefore, planting 1 seedling hill-1 ensured an economical seed input cost. In the studies conducted on isolation distance, seed set decreased with every increase in the isolation distance. This called for a revision of isolation distance for each hybrid through investigations at specific locations. s

Crop and resource management

Physiology and plant nutrition
Effect of salinity on growth, chlorophyll content, and flag leaf area of rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes
M. Yasin Ashraf and Yousaf Ali, Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB), Jhang Road, P.O. Box 128, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Rice is the most important food crop, feeding more than half of the worlds population. To feed this ever-growing population, an increase in the cultivation of food crops is essential, which is possible by increasing cultivable lands. Lands in Pakistan that are available for cultivation suffer from problems of

salinity/sodicity. So we urgently need to select or develop salt-tolerant rice varieties or methods to increase the yield per unit area. Although yield is the result of interactions in the genetic makeup of genotypes, it has been suggested that by increasing photosynthetic efficiency, crop production could be increased (Ashraf et al 1995). Photosynthetic efficiency depends on leaf area, chlorophyll content, stomatal response, gas exchange, etc. We therefore used a physiological-genetic approach to test whether genotypes sensitive to or tolerant of salt differ in their photosynthetic efficiency.

For this purpose, a gravel culture experiment was conducted in a growth cabinet maintained at 30/25 + 2 C day/night temperature and a photoperiod of 10 h, to study the effect of salinity created by mixed salt (Na2SO4, CaCl2, MgCl2, and NaCl in the ratio of 6.33:3.58:1:2.28) and NaCl only on growth and photosynthetic activity of rice genotypes. Thirty-day-old seedlings of five rice genotypesBH-5-89, BH-3-89, RST-1-86, RST-2-84, and Bas370NR1were acquired from the rice section of the Mutation Breeding Division of the NIAB, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

Vol. 23, No. 2

33

This experiment consisted of five treatments (0, 5, and 10 dS m-1 EC prepared with mixed salt and EC 5, 10 dS m-1 with NaCl only) with three replications in a completely randomized block design. The plants were sown in plastic pots (30 cm diam and 25 cm length) filled with washed gravel containing full-strength Hoagland solution. The treatments were prepared by adding salt solutions from 2.5 dS m-1 and maintained at desired concentrations. This was done to prevent sudden shock to the plant from salinity. The volume of the solution was maintained daily by adding Hoagland solution. The plants were harvested after 1 mo and their dry weight plant-1 (after drying the plants in an oven at 70 C for 72 h), flag leaf area (Ashraf et al 1995), and chlorophyll content (Arnon 1949) were estimated. The results indicated that biomass decreased with an increase in salt concentration in all the genotypes except at 5 dS m-1 of mixed salt, where enhancement was recorded in rice genotype BH-3-89 (Table 1). The maximum reduction in biomass was under 10 dS m-1 (NaCl). In BH-5-89, Bas 370NR1, and BH-3-89, the reduction in biomass at 10 dS m-1 (NaCl) was less than 50%. On the other hand, RST-1-86 and RST-2-84 had a biomass of only 31 and 33% that of the control under the same treatment. Similar genotypic differences have been reported for rice, sorghum, and wheat. A reduction in flag leaf area was observed in all the genotypes with increases in salt concentration (Table 1). The maximum decrease was again under 10 dS m-1 (NaCl). The genotypes with a higher biomass had a higher flag leaf area (Table 1). The minimum flag leaf area was recorded for RST-1-86 and RST-2-84, and with mixed salt. Hussain and Ismail (1994) also reported a reduction in leaf area caused by salinity in sunflower. The chlorophyll content (a, b, and total) of rice leaves was generally reduced by salinity (Table 2). RST-1-86

Table 1. Effect of different salinity levels on biomass (dry matter plant1) and flag leaf area (cm2) of different rice genotypes. Treatment (dS m-1) BH-5-89 0 (control) DMa LA 5 (mixed salt) DM LA 10 (mixed salt) DM LA 5 (NaCl) DM LA 10 (NaCl) DM LA
a

Genotypes BH-3-89 RST-1-86 RST-2-84 Bas370XNR1

2.29 (100)b 16.60 (100) 2.11 (92) 13.80 (83) 1.69 (74) 10.30 (62) 2.01 (88) 10.26 (61) 1.54 (67) 6.30 (38)

2.31 (100) 20.62 (100) 3.58 (154) 18.60 (90) 2.04 (83) 15.41 (75) 2.09 (90) 13.05 (63) 1.68 (54) 4.26 (21)

4.53 (100) 36.67 (100) 4.41 (97) 21.19 (58) 2.23 (43) 17.90 (44) 2.35 (52) 14.27 (34) 1.42 (31) 4.77 (13)

3.45 (100) 22.31 (100) 3.57 (103) 19.35 (86) 1.37 (34) 8.37 (38) 2.59 (75) 11.47 (51) 1.36 (33) 4.11 (18)

3.88 (100) 21.87 (100) 3.09 (74) 13.72 (63) 2.44 (63) 12.75 (54) 2.96 (63) 13.10 (54) 2.10 (54) 10.52 (43)

DM = dry matter (g plant-1), LA = flag leaf area (cm2). bValues in parentheses show % of control.

Table 2. Effect of different levels of salinity on chlorophyll (a, b, and total) (mg g1 fresh weight) of different rice genotypes. Treatment (dS m-1) BH-5-89 0 (control) Chl aa Chl b Chl t 5 (mixed salt) Chl a Chl b Chl t 10 (mixed salt) Chl a Chl b Chl t 5 (NaCl) Chl a Chl b Chl t BH-3-89 Genotypes RST-1-86 RST-2-84 Bas370XNR1

0.424 (100)b 0.486 (100) 0.910 (100) 0.407 (96) 0.438 (90) 0.845 (93) 0.360 (85) 0.382 (79) 0.742 (82) 0.403 (95) 0.411 (85) 0.814 (89)

0.427 (100) 0.494 (100) 0.921 (100) 0.412 (95) 0.496 (100) 0.908 (99) 0.367 (86) 0.476 (76) 0.743 (81) 0.384 (84) 0.424 (86) 0.808 (88)

0.299 (100) 0.517 (100) 0.816 (100) 0.299 (100) 0.481 (64) 0.781 (89) 0.233 (78) 0.261 (35) 0.494 (57) 0.289 (96) 0.406 (54) 0.695 (80)

0.383 (100) 0.490 (100) 0.873 (100) 0.302 (74) 0.481 (98) 0.783 (90) 0.297 (77) 0.440 (90) 0.737 (84) 0.262 (63) 0.364 (74) 0.626 (72)

0.397 (100) 0.424 (100) 0.821 (100) 0.399 (101) 0.443 (104) 0.842 (103) 0.389 (98) 0.418 (99) 0.807 (98) 0.392 (99) 0.384 (91) 0.776 (94)

Continued on next page

34

IRRN 1998

Table 2 continued. Treatment (dS m-1) BH-5-89 10 (NaCl) Chl a Chl b Chl t BH-3-89 Genotypes RST-1-86 RST-2-84 Bas370XNR-1

References
Arnon DT. 1949. Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplasts. Polyphenoloxidase in Beta vulgaris. Plant Physiol. 24:1-15. Ashraf MY, Khan AH, Naqvi SSM. 1995. Relationship of chlorophyll content and leaf area with grain yield in wheat genotypes. Indian J. Plant Physiol. 38(2):162-163. Hussain S, Ismail S. 1994. Effect of salt and water stress on growth and biomass production in Helianthus annuus L. Pak. J. Bot. 26(1):127-138. Terry N, Waldron LJ. 1984. Salinity photosynthesis and leaf growth. Calif. Agric. 38:38-39. s

0.300 (71) 0.370 (76) 0.670 (74)

0.310 (73) 0.405 (62) 0.615 (67)

0.163 (54) 0.172 (23) 0.335 (39)

0.222 (58) 0.297 (61) 0.519 (59)

0.357 (90) 0.354 (83) 0.711 (87)

Chl a = chlorophyll a, Chl b = chlorophyll b, Chl t = chlorophyll (total). bValues in parentheses show % of control.

and RST-2-84 had the lowest chlorophyll content of the five genotypes. Biomass production is a function of photosynthetic efficiency (Terry and Waldron 1984), which is decreased because of the decrease in leaf area and chlorophyll. A decrease in leaf area causes a reduction in area for light

interception and absorption of the specific wavelength necessary for photosynthesis. The results of this experiment showed that NaCl is more toxic and injurious than mixed salts and that BH-5-89, BH-3-89, and Bas370 are more tolerant of salt stress and RST-1-86 and RST-2-84 are sensitive to salt stress.

Crop management
A labor-saving technique in direct-sown and transplanted rice
P. Santhi, K. Ponnuswamy, and N. Kempuchetty, Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute (TNRRI), Aduthurai 612101, India

The Cauvery Delta zone accounts for about 22.3% of the rice area and 25.3% of rice production in Tamil Nadu State. Rice is cultivated in three distinct seasonskuruvai (Jun-Oct), followed by thaladi (Oct-Feb) in double-crop

wetlands and samba (Sep-Jan) in singlecrop wetlands. Transplanting continues to be the major method of crop establishment for rice in this area. It requires more labor, time, and efforts. The scarcity and high cost of farm labor invariably delay transplanting and often lead to the use of aged seedlings. Uncertain release of water from the Mettur dam aggravates the situation for seedling age and time of transplanting. Because of these problems, many rice farmers wish to switch to direct seeding under puddled conditions.

