Thermal power station

Republika Power Plant, a thermal power station in Pernik, Bulgaria

Mohave Generating Station, a 1,580 MW thermal power station near Laughlin, Nevada fuelled by coal

A thermal power station in Richemont, France.

G e o t h e r m a l p o w e r s t a t i o n i n I c e l a n d

A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electricity.[1] Some thermal power plants also deliver heat energy for industrial purposes, for district heating, or for desalination of water as well as delivering electrical power. A large part of human CO2 emissions comes from fossil fueled thermal power plants; efforts to reduce these outputs are various and widespread.

Introductory overview
Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste incineration plants, as well as many natural gas power plants are thermal. Natural gas is frequently combusted in gas turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine can be used to raise steam, in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency. Power plants burning coal, fuel oil, or natural gas are often called fossil-fuel power plants. Some biomass-fueled thermal power plants have appeared also. Non-nuclear thermal power plants, particularly fossil-fueled plants, which do not use co-generation are sometimes referred to as conventional power plants. Commercial electric utility power stations are usually constructed on a large scale and designed for continuous operation. Electric power plants typically use three-phase electrical generators to produce alternating current (AC) electric power at a frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz. Large companies or institutions may have their own power plants to supply heating or electricity to their facilities, especially if steam is created anyway for other purposes. Steam-driven power plants have been used in various large ships, but are now usually used in large naval ships. Shipboard power plants usually directly couple the turbine to the ship's propellers through gearboxes. Power plants in such ships also provide steam to smaller turbines driving electric generators to supply electricity. Shipboard steam power plants can be either fossil fuel or nuclear. Nuclear marine propulsion is, with few exceptions, used only in naval vessels. There have been perhaps about a dozen turbo-electric ships in which a steam-driven turbine drives an electric generator which powers an electric motor for propulsion. combined heat and power (CH&P) plants, often called co-generation plants, produce both electric power and heat for process heat or space heating. Steam and hot water lose energy when piped over substantial distance, so carrying heat energy by steam or hot water is often only worthwhile within a local area, such as a ship, industrial plant, or district heating of nearby buildings.

History
Reciprocating steam engines have been used for mechanical power sources since the 18th Century, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. The very first commercial central electrical generating stations in the Pearl Street Station, New York and the Holborn Viaduct power station, London, in 1882, also used reciprocating steam engines. The development of the steam turbine allowed larger and more efficient central generating stations to be built. By 1892 it was considered as an alternative to reciprocating engines [2] Turbines offered higher speeds, more compact machinery, and stable speed regulation allowing for parallel synchronous

operation of generators on a common bus. Turbines entirely replaced reciprocating engines in large central stations after about 1905. The largest reciprocating engine-generator sets ever built were completed in 1901 for the Manhattan Elevated Railway. Each of seventeen units weighed about 500 tons and was rated 6000 kilowatts; a contemporary turbine-set of similar rating would have weighed about 20% as much.[3]

Efficiency
The energy efficiency of a conventional thermal power station, considered as salable energy as a percent of the heating value of the fuel consumed, is typically 33% to 48%. This efficiency is limited as all heat engines are governed by the laws of thermodynamics. The rest of the energy must leave the plant in the form of heat. This waste heat can go through a condenser and be disposed of with cooling water or in cooling towers. If the waste heat is instead utilized for district heating, it is called co-generation. An important class of thermal power station are associated with desalination facilities; these are typically found in desert countries with large supplies of natural gas and in these plants, freshwater production and electricity are equally important co-products.

A Rankine cycle with a two-stage steam turbine and a single feed water heater. Above the critical point for water of 705 F (374 C) and 3212 psi (22.06 MPa), there is no phase transition from water to steam, but only a gradual decrease in density. Boiling does not occur and

it is not possible to remove impurities via steam separation. In this case a super critical steam plant is required to utilize the increased thermodynamic efficiency by operating at higher temperatures. These plants, also called once-through plants because boiler water does not circulate multiple times, require additional water purification steps to ensure that any impurities picked up during the cycle will be removed. This purification takes the form of high pressure ion exchange units called condensate polishers between the steam condenser and the feed water heaters. Sub-critical fossil fuel power plants can achieve 3640% efficiency. Super critical designs have efficiencies in the low to mid 40% range, with new "ultra critical" designs using pressures of 4400 psi (30.3 MPa) and dual stage reheat reaching about 48% efficiency. Current nuclear power plants operate below the temperatures and pressures that coal-fired plants do. This limits their thermodynamic efficiency to 3032%. Some advanced reactor designs being studied, such as the Very high temperature reactor, Advanced gas-cooled reactor and Super critical water reactor, would operate at temperatures and pressures similar to current coal plants, producing comparable thermodynamic efficiency.

Electricity cost
See also: Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources The direct cost of electric energy produced by a thermal power station is the result of cost of fuel, capital cost for the plant, operator labour, maintenance, and such factors as ash handling and disposal. Indirect, social or environmental costs such as the economic value of environmental impacts, or environmental and health effects of the complete fuel cycle and plant decommissioning, are not usually assigned to generation costs for thermal stations in utility practice, but may form part of an environmental impact assessment.

Diagram of a typical coal-fired thermal power station

Typical diagram of a coal-fired thermal power station 1. Cooling tower 10. Steam Control valve 19. Superheater 2. Cooling water pump 11. High pressure steam turbine 20. Forced draught (draft) fan 3. transmission line (3-phase) 12. Deaerator 21. Reheater 4. Step-up transformer (3-phase) 13. Feedwater heater 22. Combustion air intake 5. Electrical generator (3-phase) 14. Coal conveyor 23. Economiser 6. Low pressure steam turbine 15. Coal hopper 24. Air preheater 7. Condensate pump 16. Coal pulverizer 25. Precipitator 8. Surface condenser 17. Boiler steam drum 26. Induced draught (draft) fan 9. Intermediate pressure steam 18. Bottom ash hopper 27. Flue gas stack turbine For units over about 200 MW capacity, redundancy of key components is provided by installing duplicates of the forced and induced draft fans, air preheaters, and fly ash collectors. On some units of about 60 MW, two boilers per unit may instead be provided.

Boiler and steam cycle

In fossil-fueled power plants, steam generator refers to a furnace that burns the fossil fuel to boil water to generate steam. In the nuclear plant field, steam generator refers to a specific type of large heat exchanger used in a pressurized water reactor (PWR) to thermally connect the primary (reactor plant) and

secondary (steam plant) systems, which generates steam. In a nuclear reactor called a boiling water reactor (BWR), water is boiled to generate steam directly in the reactor itself and there are no units called steam generators. In some industrial settings, there can also be steam-producing heat exchangers called heat recovery steam generators (HRSG) which utilize heat from some industrial process. The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature required for the steam turbine that drives the electrical generator. Geothermal plants need no boiler since they use naturally occurring steam sources. Heat exchangers may be used where the geothermal steam is very corrosive or contains excessive suspended solids. A fossil fuel steam generator includes an economizer, a steam drum, and the furnace with its steam generating tubes and superheater coils. Necessary safety valves are located at suitable points to avoid excessive boiler pressure. The air and flue gas path equipment include: forced draft (FD) fan, Air Preheater (AP), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan, fly ash collectors (electrostatic precipitator or baghouse) and the flue gas stack.[4][5][6]

Feed water heating and deaeration

The feed water used in the steam boiler is a means of transferring heat energy from the burning fuel to the mechanical energy of the spinning steam turbine. The total feed water consists of recirculated condensate water and purified makeup water. Because the metallic materials it contacts are subject to corrosion at high temperatures and pressures, the makeup water is highly purified before use. A system of water softeners and ion exchange demineralizers produces water so pure that it coincidentally becomes an electrical insulator, with conductivity in the range of 0.31.0 microsiemens per centimeter. The makeup water in a 500 MWe plant amounts to perhaps 20 US gallons per minute (1.25 L/s) to offset the small losses from steam leaks in the system. The feed water cycle begins with condensate water being pumped out of the condenser after traveling through the steam turbines. The condensate flow rate at full load in a 500 MW plant is about 6,000 US gallons per minute (400 L/s).

Diagram of boiler feed water deaerator (with vertical, domed aeration section and horizontal water storage section The water flows through a series of six or seven intermediate feed water heaters, heated up at each point with steam extracted from an appropriate duct on the turbines and gaining temperature at each stage. Typically, the condensate plus the makeup water then flows through a deaerator[7][8] that removes dissolved air from the water, further purifying and reducing its corrosiveness. The water may be dosed following this point with hydrazine, a chemical that removes the remaining oxygen in the water to below 5 parts per billion (ppb).[vague] It is also dosed with pH control agents such as ammonia or morpholine to keep the residual acidity low and thus non-corrosive.

Boiler operation
The boiler is a rectangular furnace about 50 feet (15 m) on a side and 130 feet (40 m) tall. Its walls are made of a web of high pressure steel tubes about 2.3 inches (58 mm) in diameter. Pulverized coal is air-blown into the furnace from fuel nozzles at the four corners and it rapidly burns, forming a large fireball at the center. The thermal radiation of the fireball heats the water that circulates through the boiler tubes near the boiler perimeter. The water circulation rate in the boiler is three to four times the throughput and is typically driven by pumps. As the water in the boiler circulates it absorbs heat and changes into steam at 700 F (371 C) and 3,200 psi (Template:Convert/MP). It is separated from the water inside a drum at the top of the furnace. The saturated steam is introduced into superheat pendant tubes that hang in the hottest part of the combustion gases as they exit the furnace. Here the steam is superheated to 1,000 F (500 C) to prepare it for the turbine. Plants designed for lignite (brown coal) are increasingly used in locations as varied as Germany, Victoria, and North Dakota. Lignite is a much younger form of coal than black coal. It has a lower energy density than black coal and requires a much larger furnace for equivalent heat output. Such coals may contain up to 70% water and ash, yielding lower furnace temperatures and requiring larger induced-draft fans. The firing systems also differ from black coal and typically draw hot gas from the furnace-exit level and mix it with the incoming coal in fan-type mills that inject the pulverized coal and hot gas mixture into the boiler. Plants that use gas turbines to heat the water for conversion into steam use boilers known as heat recovery steam generators (HRSG). The exhaust heat from the gas turbines is used to make superheated steam that is then used in a conventional water-steam generation cycle, as described in gas turbine combined-cycle plants section below.

Boiler furnace and steam drum

Once water inside the boiler or steam generator, the process of adding the latent heat of vaporization or enthalpy is underway. The boiler transfers energy to the water by the chemical reaction of burning some type of fuel. The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the economizer. From the economizer it passes to the steam drum. Once the water enters the steam drum it goes down to the lower inlet water wall headers. From the inlet headers the water rises through the water walls and is eventually turned into steam due to the heat being generated by the burners located on the front and rear water walls (typically). As the water is turned into steam/vapor in the water walls, the steam/vapor once again enters the steam drum. The steam/vapor is passed through a

series of steam and water separators and then dryers inside the steam drum. The steam separators and dryers remove water droplets from the steam and the cycle through the water walls is repeated. This process is known as natural circulation. The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and igniter guns, soot blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for observation of the furnace interior. Furnace explosions due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a trip-out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting the coal. The steam drum (as well as the super heater coils and headers) have air vents and drains needed for initial start up. The steam drum has internal devices that removes moisture from the wet steam entering the drum from the steam generating tubes. The dry steam then flows into the super heater coils.

Superheater
Fossil fuel power plants can have a superheater and/or re-heater section in the steam generating furnace. In a fossil fuel plant, after the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the steam drum, it is piped from the upper drum area into tubes inside an area of the furnace known as the superheater, which has an elaborate set up of tubing where the steam vapor picks up more energy from hot flue gases outside the tubing and its temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves before the high pressure turbine. Nuclear-powered steam plants do not have such sections but produce steam at essentially saturated conditions. Experimental nuclear plants were equipped with fossil-fired super heaters in an attempt to improve overall plant operating cost.

Steam condensing
The condenser condenses the steam from the exhaust of the turbine into liquid to allow it to be pumped. If the condenser can be made cooler, the pressure of the exhaust steam is reduced and efficiency of the cycle increases.

Diagram of a typical water-cooled surface condenser.[5][6][9][10]

The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes.[5][9][10][11] The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum. For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100 C where the vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally works under vacuum. Thus leaks of noncondensible air into the closed loop must be prevented. Typically the cooling water causes the steam to condense at a temperature of about 35 C (95 F) and that creates an absolute pressure in the condenser of about 27 kPa (0.592.1 inHg), i.e. a vacuum of about 95 kPa (28.1 inHg) relative to atmospheric pressure. The large decrease in volume that occurs when water vapor condenses to liquid creates the low vacuum that helps pull steam through and increase the efficiency of the turbines. The limiting factor is the temperature of the cooling water and that, in turn, is limited by the prevailing average climatic conditions at the power plant's location (it may be possible to lower the temperature beyond the turbine limits during winter, causing excessive condensation in the turbine). Plants operating in hot climates may have to reduce output if their source of condenser cooling water becomes warmer; unfortunately this usually coincides with periods of high electrical demand for air conditioning. The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.

A Marley mechanical induced draft cooling tower The heat absorbed by the circulating cooling water in the condenser tubes must also be removed to maintain the ability of the water to cool as it circulates. This is done by pumping the warm water from the condenser through either natural draft, forced draft or induced draft cooling towers (as seen in the image to the right) that reduce the temperature of the water by evaporation, by about 11 to 17 C (20 to 30 F)expelling waste heat to the atmosphere. The circulation flow rate of the cooling water in a 500 MW unit is about 14.2 m/s (500 ft/s or 225,000 US gal/min) at full load.[12] The condenser tubes are made of brass or stainless steel to resist corrosion from either side. Nevertheless they may become internally fouled during operation by bacteria or algae in the cooling water or by mineral scaling, all of which inhibit heat transfer and reduce thermodynamic

efficiency. Many plants include an automatic cleaning system that circulates sponge rubber balls through the tubes to scrub them clean without the need to take the system off-line.[citation needed] The cooling water used to condense the steam in the condenser returns to its source without having been changed other than having been warmed. If the water returns to a local water body (rather than a circulating cooling tower), it is tempered with cool 'raw' water to prevent thermal shock when discharged into that body of water. Another form of condensing system is the air-cooled condenser. The process is similar to that of a radiator and fan. Exhaust heat from the low pressure section of a steam turbine runs through the condensing tubes, the tubes are usually finned and ambient air is pushed through the fins with the help of a large fan. The steam condenses to water to be reused in the water-steam cycle. Aircooled condensers typically operate at a higher temperature than water cooled versions. While saving water, the efficiency of the cycle is reduced (resulting in more carbon dioxide per megawatt of electricity). From the bottom of the condenser, powerful condensate pumps recycle the condensed steam (water) back to the water/steam cycle.

Reheater
Power plant furnaces may have a reheater section containing tubes heated by hot flue gases outside the tubes. Exhaust steam from the high pressure turbine is passed through these heated tubes to collect more energy before driving the intermediate and then low pressure turbines.

Air path
External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The forced draft fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warming it in the air preheater for better combustion, injects it via the air nozzles on the furnace wall. The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases from the furnace, maintaining a slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid backfiring through any opening.

Steam turbine generator

Main article: Turbo generator

Rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power station The turbine generator consists of a series of steam turbines interconnected to each other and a generator on a common shaft. There is a high pressure turbine at one end, followed by an intermediate pressure turbine, two low pressure turbines, and the generator. As steam moves through the system and loses pressure and thermal energy it expands in volume, requiring increasing diameter and longer blades at each succeeding stage to extract the remaining energy. The entire rotating mass may be over 200 metric tons and 100 feet (30 m) long. It is so heavy that it must be kept turning slowly even when shut down (at 3 rpm) so that the shaft will not bow even slightly and become unbalanced. This is so important that it is one of only five functions of blackout emergency power batteries on site. Other functions are emergency lighting, communication, station alarms and turbogenerator lube oil. Superheated steam from the boiler is delivered through 1416-inch (360410 mm) diameter piping to the high pressure turbine where it falls in pressure to 600 psi (4.1 MPa) and to 600 F (320 C) in temperature through the stage. It exits via 2426-inch (610660 mm) diameter cold reheat lines and passes back into the boiler where the steam is reheated in special reheat pendant tubes back to 1,000 F (500 C). The hot reheat steam is conducted to the intermediate pressure turbine where it falls in both temperature and pressure and exits directly to the long-bladed low pressure turbines and finally exits to the condenser. The generator, 30 feet (9 m) long and 12 feet (3.7 m) in diameter, contains a stationary stator and a spinning rotor, each containing miles of heavy copper conductorno permanent magnets here. In operation it generates up to 21,000 amperes at 24,000 volts AC (504 MWe) as it spins at either 3,000 or 3,600 rpm, synchronized to the power grid. The rotor spins in a sealed chamber cooled with hydrogen gas, selected because it has the highest known heat transfer coefficient of any gas and for its low viscosity which reduces windage losses. This system requires special handling during startup, with air in the chamber first displaced by carbon dioxide before filling with hydrogen. This ensures that the highly explosive hydrogenoxygen environment is not created. The power grid frequency is 60 Hz across North America and 50 Hz in Europe, Oceania, Asia (Korea and parts of Japan are notable exceptions) and parts of Africa. The electricity flows to a distribution yard where transformers step the voltage up to 115, 230, 500 or 765 kV AC as needed for transmission to its destination. The steam turbine-driven generators have auxiliary systems enabling them to work satisfactorily and safely. The steam turbine generator being rotating equipment generally has a heavy, large diameter shaft. The shaft therefore requires not only supports but also has to be kept in position while running. To minimize the frictional resistance to the rotation, the shaft has a number of bearings. The bearing shells, in which the shaft rotates, are lined with a low friction material like Babbitt metal. Oil lubrication is provided to further reduce the friction between shaft and bearing surface and to limit the heat generated.