Besides reducing labor requirements, it can help to shorten the growth cycle from seeding to maturity. Experiments were conducted during 1995-96 and 1996-97 at the TNRRI to evaluate wet seeding for establishing rice crops. The methods of crop establishmenttransplanting (S1), sowing sprouted seeds in lines manually (S2), and using a seed drum (S3)were compared. The drum seeder used in this trial was developed by the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. The 8-row drum seeder

Table 1. Effect of crop establishment methods on yield and economics of rice, 1995-96. Days to 50% flowering Kuruvaia Transplanting (S1) Sowing sprouted seeds in lines manually (S2) Drum seeding of sprouted seeds (S3) CD (P = 0.05)
a

Treatment

Grain yield (t ha-1) Kuruvai Thaladi

Straw yield (t ha-1) Kuruvai Thaladi

Net return (Rs ha-1) Kuruvai Thaladi

Return Re1 invested Kuruvai Thaladi

Thaladi

85.8

105.6

5.5

4.8

6.6

5.1

16,165

11,982

2.32

1.98

78.6

98.6

5.5

4.9

6.7

5.3

16,561

13,545

2.47

2.20

78.9 0.62

98.7 0.55

5.6 nsb

5.0 ns

6.8 ns

5.3 ns

17,836 ns

13,960 ns

2.65 0.204

2.29 ns

Kuruvai = Jun-Oct, thaladi = Oct-Feb. bns = not significant.

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Table 2. Effect of crop establishment methods on yield and economics of rice, 1996-97. Days to 50% flowering Kuruvaia Transplanting (S1) Sowing sprouted seeds in lines manually (S2) Drum seeding of sprouted seeds (S3) CD (P = 0.05)
a

Treatment

Grain yield (t ha-1) Kuruvai 5.9 Thaladi 5.0

Straw yield (t ha-1) Kuruvai 7.2 Thaladi 5.5

Net return (Rs ha-1) Kuruvai 17,542 Thaladi 12,813

Return Re1 invested Kuruvai 2.40 Thaladi 2.02

Thaladi 105.4

85.9

78.8

98.5

5.8

5.2

7.4

5.7

18,303

14,657

2.58

2.27

78.9 0.62

98.7 0.55

6.0 ns

5.3 ns

7.4 ns

5.7 ns

19,453 ns

15,046 ns

2.75 0.180

2.30 0.172

Kuruvai = Jun-Oct, thaladi = Oct-Feb. bns = not significant.

requires only 9 kg of pulling force to operate. The machine weight is 11 kg without seed and 19 kg with seed (2 kg seed hopper-1). It requires 14 person-h to cover 1 ha. Direct seeding reduced the time to 50% flowering by 7 d in both the kuruvai and thaladi seasons in both years (Tables 1 and 2). The delay in flower emergence by 1 wk in transplanted rice might be due to the transplanting shock experienced by the seedlings.

The methods of crop establishment showed no significant influence on grain yield of rice in both the kuruvai and thaladi seasons in both years of study. In both seasons, however, drum seeding gave a slightly higher grain yield. A similar trend was noticed in the case of straw yield. Yield parameters such as number of panicles, panicle length, number of filled and immature grains, and 1,000-grain weight were not affected by the method of crop establishment.

Net savings averaged Rs 1,911 (US$47) and Rs 2,233 (US$56) ha-1 in the drum-seeding method versus the transplanting method in the kuruvai and thaladi seasons, respectively. The drum-seeding method required only 8 person-h whereas line sowing of sprouted seeds and transplanting methods required 200 and 400 person-h ha-1, respectively. There is thus a significant savings of labor in the drum-seeding method. s

Optimum seedlings per unit area for high-yielding rice varieties in the hill zone of Karnataka
B. Jagannath, K.S. Kamath, H.M. Chandrappa, Y.G. Shadakshari, and N.E. Thyagaraj, Regional Research Station, Mudigere 577132, Karnataka, India

Rice is the major field crop grown during monsoon under rainfed conditions in the hill zone of Karnataka (located between 11 56' and 15 46' north latitude and 74 31' and 76 4' east longitude). For improved low- and midland rice cultivation, 20 10-cm spacing (50 hills m-2) is being recommended for improved rice varieties. Adoption of this recommendation by farmers was low on the grounds that the number of seedlings recommended per m2 was too high. To verify whether the number of seedlings per unit area could be reduced, an experiment was conducted with the popular high-tillering variety

Intan during 1993 and 1994. The experiment was continued during 1995 and low-tillering, high-yielding, blasttolerant variety DWR 4107 (Hemavati) was included. DWR 4107 has been released to replace Intan in high-blast pressure areas of the zone. A randomized block design replicated four times was employed in 1993 and 1994. A split-plot design was employed in 1995 with varieties as main plots and plant spacing as subplots. In addition to the recommended spacing, an additional four spacings were used to produce 45, 40, 35, and 30 hills m-2. Depending on climatic factors, nursery sowing and transplanting varied over the years. Sowing and transplanting were done in Jul 1993. Sowing was done in Jun 1994 and 1995 and transplanting was done in Jul 1994 and Aug 1995. Net plot size was 12.5 m2 during 1993 and 1994 and 9.6 m2 during 1995. Recommended P (33 kg P ha-1) and K (72.6 kg K ha-1) along with 50% N (37.5 kg N ha-1) were applied at the time of

transplanting and the balance of N was topdressed in two splits at 30 and 60 d after transplanting. There was no need for plant protection measures in any of the 3 yr. Compared with 1993 and 1995, grain yield of Intan was significantly higher in 1994 (see table) because sowing and transplanting were done on time during that year. The seedlings were not sufficiently aged in 1993 and they were overmatured in 1995 (see table). Grain yield from the recommended 50 seedlings m-2 was significantly different from that produced by 30, 35, 40, and 45 seedlings m-2 each year, indicating that a similar grain yield could be obtained by adopting wider spacing, accommodating as few as 30 seedlings m-2. There were significant differences between treatments for other characters, but these differences were not reflected in grain yield. A pooled analysis over the 3 yr indicated that there was a significant increase in tillers plant-1 and panicles

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Effect of number of seedlings m-2 on rice yield and its components in the hill zone of Karnataka.a 1,000grain weight (g) 25.3 a 24.5 b 23.5 c 0.48 24.1 b 24.3 ab 24.7 a 24.2 ab 24.8 a 24.4 0.70 3.09 21.1 20.5 21.6 20.7 21.1 21.0 3.76 23.5 a 21.0 b 22.3 2.28 3.34

Variety

Year/ seedlings hill-1 1993 1994 1995 30 35 40 45 50 1993-95

Plant height (cm) 102 b 104 a 100 c 0.92 102 102 102 102 102 102 1.40 106 105 106 106 105 106 1.91 100 106 103 1.78

Tillers plant-1 (no.) 9.3 b 10.1 a 7.6 c 0.59 10.0 a 9.2 b 9.0 b 8.7 bc 8.1 c 9.0 0.76 10.17 7.2 a 6.8 b 6.6 b 6.1 c 6.0 c 6.5 0.44 4.34 7.6 a 6.5 b 7.1 0.81 7.46

Panicles plant-1 (no.) 9.2 b 9.9 a 7.6 c 0.57 9.8 a 9.1 b 8.9 b 8.6 bc 8.1 c 8.9 0.73 9.93 7.2 a 7.0 ab 6.6 bc 6.1 c 6.0 c 6.6 0.61 6.00 7.6 6.6 7.1 7.9

Panicle length (cm) 21.0 b 21.6 a 21.9 a 0.35 21.3 21.6 21.7 21.3 21.7 21.5 2.54 22.9 ab 22.1 ab 23.1 a 22.0 ab 21.9 b 22.4 1.20 3.47 21.9 22.4 22.4 3.40

Grains panicle-1 Total 120.5 b 127.2 b 149.0 a 7.55 135.8 134.0 131.0 126.9 133.5 132.2 8.90 159.3 159.0 166.5 144.2 146.3 135.0 10.91 149.0 b 135.0 a 152.0 3.72 10.38 Chaffy 22.6 b 21.7 b 27.8 a 3.69 25.0 23.9 24.7 24.4 22.0 24.0 23.94 11.9 ab 13.4 a 13.1 a 9.2 b 9.3 b 11.4 3.56 20.26 27.8 a 11.4 b 19.6 15.34 31.63

Panicle sterility (%) 19.0 17.1 18.5 18.9 17.5 19.0 19.1 16.7 18.2 22.01 7.3 ab 8.4 a 7.7 ab 6.7 ab 6.1 b 7.3 2.12 18.90 18.5 a 7.3 b 12.9 11.17 27.98

Yield (t ha-1) Grain 4.98 b 6.24 a 4.43 c 0.26 5.12 5.09 5.26 5.21 5.39 5.21 7.81 2.96 3.11 3.28 3.18 3.23 3.15 6.98 4.43 a 3.15 b 3.79 0.58 11.32 Straw 7.50 a 7.92 a 5.72 b 0.55 6.96 7.08 6.88 6.99 7.31 7.05 12.09 4.46 4.69 4.40 4.53 4.67 4.55 12.83 5.72 4.55 5.13 14.47

Intan

CD (5%)

Mean CD (5%) CV (%) DWR4107

1995 30 35 40 45 50

Mean CD (5%) CV (%) Intan DWR4107 Mean CD (5%) CV (%)

a

1995 1995

Mean values followed by dissimilar letters are significantly different from one another.

plant-1 and a significant decrease in grain weight in the treatment with wider spacing (30 hills m-2) compared with the treatment with narrow spacing (50 hills m-2) and these traits were similar in treatments with 35, 40, and 45 hills m-2. But grain and straw yield were statistically similar in all the
Grain yield (t ha-1) 6 5 x 4 3 2 1 0 30 35 40 45 Seedlings m-2 (no.) x x

treatments. Thus, wider spacing between hills as a result of higher tillering compensates for reduced hills and grain yield will be on a par with narrow spacing, which requires 20 seedlings more per m2. The data obtained with DWR 4107 also confirmed the same trend (see figure).
Tillers hill-1 (no.) 10 9 8 7 x x 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 50
Grain yield, Intan Grain yield, Hemavati Tillers hill-1, Intan x Tillers hill-1, Hemavati

The results obtained with two varieties significantly different from each other for tillering ability revealed that grain and straw yield with recommended spacing of 50 hills m-2 was on a par with spacings for 30-45 hills m-2. We therefore suggest revising the number of seedlings recommended per m2 and reducing it by 20. Intan was significantly superior to DWR4107 in tillering, grain yield, and grain weight, though it showed significantly higher chaffy grains panicle-1 and panicle sterility. The significantly lower grain yield of DWR4107 is attributed to aged seedlings. s
Multiple submissions. Normally, only one report for a single experiment will be accepted. Two or more items about the same work submitted at the same time will be returned for merging. Submitting at different times multiple notes from the same experiment is highly inappropriate. Detection will result in the rejection of all submissions on that research.