Stack gas path and cleanup

see Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion and Flue gas desulfurization for more details

As the combustion flue gas exits the boiler it is routed through a rotating flat basket of metal mesh which picks up heat and returns it to incoming fresh air as the basket rotates, This is called the air preheater. The gas exiting the boiler is laden with fly ash, which are tiny spherical ash particles. The flue gas contains nitrogen along with combustion products carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. The fly ash is removed by fabric bag filters or electrostatic precipitators. Once removed, the fly ash byproduct can sometimes be used in the manufacturing of concrete. This cleaning up of flue gases, however, only occurs in plants that are fitted with the appropriate technology. Still, the majority of coal fired power plants in the world do not have these facilities.[citation needed] Legislation in Europe has been efficient to reduce flue gas pollution. Japan has been using flue gas cleaning technology for over 30 years and the US has been doing the same for over 25 years. China is now beginning to grapple with the pollution caused by coal fired power plants. Where required by law, the sulfur and nitrogen oxide pollutants are removed by stack gas scrubbers which use a pulverized limestone or other alkaline wet slurry to remove those pollutants from the exit stack gas. Other devices use catalysts to remove Nitrous Oxide compounds from the flue gas stream. The gas travelling up the flue gas stack may by this time have dropped to about 50 C (120 F). A typical flue gas stack may be 150180 metres (490590 ft) tall to disperse the remaining flue gas components in the atmosphere. The tallest flue gas stack in the world is 419.7 metres (1,377 ft) tall at the GRES-2 power plant in Ekibastuz, Kazakhstan. In the United States and a number of other countries, atmospheric dispersion modeling[13] studies are required to determine the flue gas stack height needed to comply with the local air pollution regulations. The United States also requires the height of a flue gas stack to comply with what is known as the "Good Engineering Practice (GEP)" stack height.[14][15] In the case of existing flue gas stacks that exceed the GEP stack height, any air pollution dispersion modeling studies for such stacks must use the GEP stack height rather than the actual stack height.

Fly ash collection

Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or fabric bag filters (or sometimes both) located at the outlet of the furnace and before the induced draft fan. The fly ash is periodically removed from the collection hoppers below the precipitators or bag filters. Generally, the fly ash is pneumatically transported to storage silos for subsequent transport by trucks or railroad cars.

Bottom ash collection and disposal

At the bottom of the furnace, there is a hopper for collection of bottom ash. This hopper is always filled with water to quench the ash and clinkers falling down from the furnace. Some arrangement is included to crush the clinkers and for conveying the crushed clinkers and bottom ash to a storage site.

Auxiliary systems
Boiler make-up water treatment plant and storage

Since there is continuous withdrawal of steam and continuous return of condensate to the boiler, losses due to blowdown and leakages have to be made up to maintain a desired water level in the boiler steam drum. For this, continuous make-up water is added to the boiler water system. Impurities in the raw water input to the plant generally consist of calcium and magnesium salts which impart hardness to the water. Hardness in the make-up water to the boiler will form deposits on the tube water surfaces which will lead to overheating and failure of the tubes. Thus, the salts have to be removed from the water, and that is done by a water demineralising treatment plant (DM). A DM plant generally consists of cation, anion, and mixed bed exchangers. Any ions in the final water from this process consist essentially of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions, which recombine to form pure water. Very pure DM water becomes highly corrosive once it absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere because of its very high affinity for oxygen. The capacity of the DM plant is dictated by the type and quantity of salts in the raw water input. However, some storage is essential as the DM plant may be down for maintenance. For this purpose, a storage tank is installed from which DM water is continuously withdrawn for boiler make-up. The storage tank for DM water is made from materials not affected by corrosive water, such as PVC. The piping and valves are generally of stainless steel. Sometimes, a steam blanketing arrangement or stainless steel doughnut float is provided on top of the water in the tank to avoid contact with air. DM water make-up is generally added at the steam space of the surface condenser (i.e., the vacuum side). This arrangement not only sprays the water but also DM water gets deaerated, with the dissolved gases being removed by an air ejector attached to the condenser.

Fuel preparation system

In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal from the coal storage area is first crushed into small pieces and then conveyed to the coal feed hoppers at the boilers. The coal is next pulverized into a very fine powder. The pulverizers may be ball mills, rotating drum grinders, or other types of grinders. Some power stations burn fuel oil rather than coal. The oil must kept warm (above its pour point) in the fuel oil storage tanks to prevent the oil from congealing and becoming unpumpable. The oil is usually heated to about 100 C before being pumped through the furnace fuel oil spray nozzles. Boilers in some power stations use processed natural gas as their main fuel. Other power stations may use processed natural gas as auxiliary fuel in the event that their main fuel supply (coal or oil) is interrupted. In such cases, separate gas burners are provided on the boiler furnaces.

Barring gear
Barring gear (or "turning gear") is the mechanism provided to rotate the turbine generator shaft at a very low speed after unit stoppages. Once the unit is "tripped" (i.e., the steam inlet valve is closed), the turbine coasts down towards standstill. When it stops completely, there is a tendency for the turbine shaft to deflect or bend if allowed to remain in one position too long. This is because the heat inside the turbine casing tends to concentrate in the top half of the casing, making the top half portion of the shaft hotter than the bottom half. The shaft therefore could warp or bend by millionths of inches.

This small shaft deflection, only detectable by eccentricity meters, would be enough to cause damaging vibrations to the entire steam turbine generator unit when it is restarted. The shaft is therefore automatically turned at low speed (about one percent rated speed) by the barring gear until it has cooled sufficiently to permit a complete stop.

Oil system
An auxiliary oil system pump is used to supply oil at the start-up of the steam turbine generator. It supplies the hydraulic oil system required for steam turbine's main inlet steam stop valve, the governing control valves, the bearing and seal oil systems, the relevant hydraulic relays and other mechanisms. At a preset speed of the turbine during start-ups, a pump driven by the turbine main shaft takes over the functions of the auxiliary system.

Generator cooling
While small generators may be cooled by air drawn through filters at the inlet, larger units generally require special cooling arrangements. Hydrogen gas cooling, in an oil-sealed casing, is used because it has the highest known heat transfer coefficient of any gas and for its low viscosity which reduces windage losses. This system requires special handling during start-up, with air in the generator enclosure first displaced by carbon dioxide before filling with hydrogen. This ensures that the highly flammable hydrogen does not mix with oxygen in the air. The hydrogen pressure inside the casing is maintained slightly higher than atmospheric pressure to avoid outside air ingress. The hydrogen must be sealed against outward leakage where the shaft emerges from the casing. Mechanical seals around the shaft are installed with a very small annular gap to avoid rubbing between the shaft and the seals. Seal oil is used to prevent the hydrogen gas leakage to atmosphere. The generator also uses water cooling. Since the generator coils are at a potential of about 22 kV, an insulating barrier such as Teflon is used to interconnect the water line and the generator high voltage windings. Demineralized water of low conductivity is used.