Influence of plant population on grain yield of rice.

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Drill sowing of pregerminated rice seed: effect of rainfall on plant stand

M.A. Bell, G.F. Patea, and D.C. Mendoza, IRRI

Plant stand (plants m2) 150 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Cumulative rainfall (mm)

In recent years, wet seeding of rice (Oryza sativa) has gained in popularity throughout Asia, primarily because of the scarcity of available labor. With this system, rice is usually broadcast, but drill-seeded rice in rows above or below (anaerobic) the soil is an option that has the advantage of facilitating manual weed control. During the 1995 dry season (DS), the anaerobic seeding method was used on 32 fields covering 8 ha at the IRRI experiment station. Results were promisingstand establishment was visually rated as good and the average yield of 5.4 t ha-1 was reasonable. Given the success in the 1995 DS, the anaerobic seeding method was again used on 19 fields during the 1995 wet season (WS). Fields were prepared by wet disk harrowing and puddling using tractors before a final land leveling using hand tractors. Seed was germination-tested, presoaked (24 h), and then incubated for 24 h. Seed was sown at a rate of 80 kg ha-1. After emergence, crop establishment in all except two fields was considered extremely poor, with less than 100 plants m-2. (Fifty percent emergence would equate to approximately 160 plants m-2.) Germination was not a factor because all seed had a germination percentage above 95%. This result was particularly worrisome given the success of the method in the previous season. When rainfall results for the 1995 WS were compared with planting dates and emergence, it was apparent that rainfall at planting had a serious negative effect on stand establishment (see figure), with the relation described by the equation:
log (crop establishment [plants m-2]) = 1.97 - 0.0058 (cumulative rainfall [mm]); r2 = 0.44

Plant stand (plants m2) vs cumulative rainfall (from day prior to sowing to day 3 after sowing).

We include rainfall on the day prior to sowing because this will affect soil consistency at the time of sowing. Small amounts of rain at planting clearly had strongly negative effects on crop establishment, with the effect appearing to be significant at rainfall rates as low as 10 mm (see figure). This study supports the work of others on the importance of good water management at planting.

Field observations suggested that at least three factors were involved: (1) rainfall buries seed under a layer of mud and water, (2) rainfall trapped in a field hinders germination, and (3) seed washed to the top of the soil was more prone to be eaten by birds. One possible response to the first two factors is to improve field drainage, including the use of small canals or canalettes. Because anaerobic seeding seems to function in some regions even under rainy conditions, we speculate that soil texture and drainage that will affect the development of anaerobic conditions around the seed are important to the success of the technology. Although broadcast wet seeding was not included in this study, the negative effect of rain on germination in that system has been observed in other fields. s

Effect of planting geometry and N levels on grain yield of hybrid cultures

S.P. Singh, K.V. Rao, S.V. Subbiah, and K.G. Pillai, Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030, India

Farm machinery
An improved suction apparatus for sampling invertebrate communities in flooded rice
I. Domingo and K.G. Schoenly, IRRI

The influence of planting geometry (20 15, 15 15, and 20 10 cm) and N levels (90 and 150 kg ha-1) on the productivity of two rice hybrids (TNH1 and TNH2) was evaluated in comparison with Rasi and Jaya as standard checks during the 1992 wet season. Planting densities of 0.33-0.50 million hills ha-1 did not significantly influence the productivity of the test hybrids and varieties. The yield response to N application was significant up to 150 kg N ha-1. The interaction effects among treatments were nonsignificant. Jaya produced the highest grain yield (5.1 t ha-1). Rasi and TN1 were on a par in grain yield, but TNH2 recorded the lowest grain yield of 3.1 t ha-1. Our results indicate that maintaining a plant population of 0.33-0.50 million hills ha-1 and a higher N application (150 kg ha-1) are required to achieve higher grain yields in hybrid rice. s

Arida and Heong (IRRN 17(6):30-31, 1992) invented a petrol-driven suction apparatus (hereafter called the original Blower-Vac sampler) to replace the battery-powered FARMCOP for sampling invertebrates in flooded rice. In this note, we report on several design and performance improvements in the original Blower-Vac sampler. The improved suction apparatus (see figure) shortens (by 0.6 m) the path that air, water, and invertebrates travel through, beginning with a 1.5-m-long rubber hose (2 cm diam), an inverted plastic soft drink bottle with its bottom removed, and a pair of open-ended glass vials glued end-to-end with a fine mesh strainer in between that permits only water to pass. The water trap attaches to a 12-cm rubber stopper and fastens underneath the machine blower. Elastic cords, hooked to the

38

IRRN 1998

Machine blower Machine vacuum Rubber stopper Cap bag (n) Vial rack (n) Braided tygon hose (n) Elastic cords (m) Screen strainer (m) Rubber hose 1.5 L plastic bottle (m) PVC reducer PVC pipe (m) Rubber stopper Wooden stick (n)

compared arthropod catches from two D-vac models (backpack and handcarried), FARMCOP, and the original Blower-Vac. Because the modified Blower-Vac catches more larger sized invertebrates than the original model, the modified method is expected to representatively sample a wider range of species than the original method. The addition of a vial caddy and the attachment of a tripod to the blower unit (see figure) allows 2-3 persons to comfortably operate the unit. The materials and the machine blower unit cost approximately US$150, comparable in price to the original model reported in 1992 ($158). For safe operation, we recommend using an aspirator mask, earplugs, and goggles. Acknowledgment The ingenuity of Mr. Ruben Abuyo in our Insect Ecology Unit helped to make this improved version possible. s

Screen strainer (m) Vial Tripod (n) H2O only (when open) To arthropods (inside enclosure)

Modified Blower-Vac apparatus for sampling invertebrate communities. Arrows indicate the flow of air, water, and invertebrates through the apparatus. (n) = new, (m) = modified part from the original Blower-Vac.

A new Senegalese thresher/ cleaner responds to smallfarmer postharvest needs

M.C.S. Wopereis, K.M. Mizan, C. Donovan, A.M. Ndiaye, West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA), 01 B.P. 2551, Bouake 01, Cte dIvoire; and B. Douthwaite, IRRI

water trap, fix the unit firmly to the blower. A PVC reducer (measuring 10 cm high and 5.8 cm in diam) attached to the blower base facilitates a stronger vacuum than the original model. The modified version uses the same sampling enclosure as the earlier one (45-cm-diam plastic bucket with its bottom removed and top-fitted with a 1-m-long muslin/fiberglass net). An additional muslin sleeve can also be attached to the top netting to provide a side access. Arthropods inside the enclosure are sampled in a downward spiral beginning with the muslin netting, followed by the air column, the plant surfaces, and the water column and soil. Because arthropod populations in rice increase in both species richness and abundance with crop age (at least up to maximum tillering), sampling time should also increase.

Vacuum tests of the original and modified Blower-Vac machines. Time triala Model T1 Original Modified
a

Av T2 23 18 T3 23 19 24.3 18.3

27 18

Time (in s) required to fill the water trap.

Vacuum tests revealed a more powerful vacuum in the modified than in the original model (see table); additional vacuum in the modified version allows easier capture of large invertebrates (e.g., rice bugs) inside the enclosure. A comparison of arthropod catches in the modified Blower-Vac, FARMCOP, D-vac, and sweep net methods is in pro-gress and will be published at a later date. Interested readers, however, can consult the table in Arida and Heong (1992) that

Development agents cite harvest and postharvest constraints as major factors in the profitability of irrigated rice production in the Senegal River Valley. Existing systems are expensive, too time-consuming, or too labor-intensive during periods of peak labor demand. An IRRI technology exchange with WARDA has provided a potential solution. WARDA and its partners, with the help of an IRRI agricultural engineer and Senegalese expertise, developed a Senegalese prototype of the IRRIdesigned TC800 axial flow thresher/ cleaner. Here we report on the adaptations made, and the technical and financial performance. In an accompanying article (Donovan et al, page 41), we report on the collaborative

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Table 1. Key adjustments to the original TC800 thresher-cleaner from IRRI for the Senegalese ASI prototype, under guidance from the ADRAO-SAED-ISRA engineering team. Wheels fitted Ability to pull the machine by animal power added All housing assemblies fortified Security added to protect hands while feeding straw into the machine Blower enlarged (almost twice as large) Air entry to blower made adjustable Feed tray enlarged Number of discharge louvers increased from 5 to 6 Two oscillating screens installed instead of one All shaft diameters enlarged Rings stabilizing oscillating screens modified to include ball bearings to reduce wear and tear Larger threshing cylinder assembly strengthened and enlarged; diameter increased from 270 to 445 mm and length from 600 to 885 mm Length of peg teeth in threshing cylinder enlarged from 100 to 150 mm U-beam assembly added to eccentric arm to strengthen and stabilize it Installment of alternating rows with 8 or 9 peg teeth instead of 5 Straw exit in front of machine made adjustable Exit for immature and damaged grains brought to opposite side of the machine Auger discharge spout enlarged from 80 to 100 mm Grain auger assembly: distance between auger flights enlarged from 56 to 100 mm 12-hp diesel engine added

Table 2. Financial comparison of ASI and Votex machines. ASI Technical and financial parameters Type of machine Grain separation rate (% of rough rice) Daily processing capacity (kg d-1) Days worked yr-1 Hours worked d-1 Rough rice price (US$) Charge for processing services (% of rough rice) Purchase price (US$) Fuel consumption (L h-1) Workers needed: operators laborers (provided by farmers) Exchange rate (CFA francs US$1) Financial results (in US$) Fixed costs (annual) Depreciation, interest Maintenance and repairs Taxes, insurance, etc. Total fixed costs yr1 Total fixed costs t-1 Variable costs (annual) Fuel and oil Labor Total variable costs yr1 Total variable costs t1 Total costs yr1 Total costs ha1 Total costs t1 Gross revenues t1 Gross revenues yr1 Net revenues t1 Net revenues yr1 Breakeven tonnage (annual) (t yr1) Breakeven workdays (d yr1) Debt repayment (yr) Net present value Internal financial rate of return (%) Benefit/cost ratio Votex

Axial flow 97-99 6,000 55 6.00 0.17 10 4,138 2.0 2 4 580

Tangential flow 85 4,300 55 6.00 0.17 8 3,276 0.8 1 4 580

1,522 414 20.69 1,986 6.02 679 379 1,058 3.21 3,044 41.51 9.23 17.24 5,690 8.02 2,645 142 23.7 1.0 10,780 65.6 1.7

1,228 328 16.38 1,572 6.65 442 190 632 2.67 2,204 41.94 9.32 13.79 3,262 4.47 1,058 141 32.8 1.8 4,047 34.1 1.4

Source: Donovan C, Douthwaite B. 1997. Financial analysis of the ASI (thresher/cleaner). WARDA, St. Louis, Senegal. (mimeo.)

effort that was critical in producing the Senegalese thresher/cleaner, which was named ASI. In 1995, research in the region indicated many problems with current harvest and postharvest technology. Combine harvesters were aging rapidly and were not being replaced. The 1994 devaluation of the regional currency, the CFA franc, increased the cost of imported equipment and spare parts. Plot-level surveys in 1994-95 show harvesting dates as much as 2 mo past maturity because farmers waited for combine harvesters. Therefore, many farmers shifted to manual harvest and threshing. But, manual methods are difficult and timeconsuming, and extend the period of exposure of rice crop to hot, dry Sahelian winds. The Votex thresher was introduced into the region during the early 1990s. Machine components for the Votex are imported for assembly, rather than built in the region. The Votex requires 5 or 6 people to operate the machine efficiently for threshing, with an 85% separation rate. Another 6-9 laborers are then needed to sift the straw manually to recover the remaining 15%, as well as to winnow and clean the threshed rice before bagging. In a 1994 survey, farmers complained that the performance of the Votex was insufficient and the labor requirements too high. In 1995, IRRI donated two stripper/ gatherer (SG) systems, with the SG800 stripper/harvester and the TC800 thresher/cleaner, to WARDA for evaluation in West African irrigated rice conditions. Testing of the TC800 in Senegal showed that the machine needed adjustments. For example, the feed tray and blower were too small to handle manually harvested rice, and the machine was too fragile overall. There were no wheels to maneuver the machine in the fields or allow animaldrawn transport. Table 1 lists the major modifications undertaken during the 2 1/2 yr of product development. The performance characteristics and financial analysis of the ASI are given in

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IRRN 1998

Table 2, including a comparison with results of the Votex thresher operating under similar conditions. The parameters were chosen to be realistic assessments in the Senegalese context, based on earlier trials and current work. With a 12-hp diesel motor and 6 workers, the ASI yields 6,000 kg d-1 of clean rice from manually harvested production in fields with yields of approximately 4.5 t ha-1. Under similar operating conditions, the Votex capacity is 4,300 kg d-1. The separation recovery rate was 99% in on-farm tests for the ASI, much higher than the Votexs 85%. Thus, with the ASI, total labor needed is 6 workers. No additional labor is needed for sifting the straw for unthreshed rice or for winnowing, because of the efficient separation of rice from straw. Daily perform-

ance for both machines depends on the relative grain to straw proportion, the grain yield, the moisture content of the straw, and the speed of input of harvested crop. The financial analysis evaluates the profitability of the machine for a service operator in order to assess potential distribution. With a purchase price of US$4,138 and the parameters in Table 2, the cost per ton for the ASI is US$9.23, when operator labor is the only labor included (the current system). For the Votex, per-ton costs are only slightly higher ($9.32). The ASIs net revenues are more than double the revenues for the Votex, primarily because of the higher processing rate. ASIs benefitcost ratio of 1.7 is in the acceptable range for investments, even with only 55 workdays yr-1.

In addition to revenues for the ASI owner, farmers also benefit. The ASI has a high quality of output and reduces the time for postharvest work. This in turn lowers postharvest grain losses that arise from delays and loss of humidity. Labor for winnowing, cleaning, and sifting, which is usually supplied by the farm household, is no longer needed. The modified ASI helps reduce calendar constraints to double cropping, avoid grain losses from delays, reduce total harvest and postharvest costs, and provide local employment in artisan workshops and agroindustry. In terms of demand, SISMAR, the local manufacturer of the ASI, is unable to meet current demand for the machine. s

Technology transfer from Asia to Africa sets the stage for publicand private-sector collaboration in new technology in Senegal
C. Donovan, K.M. Mizan, M.C.S. Wopereis, B.S. Diack, West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA), 01 B.P. 2551, Bouake 01, Cte dIvoire; and B. Douthwaite, IRRI

In the early 1990s, the productivity and profitability of irrigated systems in the Senegal River Valley began to be questioned. The Senegal River Valley Development Authority (known as SAED) found that harvest and postharvest constraints were very important, both in costs and in grain quality losses. SAED agents therefore turned to research, specifically to the Senegalese Agricultural Research Institute (known by the French acronym ISRA) and to WARDA to help find alternatives. In response to WARDAs request, IRRI donated prototypes of the TC800 axial flow thresher/cleaner and the SG800 stripper gatherer. WARDA and ISRA modified the TC800, with help from SAED, a local artisan, farmers, and local agro-industry. By November 1997, a new thresher/cleaner, known as the ASI, was released in Senegal. A

companion article by Wopereis et al, page 39, presents the technical and financial results. Here, we present the development process of the ASI, an example of how research, development, private industry, and farmers can work together to meet technology needs. IRRI researchers developed the SG800 and the TC800 to meet the needs of small-scale Asian rice farmers. Early in 1995, with the IRRI-donated prototypes and construction plans, IRRI and WARDA collaborated with SAED and ISRA to assess the potential of the machines in Sahelian irrigated rice production systems. In November 1995, during the wet-season harvest, an IRRI agricultural engineer (B. Douthwaite) assisted technicians and machinists with field tests of the machines. These people developed a list of changes recommended to strengthen the machine and adapt it, particularly for use with manually harvested fields and under wet field conditions. A workshop was organized with the major stakeholders involved, including farmers, rice millers, local manufacturers, representatives from the development agencies (SAED, etc.), researchers from WARDA and ISRA,

and extension agents, to discuss test results and future work. WARDA, SAED, and ISRA decided to work with a local artisan skilled with agricultural machinery in order to build a Senegalese prototype, using the existing TC800 model and the IRRI plans. One of the challenges was to build the machines with locally available materials. The artisan chosen was skilled with agricultural machinery (including the existing Votex thresher), and his machine shop was sufficiently (and typically) equipped. By the dry season of 1996-97, testing of the new local prototype took place in farmers fields as well as on WARDAs research farms, with the IRRI engineer again assisting. Farmers participated in the equipment tests, indicating areas of concern with the design and operation. The advantage of using both local materials and local expertise was evident during the tests. Alternatives could be tested and minor changes made rapidly in the field or in the nearby artisan workshop, without major time delays. Thus, local artisans are in a good position to build, maintain, and repair the machines in the future.

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In 1996, a second workshop was held to present test results from the latest thresher prototype and to discuss the commercial production of the thresher/cleaner. To reflect the integrated approach to product development, the name ASI was chosen, derived from ADRAO/SAED/ISRA, for the three agencies involved in Senegal (WARDAs French acronym is ADRAO). Then, in addition to the artisans, an agricultural machinery firm, SISMAR, was given the technical plans for the thresher/cleaner. Investing its own capital, SISMAR built a new

prototype, and assisted the WARDA/ SAED/ISRA team in the tests and development of recommendations for the remaining modifications. The ASI was officially released for commercial distribution on 5 November 1997. SISMAR has already manufactured machines for use in the Senegal River Valley and is unable to meet demand. Among the first purchasers of the ASI were two Senegalese farmerslocal seed producerswho had participated in the tests and were impressed by the ASI performance rate, ease and safety of use, and quality of

output. Using the collaborative approach, this research and development effort was able to produce an adapted technology that addresses postharvest constraints with a domestically produced and easily repaired thresher/ cleaner. Collaborative research by IRRI, ISRA, SAED, and WARDA was critical to ensuring a well-built, durable machine. The private sector, both artisans and the agroindustrial firm SISMAR, as well as farmers and their organizations, will determine the final diffusion of this machinery in Senegal. s

Polyurethane rollers: a substitute for rubber rollers in rice dehuskers

K.P. Sudheer, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi; and R. Viswanathan, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute, Aduthurai 612101, Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu, India

Physical and mechanical properties of polyurethane specimens of various proportions of polyol and isocyanate and curing durations. Curing duration (h) Composition polyol:isocyanate Tensile strength (MPa) 6.19 9.17 10.00 9.52 9.42 11.20 16.00 12.43 8.00 9.23 13.38 10.22 12.59 Elongation (%) Hardness (A) Abrasion loss (cc 40 m-1) 0.35 0.28 0.24 0.36 0.30 0.24 0.18 0.32 0.30 0.20 0.13 0.22 0.59