Generator high voltage system

The generator voltage for modern utility-connected generators ranges from 11 kV in smaller units to 22 kV in larger units. The generator high voltage leads are normally large aluminum channels because of their high current as compared to the cables used in smaller machines. They are enclosed in well-grounded aluminum bus ducts and are supported on suitable insulators. The generator high voltage leads are connected to step-up transformers for connecting to a high voltage electrical substation (of the order of 115 kV to 520 kV) for further transmission by the local power grid. The necessary protection and metering devices are included for the high voltage leads. Thus, the steam turbine generator and the transformer form one unit. Smaller units,may share a common generator step-up transformer with individual circuit breakers to connect the generators to a common bus.

Monitoring and alarm system

Most of the power plant operational controls are automatic. However, at times, manual intervention may be required. Thus, the plant is provided with monitors and alarm systems that alert the plant operators when certain operating parameters are seriously deviating from their normal range.

Battery supplied emergency lighting and communication

A central battery system consisting of lead acid cell units is provided to supply emergency electric power, when needed, to essential items such as the power plant's control systems, communication systems, turbine lube oil pumps, and emergency lighting. This is essential for a safe, damage-free shutdown of the units in an emergency situation.

Transport of coal fuel to site and to storage

Ma in art icl e: Fo ssil fue l po we r pla nt Most thermal stations use coal as the main fuel. Raw coal is transported from coal mines to a power station site by trucks, barges, bulk cargo ships or railway cars. Generally, when shipped by railways, the coal cars are sent as a full train of cars. The coal received at site may be of different sizes. The railway cars are unloaded at site by rotary dumpers or side tilt dumpers to tip over onto conveyor belts below. The coal is generally conveyed to crushers which crush the coal to about inch (6 mm) size. The crushed coal is then sent by belt conveyors to a storage pile. Normally, the crushed coal is compacted by bulldozers, as compacting of highly volatile coal avoids spontaneous ignition. The crushed coal is conveyed from the storage pile to silos or hoppers at the boilers by another belt conveyor system.

Combustion chamber
A combustion chamber is the part of an engine in which fuel is burned.

Internal combustion engine

Diagram of jet engine showing the combustion chamber. The hot gases produced by the combustion occupy a far greater volume than the original fuel, thus creating an increase in pressure within the limited volume of the chamber. This pressure can be used to do work, for example, to move a piston on a crankshaft or a turbine disc in a gas turbine. The energy can also be used to produce thrust when directed out of a nozzle as in a rocket engine.

Petrol or gasoline engine

A reciprocating engine is often designed so that the moving pistons are flush with the top of the cylinder block at top dead centre. The combustion chamber is recessed in the cylinder head and commonly contains a single intake valve and a single exhaust valve. Some engines use a dished piston and in this case the combustion chamber can be considered as partly within the cylinder. Various shapes of combustion chamber have been used, such as L-head (or flathead) for sidevalve engines;"bathtub", "hemispherical" and "wedge" for overhead valve engines; and "pentroof" for engines having 3, 4 or 5 valves per cylinder. The shape of the chamber has a marked effect on power output, efficiency and emissions; the designer's objectives are to burn all of the mixture as completely as possible while avoiding excessive temperatures (which create NOx). This is best achieved with a compact rather than elongated chamber. The intake valve/port is usually placed to give the mixture a pronounced "swirl" (the term is preferred to turbulence which implies movement without overall pattern) above the rising piston, improving mixing and combustion. The shape of the piston top also affects the amount of swirl. Note that swirl rotates about a horizontal axis, not (symmetrically) about a vertical axis. Finally, the spark plug must be situated in a position from which the flame front can reach all parts of the chamber at the desired point, usually around 15 degrees after top dead centre. It is strongly desirable to avoid narrow crevices where stagnant "end gas" can become trapped, as this tends to detonate violently after the main charge, adding little useful work and potentially damaging the engine. Also, the residual gases displace room for fresh air/fuel mixture and will thus reduce the power potential of each firing stroke.

Diesel engine
Diesel engines fall into two broad classes:

Direct injection, where the combustion chamber consists of a dished piston Indirect injection, where the combustion chamber is in the cylinder head

Direct injection engines usually give better fuel economy but indirect injection engines can use a lower grade of fuel.

Harry Ricardo was prominent in developing combustion chambers for diesel engines, the best known[note 1] being the Ricardo Comet.

Gas turbine
Main article: Combustor The combustion chamber in gas turbines and jet engines (including ramjets and scramjets) is called the combustor. The combustor is fed high pressure air by the compression system, adds fuel and burns the mix and feeds the hot, high pressure exhaust into the turbine components of the engine or out the exhaust nozzle. Different types of combustors exist, mainly: Can type: Can combustors are self contained cylindrical combustion chambers. Each "can" has its own fuel injector, igniter, liner, and casing.

Cannular type: Like the can type combustor, can annular combustors have discrete combustion zones contained in separate liners with their own fuel injectors. Unlike the can combustor, all the combustion zones share a common ring (annulus) casing. Annular type: Annular combustors do away with the separate combustion zones and simply have a continuous liner and casing in a ring (the annulus).

Steam engine
The term combustion chamber is also used to refer to an additional space between the firebox and boiler in a steam locomotive. This space is used to allow further combustion of the fuel, providing greater heat to the boiler. Large steam locomotives usually have a combustion chamber in the boiler to allow the use of shorter firetubes. This is because: Long firetubes have a theoretical advantage in providing a large heating surface but, beyond a certain length, this is subject to diminishing returns.

Very long firetubes are prone to sagging in the middle.

Micro Combustion Chambers

Micro combustion chambers are the devices in which combustion happens at a very small volume, due to which surface to volume ratio increases which plays a vital role in stabilizing the flame.

Coal Fired Thermal Power Plant: The Basic Steps and Facts
This article explains the basics of the working of a coal fired thermal power plant.

More than half of the electricity generated in the world is by using coal as the primary fuel. The function of the coal fired thermal power plant is to convert the energy available in the coal to Electricity. Coal power plants work by using several steps to convert stored energy in coal to usable electricity that we find in our home that powers our lights, computers, and sometimes, back into heat for our homes. image provided by the Tennessee Valley Authority

How Coal Power Plants Produce Electricity

The conversion from coal to electricity takes place in three stages. Stage 1 The first conversion of energy takes place in the boiler. Coal is burnt in the boiler furnace to produce heat. Carbon in the coal and Oxygen in the air combine to produce Carbon Dioxide and heat. Stage 2 The second stage is the thermodynamic process. 1. The heat from combustion of the coal boils water in the boiler to produce steam. In modern power plant, boilers produce steam at a high pressure and temperature. 2. The steam is then piped to a turbine. 3. The high pressure steam impinges and expands across a number of sets of blades in the turbine. 4. The impulse and the thrust created rotates the turbine. 5. The steam is then condensed and pumped back into the boiler to repeat the cycle. Stage 3

In the third stage, rotation of the turbine rotates the generator rotor to produce electricity based of Faradays Principle of electromagnetic induction. Check out this series describing the layout of thermal power plants.
Key Facts About Coal-Fired Electricity Production

In practice to effect these three stages of conversion, many systems and sub systems have to be in service. Also involved are different technologies, like combustion, aerodynamics, heat transfer, thermodynamics, pollution control, and logistics. As an example consider these facts for typical coal fired power plant of capacity 500 MW.

Around 2 million tons of coal will be required each year to produce the continuous power. Coal combustion in the boiler requires air. Around 1.6 million cubic meter of air in an hour is delivered by air fans into the furnace. The ash produced from this combustion is around 200,000 tons per year. Electrostatic precipitators capture almost all of this ash without dispersing this to the atmosphere. Pollutants from coal power plants like carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen oxide can also affect the environment. Thermal power plants are the biggest producers of Carbon Dioxide. The boiler for typical 500 MW units produces around 1600 tons per hour of steam at a temperature of 540 to 600 degrees Centigrade. The steam pressures is in the range of 200 bar. The boiler materials are designed to withstand these conditions with special consideration for operational safety. Heat transfer from the hot combustion gases to the water in the boiler takes place due to Radiation and convection. The Electrical generators carry very large electric currents that produce heat and are be cooled by Hydrogen and water. The steam leaving the turbine is condensed and the water is pumped back for reuse in the boiler. To condense all the steam it will require around 50,000 cubic meter per hour of cooling water to be circulated from lakes, rivers or the sea. The water is returned to the source with only an increase of 3 to 4 degrees centigrade to prevent any effect to the environment. Apart from the cooling water the power plant also requires around 400 cubic meter per day of fresh water for making up the losses in the water steam cycle.