2.5

100:45 100:50 100:55 100:60 100:45 100:50 100:55 100:60 100:45 100:50 100:55 100:60

158.50 170.70 182.90 161.00 161.00 178:05 197.56 170.70 143.90 153.66 173.70 158.50 139.00

82 87 88 86 83 89 90 87 83 88 89 86 89

Thermoplastic polyurethane is formed by linking polyol and isocyanate. After a reaction, polyol becomes flexible and highly hydrophobic, and forms hydrolysis-stable polyurethanes. These two compounds, when mixed and undergoing reactions in different proportions and conditions, result in a polyurethane product of various hardness, tensile strength, elongation, and abrasion resistance. This polyurethane has applications in various industries such as automobiles, cold storage, footwear, etc. The major quality of polyurethane products is their abrasive resistance, which is approximately three times that of products made of rubber. In our study, polyurethane pieces were produced and tested to assess their suitability for replacing rubber rollers in rice dehuskers. The rubber rollers require frequent replacement because of the abrasive nature of the rice surface. Polyol and isocyanate were mixed in different proportions (100:45, 100:50, 100:55, and 100:60) without any air bubbles forming in the mixture. This mix, poured in a mold for making test

3.0

3.5 Commercial rubber roller

pieces, was cured at 90 2 C in an oven for 2.5, 3, and 3.5 h. These pieces were tested for hardness, tensile strength, elongation, and abrasion resistance using standard procedures (see table). The table shows that all the properties required for use in the paddy dehusker-rubber roll type increased with a curing duration of 2.5 and 3 h and proportions of 100:45, 100:50, and 100:55, and decreased with 3.5 h of curing duration and proportion of

100:60. The tensile strength, elongation, and hardness of the test pieces were on a par with those of commercially available rubber rollers. The abrasion loss was in the range of 0.13-0.36 cc 40 m1 vs 0.59 cc 40 m1 for the rubber rollers. Tensile strength, elongation, and hardness were maximum at the proportion of 100:55 cured at 3 h with 0.18 cc 40 m1 of abrasion loss. This combination was thus identified as the optimum. s

Manuscript preparation. Arrange the note as a brief statement of research objectives, a short description of project design, and a succint discussion of results. Relate results to the objectives. Do not include abstracts. Do not cite references or include a bibliography. Restrain acknowledgments.

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Fertilizer management
Response of rice hybrids to N sources and time of application of N and K
K. Surekha, M.N. Reddy, and C.H.M. Vijayakumar, Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030, India

Although NH4-N has been accepted as the preferred N source in rice, NO3-N was reported to be the preferred source in China at late crop growth stages when hybrid exhibited a peak demand for nutrients. A higher percentage of unfilled grains is common in hybrid rices unless the soil nutrient supply can cope with crop demands. Thus, delayed application of N and K coinciding with flowering can help realize the potential of hybrid rices. We studied the differential response of recently released hybrids to various N sources and split application of N

and K. In a Vertisol (typical Pellustert), during the 1994 and 1996 wet season, four hybrids (MGR1, KRH1, APRH1, and APRH2) received the following N treatments: 120 kg ha-1 at 33:33:33% at the basal, tillering, and flowering stages, respec-tively; and 120 kg ha-1 likewise at the basal, tillering, plant initiation, and flowering stages. All phosphorus was applied basally (P at 26.4 kg ha-1). Potash was either applied as basal or in two splits (75% basal and 25% at flowering). Data on grain and straw yields and their N uptake were recorded. Of the two N sources tested, NH4-N was found to be superior for grain yield (5.3 t ha-1) and N uptake (128 kg ha-1). This indicated that the more stable NH4-N held by the soil cation exchange complex (CEC) affected yield. Although the usefulness of NO3-N for hybrids at the reproductive stage has

been reported, it leached and was unstable. Three equal N split applications were on a par with four N splits. Irrespective of N sources, a topdressing of N beyond the panicle initiation stage for short- and mid-duration groups did not bestow any additional yield advantage. Similarly, a split application of K (twice) did not affect either grain yield or N uptake even though an adequate K supply at flowering was known to improve grain filling via the efficient translocation of photosynthates to the sink. High levels of available K present at the experimental site might have taken care of the crop needs. The present study indicated that NH4-N is a better source of N for hybrids. In Vertisols with a high CEC contributing to the retention of applied NH4-N and high available K status, there is no need to resort to delayed N and K application. s

Nitrogen response of Karnataka Rice Hybrid 2

K.M. Devaraju, H. Gowda, and B.M. Raju, Regional Research Station, VC Farm, Mandya 571405, Karnataka, India

The development of hybrids, because of their heterotic vigor, could increase rice productivity by breaking the yield barrier. With this objective, two rice hybridsKarnataka Rice Hybrid 1 (KRH1) and Karnataka Rice Hybrid 2 (KRH2) were released in Karnataka. Hybrids in most crops usually require an increased use of various nutrients, especially N. To determine the N requirement in KRH2, a medium-duration rice hybrid, a study was undertaken using IR20 as a check variety. Experiments were laid out with different levels of N, ranging from 0 to 200 kg ha-1, on a sandy loam soil with a pH of 6.5 and organic C of 0.5% in a split-plot design with three replications during the 1994-96 wet seasons.

KRH2 outyielded IR20 at all levels of N application, ranging from 0 to 200 kg ha-1. In IR20, the tiller number was higher than that of KRH2. The increased yield of KRH2 was mainly attributed to the higher number of productive tillers, panicle weight, and number of filled grains. The nutrients

used for the production of unproductive tillers in IR20 might have been better used in KRH2 to increase seed set, panicle weight, and thus yield. IR20 responded to applied N only up to 100 kg ha-1. In KRH2, the response to applied N beyond 100 kg ha-1 was marginal and insignificant. s

Integrated pest management diseases

The effect of Trichoderma and antifungal agents on rice germination
K. Duncan and Youxan Su, University of Canterbury, Bag 4800 Christchurch, New Zealand

Rice seeds were found to exhibit very weak or no germination when sown in an antifungal seed-raising mix made by cultivating the forest green mold, Trichoderma viride, in nutrientsupplemented sawdust from Pinus radiata wood. (P. radiata is a common temperate plantation softwood that is grown extensively in southern

hemisphere countries for lumber.) Trichoderma is a genus of pathogenic fungi used widely in horticulture against such fungal diseases as silverleaf in fruit trees. The aim of the antifungal mix is to provide a natural control agent against damping down or seedling wilt diseases using a cheap and abundant plant waste. Common vegetables (carrot, raddish, lettuce, tomato) germinated and grew extremely well in the antifungal mix with no disease mortality. But when four rice varieties (IR60 HD 105, PSBRe4 HD 437, PSBRe2 HD 429, and PSBRc10 HD 439) were tried in the new

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mix, the germination percentage ranged from 0 to 2%. Growth of those seeds that did germinate was extremely poor. This unexpected result could be explained by T. viride being toxic to rice but not to the other plants tested. The mechanisms for this toxicity could be either exosomatic, through the rice being especially sensitive to T. viride toxins released in the rhizosphere, or endosomatic, through the habit of rice of phagocytizing soil organic materials in heterophagous nutritiontoxins of T. viride origin might be brought into the rice root to make intimate connection with the rice cytoplasm. Thus, T. viride would especially affect rice but not other plants that lack the phagocytic habit. An alternative hypothesis is that rice might have a specific requirement for a mycorrhizal symbiont that is killed by the T. viride, hence the poor or zero germination. In an attempt to test these hypotheses, trials were conducted in which 100 seed lots of rice were germinated on damp filter paper after being treated with dilute solutions of antifungicides. Copper oxychloride, benlate, and hydrogen peroxide were used in weak

Germination and growth of lots of 100 seeds of rice variety PSBRc4 HD 437 on filter paper subjected to antifungal treatments. Treatment Factor None 1% hydrogen peroxide 98 6.305 60 25 1% copper oxychloride 98 6.496 57 35 1% benomyl 0.01% benlate Spirulina platensis 100 5.652 53 22 100 7.730 59 30

Germination (%) Total wet weight (g) at 20 d postplanting Maximum stem height (mm) at 19 d postplanting Max. root length (mm) at 6 d

98 5.627 50 20

concentrations that did not affect the germination of other plant species (barley, oat, and wheat). One hundred seed lots were also germinated in the presence of a small amount of Spirulina platensis, a commonly available cyanobacterium. The experiments were repeated with dehulled rice seeds. Three replicates of all trials were conducted. Compared with the controls, all the antifungicides stimulated growth. Germination and growth were enhanced over the controls when rice was germinated in the presence of S. platensis (see table). These results suggest that microorganisms can affect the early growth of rice. In practical management, fungi-

cides can improve germination. Seedraising mixes contaminated with Trichoderma spp. or other fungi that are inhibitors to growth should be avoided. Another interesting result from this work is that germination and growth might be enhanced if a small quantity of S. platensis is added to the seeds at planting time. S. platensis is a N2-fixing photoautotroph that grows actively in damp conditions, thus possibly increasing the N available to the seedlings as well as providing an additional carbon source. It also contains powerful antifungal and antiviral compounds that could protect the seed and emerging seedling from attack by microorganisms. s

Integrated pest management insects

Evolving insecticide use and practices at IRRI
M.A. Bell, K.L. Heong, G. Patea, and T. Clemeno, IRRI

With growing awareness of the concerns associated with pesticide (especially insecticide) use, IRRI has acted over the past decade to play a lead role in both reducing insecticide use and promoting safe pesticide use for people and the environment. In addition to the direct steps taken at the IRRI experiment station, a book has also been produced by IRRI (in 1995) addressing areas of concern related to pesticides, farmer health, and the rice environment. The improvements made at the IRRI experiment station include

1. Implementation of a trained pesticide applicators (TPA) program (1987). 2. A ban on World Health Organization (WHO) Category One pesticides (1989). 3. Implementation of a regular scheme to monitor insect, disease, and weed populations in fields (1991). 4. Endorsement of integrated pest management (IPM) as the standard for pest management at the IRRI station (1995). 5. Further changes in application methods and monitoring of fields (1997).