Details of Generating Electricity from Coal

These are some of the facts to highlight the complexities of the working of a Coal Fired Power Plant generating Electricity. For more details, discover how coal is blended to the right mix to maximize energy production or learn about the specific caloric energies of coal and how moisture in the coal can affect a power plant's efficiency. Also learn how the coal is prepared to be fired in the boiler. You may also learn about the parts of a thermal power plant and site selection.

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How Does a Thermal Power Plant Function?

The thermal power plant is a setup for extracting the hidden calorific heat inside the black diamond to be used for setting the electrons in motion i.e. electric current. Read on to find out about his interesting journey of power conversion.
Introduction

Having learnt about the basic plant layout and site selection of a power plant it is now time to take a look at the overall functioning of the power plant. I suggest that if you havent read the first part of this series (click here) regarding general layout of a thermal power plant, you take a look at it, especially the accompanying diagram since I am not going to repeat the same diagram here but will explain based on previous article.
The Functioning of the Plant

The four circuits of the thermal power plant make a complete picture when put together helping to generate electricity out of fuels such as coal which is the most widely used fuel. The calorific value of coals depends on the quality of the coal and the place from where it is mined. Let us perform a simple calculation regarding the amount of coal required in a power plant. Let us assume an imaginary thermal power plant which has a capacity of 1000 MW and try to find the amount of coal required for its consumption. Also assume that the boiler operates at an efficiency of 75% and the heat supplied per kg of steam be around 500 kcal per kg and that the amount of steam required per kWh is nearly 5 kgs. Further let us assume that the type of coal used in the plant has a calorific value of 5000 kcal/kg Then the quantity of coal required per hour would be given by Weight of Coal Required ==> Capacity * Steam Requirement * Heat Delivered/Calorific Value of Coal * Efficiency of Boiler ==> {1000 * 1000 * 5 * 500}/{5000 * 0.75 * 1000} = 666 tons/hr

Normally it is a practice to store coal for upto one month usage in case the power plant is situated at a sufficient geographical distance from the coal source so that in case of any disruption of the transportation system, the region is not immediately affected. You can calculate that in case the above plant requires such a facility, we would require space to store and handle nearly 480, 000 tons of coal. Coming back to the actual operation this coal is then fed to the combustion chamber of the boiler where steam is generated giving rise to hot exhaust gases and ash which are handled by their respective circuits. The steam turbine is driven by the steam which converts this thermal energy into the mechanical energy and is coupled with an electric generator to convert it to electrical energy. The electricity generated through the generator coupled to the turbine is then fed to the main grid via a system of transformers and other electrical equipment and is usually taken to far off places via high voltage transmission lines before it is actually supplied in the domestic or industrial sectors at their respective voltage levels. Hence we see that how the energy hidden within the ordinary coal is harnessed through the use of a thermal power plant to light our homes and industries.

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General Layout of a Thermal Power Plant

The coal which you use in your backyard for barbeque performs much more important functions such as generating electricity for us in thermal power plants. Learn about the layout of these plants in this article.
Introduction

With the world on a development spree, there is shortage of power in most places whilst the demand seems to be in a never ending upward spiral. There are several answers to this challenge such as the nuclear power plants, but the conventional thermal power plants also play an equally important role in this power equation. Learn about these power plants in this article.

General Layout of the Plant

Though each plant is unique in itself in terms of specific features and functionalities, still there is a broad outline to which all thermal power plants confirm to and in this article we will study about the general layout of a typical power plant. There are four main circuits in any thermal power plant and these are 1. Coal & Ash Circuit this circuit deals mainly with feeding the boiler with coal for combustion purposes and taking care of the ash that is generated during the combustion process and includes equipment and paraphernalia that is used to handle the transfer and storage of coal and ash. 2. Air & Gas Circuit we know that air is one of the main components of the fire triangle and hence necessary for combustion. Since lots of coal is burnt inside the boiler it needs a sufficient quantity of air which is supplied using either forced draught or induced draught fans. The exhaust gases from the combustion are in turn used to heat the ingoing air through a heat exchanger before being let off in the atmosphere. The equipment which handles all these processes fall under this circuit. 3. Feed Water & Steam Circuit this section deals with supplying of steam generated from the boiler to the turbines and to handle the outgoing steam from the turbine by cooling it to form water in the condenser so that it can be reused in the boiler plus making good any losses due to evaporation etc. 4. Cooling Water Circuit this part of the thermal power plant deals with handling of the cooling water required in the system. Since the amount of water required to cool the outgoing steam from the boiler is substantial, it is either taken from a nearby water source such as a river, or it is done through evaporation if the quantity of cooling water available is limited. The above breakdown of the plant would give you a clear idea about the components of the plant but a complete picture shown below would be more useful in getting an idea how these circuits are integrated together to form the complete power plant.

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Coal and its Use in Thermal Power Plants

Even with lots of talks going on about the use of non-conventional sources of energy such as the solar power, nuclear power and wind power, the place occupied by coal in the power generation sector still holds strong. Find out the reasons why?

Introduction

Old is gold goes the equally old and wise saying and this is applicable to the black diamond as well, in the perspective of thermal power plants. Well if you are confused let me tell you that I am referring to coal which is one of the oldest used fuels in the world. Though technology has gone skywards in the previous couple of centuries, yet this source continues to occupy an important position in the energy production scenario worldwide.
Coal Use in Electricity Generation

In the earlier days coal might have been used for providing heat for making food or in the blacksmiths furnace but as technology made strides, so did the level and importance of coal in the energy production arena went upwards. Currently thermal power plants produce hundreds of megawatts of electricity from burning coal. Despite the hue and cry of environmental concerns, which are of course true to a certain extent, various other parameters have still kept coal as one of the most important sources of power generation in thermal power plants. The very first parameter is the ample abundance of coal in most parts of the world including the United States. Estimates suggest that the US has reserves of coal which could last more then two centuries even at the current rate of consumption. Apart from the reserves found on land there is also presence of coal layers beneath the sea although it is difficult to commercially extract it from there, but there might be a technology for this in the future. The next factor is directly related to the above factor and is that of cost. As you know cost is closely associated with availability and more abundant any commodity is, the lesser will be its price and vice versa which is a law of economics. Hence producing electricity through the use of coal is much cheaper than other non-conventional forms of energy such as say wind, nuclear and so forth.
Disadvantages of Coal

Of course all is not green in the literal sense in the use of coal in power plants. Environment and health hazards are one of the most prominent reasons why many groups are against the use of coal for power production. Disposal of large quantities of ash could pose problems in the coming years if the heaps continue to grow. Another major factor to be kept in mind is that despite the abundant supply of coal it is still a non renewable source of energy which was formed through a complex process lasting thousands of years and hence cannot be formulated at a short notice. Despite the disadvantages, coal is still very popular in its use as power plant fuel and continues to provide electricity to this power hungry planet.

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Fuel of Thermal Power Plants Analysis of Coal

Since coal is one of the most widely used fuels in thermal power plants all over the globe, it makes sense to know what constituents make up this wonderful fuel. Read on to find out more about this.
Introduction

As we learnt earlier coal is one of the most widely used fuels in thermal power plants. It is therefore necessary for anyone interested in thermal power plants to know about the composition of coal and its various ingredients which have been discussed in the succeeding section.
Proximate Analysis of Coal

Any substance can be analyzed in different ways such as proximate analysis, chemical analysis and so forth. We will carry out the proximate analysis of coal which gives the different categories of compound present in the substance. Apart from carbon which is an obvious constituent the other constituents are as follows. Ash this is an undesirable constituent of coal which is contained within the coal in two forms namely fixed ash and free ash. Fixed ash is inherent in the coal due to the formation process from vegetable matter and it is not possible to remove it except that it gets separated on burning. The free ash is removable via processes such as washing and screening though they will not be described in detail here. Like I said earlier it is undesirable to have ash in the coal but normally different types of coal could have ash content anywhere between say around 2% to 30% which is an unnecessary burden adding to transportation costs, lowering of heat value of coal and producing large amounts of corrosive waste which needs to be disposed off in a proper manner. Another disadvantage is that inside the boiler combustion chamber if the ash gets subject to very high temperatures it can form clinkers which could choke the passages and decrease efficiency of the boiler. It is best to use such coal in the powdered form if such a possibility exists.