We detail each of these steps below. 1. Trained Pesticide Applicators program (1987) To improve the safe use of pesticides, IRRI introduced a system of authorized pesticide applications in 1987. (The name was subsequently changed to trained pesticide applicators, TPA.) The system includes guidelines for (1) certification process (training), (2) routine medical examinations and health reporting, (3) use of personal protective equipment, (4) job rotation, (5) decontamination facilities, and (6) safe product disposal. This system ensures that pesticide applications are made by trained staff, resulting in improved application with benefits to both users and the environment.

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2. Ban on the use of Category One pesticides (1989) In 1989, IRRI management banned the use at the IRRI experiment station of products defined by WHO as Category One such as parathion, that is, products that are extremely and highly hazardous to human health). Coming after the implementation of the TPA system, this move had further benefits for both users and the environment. 3. Implementation of regular pest monitoring (1991) To improve the basis for deciding whether a pesticide application was necessary, IRRI introduced a regular monitoring system in 1991. With this system, all fields and glasshouses were monitored weekly by trained staff to determine insect, disease, rat, and weed pressures; the golden apple snail (Pomacea sp.) was monitored at planting. Critical pest levels for recommended control were established. If a doubt arose about the need for an application, the monitoring team would revisit a field and, where necessary, call upon expertise from IRRIs Entomology and Plant Pathology Division. 4. Integrated pest management as a standard (1995) The IRRI Experiment Station Committee (chaired by the deputy director general for research and with division heads as members) made IPM the standard for pest control on the IRRI experiment station in 1995. The growing knowledge base for IPM of insects indicates that insecticide applications during the initial stages (e.g., first 30-40 d) of the rice crop are generally unnecessary. It is worth mentioning that although IPM is the standard, more intensive insect control is permitted depending on the experimental objectives and/or susceptibility of the materials in the trial.

5. Further changes in application and researcher monitoring (1997) With individual researchers becoming increasingly aware of the benefits of IPM, the responsibility for field monitoring was given to the individual scientists in 1997. The experiment station retains expertise for validating monitoring results as required. In 1997, experiment station staff members introduced boom spraying where possible and the use of a controlled pressure valve (for backpack sprayers). Both practices improve the uniformity of spray applications and improve safety for users. Recent improvements in land leveling will also help improve pest control (especially for weeds and the golden apple snail). In the IRRI glasshouses, pesticide use has been reduced by implementing an annual month-long greenhouse shutdown (thus breaking insect life cycles) and using colored sticky traps and milder hand-spray insecticidal soaps. Biological control agents represent a further option to be pursued. Changes in pesticide use Insecticide use (active ingredients ha-1 season-1) has dropped dramatically at IRRI in recent years, especially when IPM was introduced in 1995 (see figure). Both fungicide and molluscicide use have also fallen slightly. Based on informal observations, reduced insecticide use at IRRI has
Active ingredients (kg ha-1) 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1993 DS 1993 WS 1994 DS 1994 WS

resulted in increases in the number of birds and beneficial insects seen in fields. In addition, field observations have shown that control of the rice whorl maggot (Hydrellia philippina) and defoliators such as leaffolders (e.g., Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) is rarely required. Planthoppers (e.g., Nilaparvata lugens) have only been a problem in fields that were sprayed early, and green leafhoppers (GLH-Nephotettix virescens) have occasionally been a problem, but primarily only when rice tungro virus disease has been present (GLH being the primary vector of tungro). Rice bug (Leptocorisa oratorius) is occasionally a problem on crops planted out of synchrony with other crops. Challenges The practices introduced at IRRI have led to a reduced and safer use of pesticides (especially insecticides), with benefits to the environment and IRRI staff. But several challenges remain, including better systems for stem borer monitoring and control, better understanding of the effects of stem borer damage at high yield potential levels, improved control of the golden apple snail with reduced use of molluscicide, and mechanization of pesticide application (boom spraying and the use of tractor-mounted sprayers with special narrow-design wheels), and thus further reductions in pesticide use. Stem borers also merit attention. They are more problematic to control

Fungicide Insecticide Molluscicide

1995 1995 DS WS Season

1996 DS

1996 WS

1997 DS

1997 WS

Use of pesticides (kg ai ha-1) at IRRI experiment station (DS = dry season, WS = wet season).

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than other pests because once the damage is apparent, it is essentially too late to effectively control the pest; thus, farmers and researchers may be tempted to use prophylactic applications for safety. Infestations of stem borer during the 1996 dry season were

the highest seen for many years (infestation varied from a 0 to 8% proportion of total panicles infested). Although the damage looked spectacular, it has been repeatedly shown that damage at low to moderate

yield levels has little to no effect on crop yield. Data presently being collected also suggest that plants retain sufficient yield component plasticity even at higher yield levels (>8 t ha-1) to compensate for damaged panicles. s

Integrated pest management weeds

Butachlor safener combinations for weed control in direct-seeded puddled rice
N.N. Angiras and S.S. Rana, Department of Agronomy, Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, (HPKV), Palampur 176062, India

Weed competition is a major constraint to the productivity of broadcast-seeded rice. Although manual weeding controls weeds effectively, because of the absence of rows, it is difficult, timeconsuming, and costly. In addition, labor is scarce. Butachlor, the recommended herbicide, controls weeds effectively, but is toxic to germinating rice seedlings. The use of a safener, an antidote, protects rice seedlings from butachlor injury effectively without any adverse effect on weed control. A field experiment was conducted during the 1994 and 1995 wet seasons at HPKV, Palampur (32 6' N, 76 3' E,

1,290 m altitude). The soil of the test site was silty clay loam, with pH 6.9, 1.2% organic C, 364 kg available N ha-1, 21 kg available P ha-1, and 326 kg available K ha-1. Sprouted seeds of variety HPU2216 were sown at 100 kg ha-1 by the broadcast method onto puddled soil on 19 Jun 1994 and 26 Jun 1995. The treatments (see table) were evaluated in a randomized block design with three replications. The data analyzed by standard analysis of variance and treatment means were compared with the LSD test at the 5% level. Weed samples were taken from a 25 cm 25 cm area and oven-dried at 70 C, and dry weight was recorded. Grain yield was recorded from a 7.5-m2 net plot area. Plant samples from a 0.5m2 area were taken at harvest to record yield components. The emergence count was recorded from a 0.5-m2 area at 18 d after sowing (DAS). The dominant weeds were Echinochloa crus-galli,

E. colona, Ammania baccifera, Scirpus sp., Cyperus iria, C. difformis, C. esculentus, Aeschynomene indica, Monochoria vaginalis, and Commelina forskalli. Butachlor without safener applied at 2 or 7 DAS caused toxicity to rice seedlings, but this was significantly less when applied at 7 DAS than at 2 DAS. Other butachlor safener combinations also caused acute toxicity symptoms, but rice plants were able to recover. Butachlor at 2 kg ha-1 + safener at 0.188 kg ha-1 (7 DAS) was the most effective combination for yield and weed control. Rice yield of the butachlor at 1.5 kg ha-1 + safener at 0.188 kg ha-1 (2 and 7 DAS) treatments was equal to that of the crop that received two hand weedings. At each time of application (i.e., 2 or 7 DAS), butachlor with safener at 0.094 or 0.188 kg ha-1 controlled weeds effectively and increased rice grain yield significantly over its application without safener (see table). s

Effect of butachlor safener combinations on emergence count, panicles m-2, panicle weight, grain yield, and weed dry weight in direct-seeded puddled rice. Emergence count (g m-2) 1994 1.5 1.5 + 0.094 1.5 + 0.188 1.5 1.5 + 0.094 1.5 + 0.188 0.188 2.0 + 0.188 199 292 316 257 323 342 368 338 365 361 25 1995 148 239 265 195 261 281 324 272 324 329 40 1994 324 420 467 373 427 463 327 492 472 296 59

Treatment

Time of application (DAS)a 2 2 2 7 7 7 2 7 25 & 45

(kg ai ha-1)

Panicles (no. m2) 1995 168 234 248 195 242 261 188 295 264 184 40

Panicle weight (g) 1994 1.53 1.68 1.75 1.55 1.71 1.77 1.35 1.79 1.83 1.32 0.17 1995 1.58 1.75 1.81 1.61 1.77 1.88 1.40 1.92 1.95 1.39 0.20

Grain yield (t ha1) 1994 3.4 4.5 5.0 4.0 4.5 4.9 3.4 5.2 5.0 3.0 0.6 1995 1.4 2.7 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.2 1.2 3.7 3.3 1.2 0.6

Weed dry weight (g m2) 1994b 5.54 3.24 2.41 4.76 3.93 3.37 8.97 1.10 3.63 9.58 1.15 (30.3) (10.1) (6.8) (25.5) (15.1) (11.0) (80.2) (0.8) (12.7) (91.7) 1995 123 77 43 81 47 31 399 12 27 406 21

Butachlorc Butachlor + safenerd Butachlor + safener Butachlor Butachlor + safener Butachlor + safener Safener Butachlor + safener Hand weeding twice Unweeded check LSD (0.05)
a

Days after sowing. bData transformed to dichloro-2-phenyl pyrimidine.

x + 0.5 transformation.