Hydrocarbons & Gases coal contains a variety of combustible gases such as hydrogen, methane and non-combustible gases such as carbon dioxide etc. This volatile content could be as low as 3% or even as high as nearly 50%. These constituents especially the non-combustible gases are just a waste as far as heat value of the fuel is concerned and an unnecessary burden which needs to be transported around and stored without any useful value in return. Moisture the moisture content of coal could vary from just over 1% to nearly 30-40% and just like ash it has two forms inherent moisture and free moisture. The former is not easily removable as it is a costly process whilst the latter can be removed by normal drying using slightly heated air. Obviously since coal is used in the boiler combustion chamber any excess moisture would interfere with the combustion lowering the actual heat available to generate steam. There is another method of analyzing coal in terms of its various chemical constituents such as carbon, hydrogen, sulphur and so forth but that might be taken up in a different set of articles.

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Classification of Steam Boilers

Boiler classification can be based on many factors like usage, fuel fired, fuel firing system, type of arrangement etc. Commonly known types are pulverized coal fired boilers, fluidized bed boilers, super critical boilers, oil and gas fired boilers. All cater to industrial and power generation. What is steam boiler? A boiler can be defined as a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated under pressure. This fluid is then circulated out of the boiler for use in various processes or power generation. In the case of power generation steam is taken out of the steam boiler at very high pressure and temperature. In 200 B.C. a Greek named Hero designed a very simple machine which used the steam, generated in a vessel heated from below, to rotate a wheel as the steam escaped through two small pipes kept diametrically opposite, he called it as Aelopile.

Classification From 200 B.C. to date, many developments have taken place that today allow us to classify steam boilers in different ways. Hence steam generating boilers can be classified under various categories. The main purpose of steam boilers is to generate steam, and so the way in which the steam is generated and consumed forms the major category. The major two groups of boiler application are Industrial steam generators and power generation boilers. Boilers are also classified as fire tube and water tube boilers.

Fire tube boilers have almost become extinct; however this can be classified as

Locomotive boilers, which ruled rail transportation before diesel and electric engine came. Industrial boilers, mainly used for green projects where initial steam is required Domestic use boilers

Water tube boilers took over when size and capacity increased. This can be classified depending on type of circulation used to generate steam as

Natural circulation boiler Forced circulation boilers Super critical pressure boilers or zero circulation boilers

Depending on type of firing adopted in boilers they can be classified as

Stoker fired Pulverized coal fired Down shot fired Fluidized bed boilers Cyclone fired Chemical recovery boilers Incinerators

Of these the stokers which were predominantly used in early days of high pressure high capacity boilers are being replaced by pulverized coal fired boilers and fluidized bed boilers. Stoker boilers are still designed and used in few applications like sugar industries, etc. Fluidized boilers are also going through fast development and can be now sub classified as

Bubbling fluidized bed boilers Pressurized fluidized bed boilers Circulating fluidized bed boilers.

The higher capacity boilers are mainly circulating fluidized bed boilers due inherent limitations in bubbling bed boilers.

Boilers can be classified based on the type of fuel used as

Coal fired boilers Oil fired boilers Gas fired boilers Multi-fuel fired Industrial waste fired boilers Biomass fired boilers

Various types of arrangement are used by designers in designing the boiler for meeting the end requirement. Hence boilers are classified based on the arrangement as

Top supported boilers Bottom supported Package boilers Field erected boilers Drum type boilers
o o o

Single drum Bi drum Three drums, but these are presently out of use

Tower type or single pass Close coupled Two pass boilers

Boilers therefore can be classified based on firing type, fuel used, construction type, circulation type, firing system design nature, and nature of steam application. Todays steam generating systems owe their dependability and safety to more than 125 years of experience in the design, fabrication, and operation of water tube boilers.

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How does a Power Plant Boiler work? - Water and Steam System.
The boiler generates high pressure steam by transfering the heat of Combustion in various heat transfer sections. This part of the article series briefly describes the flow and arrangement of the heat transfer sections in a boiler. In line diagrams help make the concept clear.

The Basics.

Volume of one unit mass of steam is thousand times that of water, When water is converted to steam in a closed vessel the pressure will increase. Boiler uses this principle to produce high pressure steam. Conversion of Water to Steam evolves in three stages.

Heating the water from cold condition to boiling point or saturation temperature sensible heat addition. Water boils at saturation temperature to produce steam - Latent heat.addition. Heating steam from saturation temperature to higher temperature called Superheating to increase the power plant output and efficiency.

Sensible Heat Addition

Feed Water Pump. The first step is to get a constant supply of water at high pressure into the boiler. Since the boiler is always at a high pressure. Boiler feed water pump pumps the water at high pressure into the boiler from the feed water tank. The pump is akin to the heart in the human body. Pre-Heating 'Feed water heaters, using extracted steam from the turbine, adds a part of the sensible heat even before the water enters the boiler. Economiser. Most of the sensible heat is absorbed in the Economiser. These are a set of coils made from steel tubes located in the tail end of a boiler. The hot gases leaving the boiler furnace heat the water in the coils. The water temperature is slightly less than the saturation temperature. From the economiser the water is fed to the 'drum'.
Pre-Heating & Economiser

Latent Heat Addition

Drum. The drum itself a large cylindrical vessel that functions as the storage and feeding point for water and the collection point for water and steam mixture. This is the largest and most important pressure part in the boiler and weighs in the range 250 Tons for 600 MW power plant. Water Walls Boiling takes place in the Water Walls which are water filled tubes that form the walls of the furnace. Water Walls get the water from the downcomers which are large pipes connected to the drum. The downcomers and the water wall tubes form the two legs of a water column. As the water heats up in the furnace a part of the water in the water-wall tubes becomes steam. This water steam mixture has a lower density than the water in the downcomers. This density difference creates a circulation of water from the drum, through the downcomers, water walls and

back to the drum. Steam collects at the upper half of the drum. The steam is then sent to the next sections. The temperature in the drum, downcomers and water wall is at the saturation temperature.

WaterWalls

SuperHeat / ReHeat

SuperHeater Steam from the drum passes to the SuperHeater coils placed in the Flue gas path.. The steam temperature increases from the saturation temperature till the maximum required for operation. The superheated steam then finally goes to the turbine.Final Superheater temperatures are in the Range of 540 to 570 C for large power plants and SuperHeated steam pressures are around 175 bar.

Reheater Steam from the exhaust of the first stage turbine goes back to the boiler for reheating and is returned to the second stage. Reheater coils in the flue gas path does the reheating of the returned steam. The reheat steam is at a much lower pressure than the super heated steam but

the final reheater temperature is the same as the superheated steam temperature. Reheating to high temperatures improves the output and efficiency of the Power Plant. Final Reheater temperatures are normally in the range of 560 to 600 C. Reheat steam pressures are normally around 45 bar.
SuperHeater / ReHeater

The above are the major water and steam circuit items in a boiler and are collectively called the pressure parts.

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How does a Power Plant Boiler work? - Combustion System

Boilers burn coal to produce steam. Burning coal involves fuel preparation, providing the necessary combustion air and removal of the flue gases and ash. What are the main elements of the Combustion system in a large power plant boiler? Read this article to find the answers.
Coal System

Coal received from the mines is stored in the coal yard adjacent to the power plant. It is then conveyed on a daily basis to the boiler and stored in a Coal Silo. Coal feeders continuously feed the required amount of coal to the Coal Pulverisers. Coal Pulverisers grind the coal to a very fine powder to make it burn easily. Pulverisers have steel rollers or steel balls which crush the coal between them into a fine powder. This powder is easy to burn. Coal contains moisture. Hot air form the Primary Air Fans dry the coal in the pulverisers. This makes the burning easy and efficient. This air also carries the dry coal powder from the pulverisers to the burners in the boiler furnace.In the burners the coal powder is mixed with the required amount of Combustion air and burned in the furnace. .
Coal Flow In a Boiler

Air system

Correct amount of air is the most essential ingredient for Combustion. More air or less air both makes the combustion process inefficient. Forced Draft Fan supplies most of the Combustion air. This fan takes air from the atmosphere and blows it into the furnace through air ducts. The Air Heater heats the air before it enters the Furnace. Air Heater utilises the heat of the hot flue gases that leave the boiler to heat the combustion air. Hot air improves the efficiency of combustion. The Air Heater works on the regenerative principle.

Steel plates alternatively placed in the hot flue gas path and then in the air path heats the cold air entering the Air Heater. Primary Air Fan supplies the air to the pulverisers for drying and transporting coal. This air called the Primary air also is heated in the Air Heater.
Flue gas system.

Coal burns in the furnace giving out heat and forming flue gases. Induced Draft Fan. The hot flue gases from the furnace is drawn out by the Induced draft fan. The gases passes through the various heating surfaces of the boiler, the Electrostatic Precipitator and discharges to the atmosphere at the top of the stack. Induced Draft Fan provides the energy for this flow of flue gases. The Induced Draft Fan is normally located adjacent to the Stack. Electrostatic Precipitators capture the fly ash in the flue gases without letting them out into the atmosphere. High voltage electrodes placed in the gas path ionise the ash particles which collects on collecting electrodes and falls into ash hoppers. Stack or the Chimney disperses the hot gases and any other particles at a great height. The height enables a very large dispersion area and regulates emission concentrations at ground levels to the level acceptable to humans and vegetation. Stack heights for large power plants are around 250 to 280 meters. Balanced Draft. The Forced Draft fan and the Induced Draft fan operate in such a way that the air pressure in the furnace is at zero pressure ie: at atmospheric pressure. This is called the Balanced Draft system.

Air and Flue Gas System In a Boiler

Ash System.

Ash is the inert matter in coal and is the residue after combustion. This has to be collected and disposed off without letting it out into the atmosphere. A part of the ash, around 15 % collects as Bottom ash at the bottom of the furnace. The other part collects as Fly ash in the Electrostatic Precipitators. The collected ash is then transported to disposal yards or storage silos. The above are the brief of the main equipment required for the proper combustion of coal in a large power plant boiler.

Boiler in a power plant has two functions. The Combustion system converts energy in coal to Heat. Water and steam system converts the heat to steam at high pressures and temperatures. This series explains the working of the boiler in modern power plant.

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Running a Coal Fired Boiler at the Best Efficiency

In high capacity pulverized coal fired boilers, the total losses account to about 12 to 14%, i.e. 86 to 88% boiler efficiency. Roughly 50% of the losses can be tuned to the optimum and the other 50% is governed by fuel properties like hydrogen in fuel, moisture in fuel, and ambient air conditions. Boiler efficiency is mainly depended on the amount of losses in the system. In high capacity pulverized coal fired boilers the total losses account to about 12 to 14%. Roughly 50% of the losses are governed by fuel properties like hydrogen in fuel, moisture in fuel and ambient air conditions. The other 50% losses are carbon loss and dry gas loss. The best efficiency in the boiler can be achieved if the losses are kept to the minimum. Since 50% of the losses are dependent on the fuel and ambient condition, the best efficiency can be achieved by properly tuning the other 50%, i.e. mainly carbon loss and dry gas loss.

Carbon loss Carbon loss is due to unburned carbon in fly ash and bottom ash. Normally the unburned in bottom ash in the pulverised fuel firing are higher sized particle and of higher specific gravity having the unburned macerals like Fusinite embedded in mineral matter and the low melting constituents encapsulating the reactive maceral. Fly ash of pulverised coal firing system is around 80 to 90 percent of the total ash removed. The normal types of unburned are inert macerals, cenospheres, and carbonaceous clay. Factors affecting carbon loss are

Coal rank and quality Coal Petrographic characteristics Characteristics and quantum of carbonaceous shale Presence of low melting inorganics in coal ash

Residence time available for combustion in furnace Type and number of burners Type of milling system and primary air control system Fineness of pulverised coal - Percentage of coarser particles Primary air to secondary air ratios Excess air at the burner/furnace and distribution of air into the burner/furnace Burner Tilt (If provided).

The factors having the greatest influence on carbon loss are the boiler type, volatile matter content in the coal, furnace heat loading (heat input/furnace volume), mass fraction of pulverised coal smaller than 75 mm and excess air. Dry gas loss The dry gas loss accounts to about 40% of total losses. Dry gas loss is due to the heat carried away by the flue gases leaving the boiler. Today many of the boiler designers reduce this loss by recovering the heat after low temperature superheater by larger economizer and air pre-heaters. As designers go for lower and lower exit gas temperature the size of air pre-heaters go up. Boiler tuning for optimal Dry gas

Keep an optimal excess air level, generally about 20% in a coal fired boiler Tune combustion of coal to the optimal condition. Understand the coal being fired Proper distribution of combustion air at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels Keep the required fineness of coal about 75% through 200 mesh and less than 2% on 50 mesh sieve Keep the maximum mill outlet temperature to reduce air bypassing air pre-heater Soot blowing the entire heat transfer surface at an optimal frequency Minimize the air in leakage to the boiler

Dry gas loss is also influenced by the economizer feed water inlet temperature and the ambient air temperature, which change the heat recovery pattern of economiser & air-pre-heater. Minor losses There are a few minor losses in boiler which can also be tuned are the mill reject loss and the carbon monoxide loss. The mill reject loss depends on the amount of pyrite in coal and the mill operating condition. The rejects by the mill do have a heat value which is accounted as mill reject loss. This can be minimized by properly maintaining the mill cleanaces and operating at the optimal condition. The carbon-monoxide loss is due to combustion not being fully completed.

However small these losses are, the present environmental condition requires these losses also to be kept to the minimum. Other losses like loss due to moisture in fuel, air moisture loss, loss due to hydrogen in fuel, etc also get affected by change in exit gas temperature, but the major impact on these losses is by fuel and ambient property. When dry gas loss and carbon loss are kept to the optimum level then the boiler is operated with its best efficiency. Related Reading Classification of Steam Boilers - Boiler classification can be based on many factors like usage, fuel fired, fuel firing system, type of arrangement etc. Commonly known types are pulverized coal fired boilers, fluidized bed boilers, super critical boilers, oil and gas fired boilers. All cater to industrial and power generation. Coal Analysis for Boiler Designers - Hydrocarbon fuels are the major source of energy for power and process steam generation, and coal takes a major share in this. Boiler furnace design will depend more on fuel characteristics, and further heat transfer surface sizing will depend on furnace outlet temperature. Furnace Size Varies for Gas, Oil and Coal Firing - Furnace sizing is a very important for a successful boiler design. The variation in boiler furnace size can upset the performance drastically. Oil and gas fired units have more uniform sizes, but the coal fired units have large variation. High Ash Coals - A challenge to Power Plants - Optimisation of combustion in high ash coal fired boilers is of special interest due to the organic and inorganic mix up and the large amount of variation in the organics. One such experience with Indian low reactive coal in a tangential fired steam generator of 670 T/hr capacity is given here.

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Determining Boiler Efficiency

Determining and adjusting the efficiency of a boiler in a power plant or a process industry is essential for energy savings. The main requirements for determining the boiler efficiency is detailed in this article.

The boiler is the first stage in which energy conversion from fuel - coal, oil, gas or any other- to steam takes place. The steam is used further for power production in a turbine, for a process reaction, or for heating another fluid or gas, or simply for heating the air in the house. What we mean by boiler efficiency is the efficiency of conversion from the chemical energy in the fuel to the heat energy in steam. This is shown as a percentage of the fuel energy. Modern boilers of large capacity used in power plants have an efficiency ranging from 80 to 90 %. Here we look at simple methods to calculate boiler efficiency. Those interested in an elaborate calculation method should follow ASME PTC 4, which is the performance test code for boilers.
Input-Output Method

The simple method is to measure quantity of fuel input and the steam energy output. This method is the input output method. Efficiency %= Output / Input X100 =[Steam Flow kg/s x Steam Enthalpy kj/kg] - [Water Flow kg/sWater Enthalpy kj/kg] / [Coal Flow kg/s x HHV of Coal kj/kg] 100 In case of reheat units the reheater inlet and outlet enthalpy also has to be considered. Enthalpy of steam and water is available in steam tables if we know the pressure and temperature. Pressure and temperatures are available online in all the boilers. Steam Flow and water Flow also is normally available online. However the accuracies are to be verified before using them. One can determine the higher heating value by taking a sample of coal as it enters the boiler and analyzing it in the laboratory. These are normally done on a daily basis in most power plants. Fuel flow is more complicated. Gravimetric feeders used in modern power plants can give the coal flows to a certain degree of accuracy. Otherwise this will have to be computed from volumetric flows and bulk density of the fuels. This method, although it looks simple on paper, is not the industry preferred method because

Flow measurements are not accurate nor steady Good quality flow instruments are costly. Flow measurements always involve a co-efficient, which can very much alter the results. Trouble shooting problems for determining the reasons for a lower efficiency is difficult.