Values in parentheses are the means of original values. cFormulation: Trapp 50 EC. dTrade name S901A, chemical name 4,6

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Soil microbiology
Effect of immobilization of N2fixing cyanobacteria on solid matrices and their influence on N2-fixing activity and ammonia excretion
S. Suresh Babu and S. Kannaiyan, Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641003, Tamil Nadu, India
Effect of immobilization in different solid matrices on nitrogenase activity of A. variabilis-SAo and N. muscorum-DOH. Nitrogenase activitya Solid matrix A. variabilis-SAo N. muscorum-DOH 134 247 300 374 7 10 20 174 344 428 235 9 12 24 Ammonia excretion (n moles mL-1) 140
Free-living

A. variabilis-SAo
PUF SCW PW

120 100 80

Immobilization is the process of attaching cells or their constituent biocatalysts to a solid matrix so that they do not move independently when placed in a fluid environment. Immobilization could be carried out by physical means such as adsorption or entrapment in a gel or foam matrix or by chemical methods such as covalent bonding. In the present study, solid matrices such as polyurethane foam (PUF), sugarcane waste, and paper waste were used for immobilizing N2-fixing cyanobacteria Anabaena variabilis and Nostoc muscorum. PUF was cut into 0.5cm pieces before use. Sugarcane waste was treated with 0.5% sodium hydroxide to remove the phenols and then thoroughly washed before use. PUF at 1.5 g, sugarcane waste at 2.0 g, and paper waste at 2.0 g were each placed in six 250-mL volumetric flasks containing 150 mL of N-free BG-11 medium. These were sterilized in an autoclave at 15 lb pressure at 120 C for 30 min and then cooled to room temperature prior to inoculation of one set with 5 mL of actively growing homogenized cyanobacterial cultures of A. variabilis-SAo and another set with N. muscorum-DOH. The cultures were incubated under nethouse conditions for 4 wk at 28 1 C with 3,000 lux light intensity. Both N2-fixing cyanobacterial cultures were also grown under freeliving conditions with the same growth conditions as immobilized cyanobacterial cultures. After 4 wk, the culture filtrate from each treatment was collected and the ammonia excreted

Free-living Polyurethane foam Sugarcane waste Paper waste SE SEd CE

a

60 40 20 0 7 14 21 28

n moles of ethylene produced h-1 g-1 dry weight biomass.

CD (P = 0.05) = 8.17 N. muscorum-DOH 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 7 14 21 28 Days CD (P = 0.05) = 6.75

was estimated at weekly intervals. The solid matrices were used to determine nitrogenase activity via the acetylene reduction assay method. Anabaena variabilis-SAo and N. muscorum-DOH immobilized in solid matrices such as PUF, sugarcane waste, and paper waste have registered significantly higher nitrogenase activity than under free-living conditions. N. muscorum-DOH recorded relatively higher nitrogenase activity than A. variabilisSAo in free-living and immo-bilized conditions except in the paper waste immobilized treatment (see table). Ammonia excretion was more in sugarcane waste than in PUF and paper waste immobilized and free-living cyanobacterial cultures. Ammonia excretion by both A. variabilis-SAo and N. muscorum-DOH was maximum on the 14th day and lowest on the 28th day of inoculation (see figure). The higher nitrogenase activity under the immobilized state could be due to the colonization and accumulation of a higher number of algal cells. The solid matrices also provide favorable conditions for colonization of cyanobacteria on the surface of paper waste and also inside the solid matrices in PUF and sugarcane waste. Interestingly, the colonization of cyanobacteria on the surface could play a vital role in increasing N2-fixing activity and ammonia production. Financial assistance by EEC, Belgium, is gratefully acknowledged. s

Effect of immobilization in different solid matrices on ammonia excretion by A. variabilisSAo and N. muscorum-DOH. PUF = polyurethane foam, SCW = sugarcane waste, PW = paper waste.

Routine research. Reports of screening trials of varieties, fertilizer, cropping methods, and other routine observations using standard methodologies to establish local recommendations are not ordinarily accepted. Examples are single-season, single-trial field experiments. Field trials should be repeated across more than one season, in multiple seasons, or in more than one location as appropriate. All experiments should include replications and an internationally known check or control treatment.

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Socioeconomic impact
Economics of hybrid rice seed production in seed growers fields in Karnataka, India
Honnaiah, B.V. Chandra, R.M. Radhakrishna, and S. Lingaraju, Regional Research Station, VC Farm, Mandya 571405, Karnataka, India

The importance of the contribution of Indias agricultural sector to national income, employment, and general economic development has been well recognized. The introduction and adoption of technological innovations is one way to increase the productivity. Hybrid rice varieties have been released in Karnataka. Hybrid seed production is an important component of the spread of hybrid rice. We studied the economics and employment generation of seed production in seed growers fields. A farmer in Mandya District grew hybrid rice, KRH1, for the Karnataka State Seed Corporation on a contractual

basis, on 0.5 ha under irrigated conditions during the 1996 dry season. The parental seeds were supplied to the farmer from the Regional Research Station through the corporation. Standard seed production techniques were followed. Trained executives of the corporation provided technical guidance. The hybrid seed yield was 1.5 t ha-1, with a total gross income of Rs 60,000 ha-1 (US$1=Rs 35), and the corporation procured seed at the rate of Rs 40 kg-1. The cost of cultivation was Rs 24,000 ha-1, including transportation and processing. Thus, the seed production cost was Rs 16 kg-1. For the total cost of cultivation per hectare, the major costs were labor and bullock pairs (Rs 2,375), followed by fertilizer and plant protection chemicals (Rs 5,985), GA3 (Rs 2,800), seeds (Rs 1,875), and transportation and processing (Rs 975). The special techniques of seed production, such as leaf clipping, GA3 application, and rope pulling, and planting. Gross income from KHR1 was Rs 37,500 vs Rs 28,500 from Rasi. KRH1 had an additional gross return of Rs 9,000 ha-1, which resulted in an additional net return of Rs 7,285 ha-1. It was also observed that the additional labor required for KRH1 lessened with each season as farmers

cost Rs 3,825 ha-1. The cost of additional operations such as roguing, separate harvest of A and R lines, among others, was Rs 450 more than for general seed production. For seed production, 150 more men and 55 more women laborers were required for hybrid rice than for inbred varieties. The major operations for these laborers included roguing, rope pulling, leaf clipping, planting, and harvesting. Because the grower also received Rs 2,430 for straw and Rs 8,750 through the sale of restorer grains, gross income was Rs 71,180 ha-1. Thus, the grower received a net income of Rs 47,180 ha-1. This represents a benefitcost ratio of 1.97. The study thus indicated that the seed grower can obtain a net profit of Rs 47,180 ha-1 in hybrid rice seed production. Seed production cost Rs16 kg-1. This activity also generated additional rural employment for 150 men and 55 women. Hybrid seed production is a highly profitable enterprise for willing and innovative farmers. s

Economics of commercial hybrid rice cultivation

Honnaiah, S. Gangadharaiah, S. Lingaraju, and R.M. Radhakrishna, Regional Research Station, VC Farm, Mandya 571405, Karnataka, India

We studied the economics of the commercial cultivation of KRH1 in Mandya District, Karnataka. This study involved 2 farmers during the 1994 dry season, 5 farmers during the 1994 wet season, and 10 farmers during the 1996 dry season. Means were used for the economic analysis. Rasi was used as a check variety. Plot size ranged from 0.4 to 1.0 ha. KRH1 yielded 6.5 t ha-1 on average, whereas Rasi yielded 5.0 t ha-1. KRH1 recorded a yield advantage of 1.5 t ha-1. The cost of cultivation of KRH1 was Rs 13,885 (US$1=Rs 35) vs Rs 12,170 for Rasi. The increased cultivation cost for KRH1 was due to the increased cost of seed and labor for nursery management

became more acquainted with new practices such as planting single seedlings hill-1, among others. The benefit-cost ratio for KRH1 was 1.70; it was 1.34. for Rasi. Because the cultivation of KRH1 resulted in an additional net profit of Rs 7,285 ha-1, farmers were impressed by its profit and accepted the new hybrid. s

Announcement
Scholarships available
IRRI is pleased to announce the availability of an anticipated 14 scholarships to be awarded during 1999 to support highly qualified scientists from rice-growing developing countries interested in pursuing a graduate degree in areas related to rice science. These scholarships include those provided by IRRI (PhD scholarships only) as well as scholarship funds that IRRI administers for other agencies, primarily the Asian Development Bank (ADB)-Japan scholarship fund (MS and PhD scholarships). IRRIs overall research effort is divided into seven programs: four focus on ecosystems (irrigated, rainfed, upland, flood-prone), one addresses issues that cut across rice ecosystems (cross ecosystems), one focuses on genetic conservation of rice (genetic resources), and one deals with capacity development of IRRIs partners

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(accelerating impact of rice research). Scholarship slots are allotted to each program and scholars are selected to work in areas of critical importance to each program. For 1999, scholars interested in the following broad thematic areas by IRRI research program will be given first consideration: Irrigated rice 1. Modeling and measuring respiration losses in rice. 2. Modeling and measuring temperature effects on high-yielding rice. 3. Modeling and measuring the functional balance of shoots and roots in rice. 4. Root morphology and root physiology for yield improvement. 5. Long-term trends in Asian ricefields and productivity at experiment stations and in farmers fields; what is the evidence of degradation of the soil resource base. 6. Physiological changes of rice plants damaged by insects. 7. Sociology of pest management decisions among rice farmers. 8. Weed ecology. 9. Integrated weed management in intensive rice production. Rainfed lowland rice 1. Economic risk analysis. 2. Cross tolerance mechanisms for drought and submergence. 3. Physiology of drought tolerance mechanisms related to root growth and water extraction in anaerobic/ aerobic conditions of rainfed lowlands. 4. Genetics of physiological mechanisms for drought tolerance. 5. Establishment and vigor of dryseeded rice. 6. Zero and reduced tillage and crop establishment. 7. The role of microflora and effects of drought on microscale soil nutrient supply. 8. Weed dynamics and biology in rainfed systems.

9. Dynamics and management of carbon and nitrogen in rainfed lowlands. Upland rice 1. Socioeconomic aspects of land use dynamics in the uplands. 2. P dynamics and management in the acid upland soils. 3. Understanding P N interactions and effects on C, N, and P cycling in the uplands. 4. Economic sustainability of upland rice systems. 5. Refining P coefficients for development/improvement of P decision aids for the uplands. 6. Soil- and slope-specific analyses of upland rice productivity. Flood-prone rice 1. Effect of rice-shrimp farming systems on the sustainability of flood-prone coastal ricelands. Cross ecosystems 1. Ex ante evaluation of the impact of biotechnology applications. 2. Decision support systems for crop and pest management under differential water stresses. 3. Techniques for using pest biodiversity. 4. Yield gap analysis. 5. The role of scales in ecoregional research. 6. Applications of biotechnology for crop improvement. Genetic resources 1. Biology and genetics of wild rice. 2. Biosystematics of the genus Oryza. 3. Dynamic conservation of rice genetic resources. 4. G E analysis to study adaptation of rice to stress environments. Accelerating impact 1. Impact evaluation of using the leaf color chart for N management in rice in the Mekong Delta area of Vietnam. 2. Assessing the potential of controlledrelease fertilizers for rice systems in India and the Philippines.

3. Evaluation of the decentralized production and distribution of urea briquettes and their use by farmers in Bangladesh. 4. Assessing farmer adoption patterns and constraints of wet-seeding methods for rice in two selected Asian countries. 5. Ex ante evaluation of adopting hybrid rice in India and Bangladesh. 6. Evaluation of the public, private, cooperative, and NGO sector organizations for the dissemination of new knowledge and technologies to small-scale rice farmers in Asia. 7. Ex ante evaluation of the expected impact of two-way ham radio communication for linking farmers with extension agencies and researchers in an intensively cultivated area. 8. Evaluating the potential impact of distance education materials including video films for the dissemination of knowledgeintensive technologies. Although IRRI is not a degreegranting institution, it does support candidates enrolled in one of the many universities throughout the world with which IRRI has a formalized memorandum of agreement. IRRI scholars must fulfill all requirements of that university and IRRI. What IRRI provides is the opportunity to conduct thesis research under the guidance and supervision of an experienced IRRI scientist on a topic of global importance to rice science. Quite often, this involves being given access to facilities and resources not readily available to students from developing countries. Upon successful defense of the research work, the scholar is conferred a degree through the collaborating university. Two kinds of scholarships are grantedfull and thesis only. Full scholarships are generally granted only to qualified students from countries with relatively less developed educational systems. IRRI has defined these to include developing countries other than Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, the

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Philippines, and Thailand. A full scholarship provides support for completion of coursework requirements as well as thesis research. Scholars receiving a full scholarship normally attend the nearby University of the Philippines Los Baos for their coursework requirements before undertaking thesis research through IRRI, although this is not mandatory. Full PhD scholars must complete their program within 3 1/2 yr. MS scholars are allotted 2 1/2 yr. A thesis-only scholarship is made available to scholars who have finished their formal studies and are ready to conduct thesis research. Scholars from Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand are eligible for thesis research scholarships only. Thesis-only PhD scholars must complete their program within 2 1/2 yr. Selection for all grants is highly competitive and applications must be endorsed by the applicants institution. IRRI encourages the application of women candidates and IRRI selection procedures stipulate that equally qualified women candidates will be given preference in IRRIs nondegree and degree training programs and workshops. Scholarships may be awarded to individuals working in government organizations, universities, and NGOs. Application procedure Candidates should be between 25 and 45 yr old; have at least 2 yr of relevant professional experience; be proficient in English; and be physically fit, as supported by a medical report. Interested and qualified individuals should contact the Head of IRRIs Training Center expressing interest in applying for a scholarship and requesting an application form. For candidates with access to the Internet and a WWW browser, application forms can also be printed from IRRIs Web page <http://www.cgiar.org/ irri/>. The Head of the Training Center can be contacted at the following address and/or numbers:

Head Training Center International Rice Research Institute P.O. Box 933, 1099 Manila, Philippines Telephone: (63-2) 845-0563 Fax: (63-2) 891-1292 email: R.Raab@cgnet.com The completed application form should be sent to the Head of the Training Center before 1 Nov 1998. The

form should include a clear indication of the thematic research area in which the candidate is interested in working, the kind of scholarship requested (full, thesis-only, Ph D, MS), and an endorsement from the applicants employer. IRRIs Scholarship Committee will screen all applications and make final scholarship awards before the end of 1998. s

Errata
In Vol. 23, No. 1 (1998), on page 18, the first author's name should read K. L. Sahrawat, not L. Sahrawat. On page 17, the figure did not clearly show the bars representing mean tungro disease incidence. The revised figure is shown below.
Infection (%)/GLH (no.) 70 BB inf SS inf Vis inf GLH pop

In the third column of page 26, "... with 450 m3 water . . ." should read "4,500 m3 water."

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 IR62 IR64 IR68305-18-1 IR71026-3-24-3-5-2 Test lines/varieties IR69705-1-13-2-1 IR71030-2-3-2-1

Mean tungro disease incidence ( ), infection with rice tungro bacilliform ( ) and spherical ( ) viruses, and number of green leafhoppers ( ) per 10 sweeps of a 30-cm-diameter insect net in advanced breeding lines and varieties at six locations in India, Indonesia, and the Philippines in replicated field trials in 1995 and 1996.

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IRRN 1998

Instructions for contributors

NOTES General criteria. Scientific notes submitted to the IRRN for possible publication should q be original work, q have international or pannational relevance, q be conducted during the immediate past three years or be work in progress, q have rice environment relevance, q advance rice knowledge, q use appropriate research design and data collection methodology, q report pertinent, adequate data, q apply appropriate statistical analysis, and q reach supportable conclusions. Routine research. Reports of screening trials of varieties, fertilizer, cropping methods, and other routine observations using standard methodologies to establish local recommendations are not ordinarily accepted. Examples are singleseason, single-trial field experiments. Field trials should be repeated across more than one season, in multiple seasons, or in more than one location as appropriate. All experiments should include replications and an internationally known check or control treatment. Multiple submissions. Normally, only one report for a single experiment will be accepted. Two or more items about the same work submitted at the same time will be returned for merging. Submitting at different times multiple notes from the same experiment is highly inappropriate. Detection will result in the rejection of all submissions on that research. IRRN categories. Specify the category in which the note being submitted should appear. Write the category in the upper right-hand corner of the first page of the note. GERMPLASM IMPROVEMENT genetic resources genetics breeding methods yield potential grain quality pest resistance diseases insects other pests stress tolerance drought excess water adverse temperature adverse soils other stresses integrated germplasm improvement irrigated rainfed lowland upland flood-prone (deepwater and tidal wetlands) seed technology CROP AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT soils soil microbiology physiology and plant nutrition fertilizer management inorganic sources organic sources crop management integrated pest management diseases insects weeds other pests water management farming systems farm machinery postharvest technology economic analysis ENVIRONMENT SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACT EDUCATION AND COMMUNICATION RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Manuscript preparation. Arrange the note as a brief statement of research objectives, a short description of project design, and a succint discussion of results. Relate results to the objectives. Do not include abstracts. Do not cite references or include a bibliography. Restrain acknowledgments. Manuscripts must be in English. Limit each note to no more than two pages of doublespaced typewritten text. Submit the original manuscript and a duplicate, each with a clear copy of all tables and figures. Authors should retain a copy of the note and of all tables and figures. Apply these rules, as appropriate, in the note:
q Specify the rice production ecosystems as irrigated, rainfed lowland, upland, and flood-prone (deepwater and tidal wetlands). q Indicate the type of rice culture (transplanted, wet seeded, dry seeded). q If local terms for seasons are used, define them by characteristic weather (wet season, dry season, monsoon) and by months. q Use standard, internationally recognized terms to describe rice plant parts, growth stages, and management practices. Do not use local names. q Provide genetic background for new varieties or breeding lines. q For soil nutrient studies, include a standard soil profile description, classification, and relevant soil properties. q Provide scientific names for diseases, insects, weeds, and crop plants. Do not use common names or local names alone. q Quantify survey data, such as infection percentage, degree of severity, and sampling base. q When evaluating susceptibility, resistance, and tolerance, report the actual quantification of damage due to stress, which was used to assess level or incidence. Specify the measurements used.

Use generic names, not trade names, for all chemicals. q Use the International System of Units for measurements. For example, express yield data in metric tons per hectare (t ha1) for field studies. Do not use local units of measure. q Express all economic data in terms of the US$. Do not use local monetary units. Economic information should be presented at the exchange rate US$:local currency at the time data were collected. q When using acronyms or abbreviations, write the name in full on first mention, followed by the acronym or abbreviation in parentheses. Use the abbreviation thereafter. q Define any nonstandard abbreviations or symbols used in tables or figures in a footnote, caption, or legend. Each note can have no more than two tables and/or figures (graphs, illustrations, or photos). All tables and figures must be referred to in the text; they should be grouped at the end of the note, each on a separate page. Tables and figures must have clear titles that adequately explain the contents.
q

Review of notes. The IRRN editor will send an acknowledgment card or an e-mail message when a note is received. An IRRI scientist, selected by the editor, reviews each note. Reviewer names are not disclosed. Depending on the reviewers report, a note will be accepted for publication, rejected, or returned to the author(s) for revision. Comments. If you have comments or suggestions about the IRRN, please write to the editor. Mailing address. Send notes and correspondence to the IRRN Editor, IRRI, P.O. Box 933, Manila 1099, Philippines. Fax: (63-2) 845-0606 E-mail: b.hardy@cgnet.com Home page: http://www.cgiar.org/irri Riceweb: http://www.riceweb.org Riceworld: http://www.riceworld.org

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INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE

P. O. Box 933, 1099 Manila, Philippines

Printed Matter
ISSN 0115-0944