However, this method finds use for quick calculation if the flow measurements are reliable and steady.
Losses Method

Another method and a more practical approach is to measure the losses and then calculate the efficiency. Efficiency % = 100 Losses %. The big advantage is that the calculation is on unit basis i.e.: for 1 kg of coal. This eliminates any inaccuracies in flow measurements. Air and gas quantities are determined on theoretical basis and from laboratory analysis of the fuel. This is more accurate than the field flowmeters. Since each loss is separately calculated it is easy to identify problem areas.
Quick Facts

The most important factor that affects the Boiler efficiency is the Gas temperature leaving the boiler. In a coal fired boiler of a 500 MW power plant if the temperature increases by ten degree centigrade the efficiency reduces by about 0.5 %. Another main factor is the unburnt coal in the in the ash. One % increase in unburnts is around 0.5 % reduced efficiency. These two are controllable by the proper maintenance and operational adjustments. The operator has to find out reasons why these two parameters are high and take necessary corrective action.

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Boiler Efficiency Calculation Simplified

A practical and simple method for calculating the efficiency of coal fired boilers is given in this article. Practical assumptions are used to simplify the otherwise elaborate calculations of the Boiler test codes. The ASME method for Boiler Efficiency Calculation PTC 4 is elaborate and requires many input data points, measurements, and samples. With some practical assumptions, the calculations are made simple and are shown in this article. The Losses method is used to calculate boiler efficiency. Each of the different Losses is calculated to determine the efficiency.

Data Required

For a coal fired boiler to calculate these losses we require the following data.

Higher Heating Value of coal on as Fired Basis HHV- kJ / kg Proximate Analysis of Coal on as Fired basis which include
o o o o

Fixed Carbon FC % Volatile Matter VM % Ash % Moisture %

Hydrogen % in coal. This normally available only from an Ultimate analysis. This can be used from a past historic data for similar type of coal. The value normally is in the range of 2 - 4 %. Gas temperature at boiler exit - Tg C Ambient Temperature - Dry bulb - Ta C Oxygen in Flue gas on a dry basis - O2 %
o o o

The oxygen measurement should be from a location near to the Temperature point. On line Oxygen, measurements are normally on wet basis. Sampled Oxygen measurements are on dry basis. In coal fired units O2 % ( dry basis)= (O2 % ( wet basis)) / 0.9

Unburnt Carbon in ash U %

o

In large coal fired plants, ash collection is in different locations. This is mainly at the Furnace bottom and the Precipitator Hoppers. The U % should be on a weighted average basis. A ratio of 85: 15 is practical between furnace bottom and precipitator ash collection. U %=[U-fly ash x 85 + U-bot ash x 15] / 100 This is normally applicable in oil and gas fired units but can be applicable in Coal fired units if the combustion is very bad.

o o

Carbon Monoxide in Flue gas - CO ppm

Most of these data is available readily in a power plant from online instruments and from daily analysis reports.

ASME or other codes require the ultimate analysis of Coal for finding the air and gas quantities to use in the efficiency calculations. This normally takes time. Here we make an assumption because the Stoichiometric air quantity lies within a small band for fossil fuels because of the interdependence of Carbon, Hydrogen and the Calorific value.

Stoichiometric Air qty

= 0.325 kg/ MJ for Coal Firing.

Controllable Losses

Losses itself can be categorised into three. First are the losses that the plant operators can control. Following losses are in this category.

Loss 1. Exit gas loss or Dry gas Loss.

o o o

= 0.72 x [Tg - Ta ] / [21- O2] = U Ash 33810 / [100 - U ] / HHV =0.0067 x CO / [21-O2 ]

Loss2. Unburnt Carbon loss in ash normally for Coal fired units. Loss3. Unburnt Fuel as CO - normally for oil or gas fired boilers.

Inherent Losses

Some Losses are due to the inherent characteristics of the fuel. The operator really has no control over these losses.

Loss 4 - due to the Hydrogen in the coal Loss 5 - due to the Moisture in the coal
o

=[9 x H + M] x [1.88 Tg + 2500 - 4.18Ta] / HHV

Hydrogen on combustion forms water and together with the moisture in the coal evaporates and leaves with the flue gas. The vaporisation takes away some heat from the combustion and reduces boiler efficiency. This is part of the energy conversion process.
Minor Losses

Apart from the main losses mentioned above there are many minor losses. Since these are mainly uncontrollable linked to the main losses we assume the value of these losses.

Loss 6 -Radiation loss. Loss 7 -Heat loss in ash. Loss 8 -Heat loss in coal mill rejects. Loss 9 -Loss due to moisture in air
o o

1 % for coal fired boilers with ash less than 20 %. 1.5 % for coal fired boilers with ash greater than 20 %.

Efficiency % = 100 - Sum of all Losses %

The Boiler engineer should really worry about category one. This is what the operator can adjust and reduce.

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Running a Coal Fired Boiler at the Best Efficiency

In high capacity pulverized coal fired boilers, the total losses account to about 12 to 14%, i.e. 86 to 88% boiler efficiency. Roughly 50% of the losses can be tuned to the optimum and the other 50% is governed by fuel properties like hydrogen in fuel, moisture in fuel, and ambient air conditions. Boiler efficiency is mainly depended on the amount of losses in the system. In high capacity pulverized coal fired boilers the total losses account to about 12 to 14%. Roughly 50% of the losses are governed by fuel properties like hydrogen in fuel, moisture in fuel and ambient air conditions. The other 50% losses are carbon loss and dry gas loss. The best efficiency in the boiler can be achieved if the losses are kept to the minimum. Since 50% of the losses are dependent on the fuel and ambient condition, the best efficiency can be achieved by properly tuning the other 50%, i.e. mainly carbon loss and dry gas loss. Carbon loss Carbon loss is due to unburned carbon in fly ash and bottom ash. Normally the unburned in bottom ash in the pulverised fuel firing are higher sized particle and of higher specific gravity having the unburned macerals like Fusinite embedded in mineral matter and the low melting constituents encapsulating the reactive maceral. Fly ash of pulverised coal firing system is around 80 to 90 percent of the total ash removed. The normal types of unburned are inert macerals, cenospheres, and carbonaceous clay.

Factors affecting carbon loss are

Coal rank and quality Coal Petrographic characteristics Characteristics and quantum of carbonaceous shale Presence of low melting inorganics in coal ash

Residence time available for combustion in furnace Type and number of burners Type of milling system and primary air control system Fineness of pulverised coal - Percentage of coarser particles Primary air to secondary air ratios Excess air at the burner/furnace and distribution of air into the burner/furnace Burner Tilt (If provided).

The factors having the greatest influence on carbon loss are the boiler type, volatile matter content in the coal, furnace heat loading (heat input/furnace volume), mass fraction of pulverised coal smaller than 75 mm and excess air. Dry gas loss The dry gas loss accounts to about 40% of total losses. Dry gas loss is due to the heat carried away by the flue gases leaving the boiler. Today many of the boiler designers reduce this loss by recovering the heat after low temperature superheater by larger economizer and air pre-heaters. As designers go for lower and lower exit gas temperature the size of air pre-heaters go up. Boiler tuning for optimal Dry gas

Keep an optimal excess air level, generally about 20% in a coal fired boiler Tune combustion of coal to the optimal condition. Understand the coal being fired Proper distribution of combustion air at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels Keep the required fineness of coal about 75% through 200 mesh and less than 2% on 50 mesh sieve Keep the maximum mill outlet temperature to reduce air bypassing air pre-heater Soot blowing the entire heat transfer surface at an optimal frequency Minimize the air in leakage to the boiler

Dry gas loss is also influenced by the economizer feed water inlet temperature and the ambient air temperature, which change the heat recovery pattern of economiser & air-pre-heater.

Minor losses There are a few minor losses in boiler which can also be tuned are the mill reject loss and the carbon monoxide loss. The mill reject loss depends on the amount of pyrite in coal and the mill operating condition. The rejects by the mill do have a heat value which is accounted as mill reject loss. This can be minimized by properly maintaining the mill cleanaces and operating at the optimal condition. The carbon-monoxide loss is due to combustion not being fully completed.

However small these losses are, the present environmental condition requires these losses also to be kept to the minimum. Other losses like loss due to moisture in fuel, air moisture loss, loss due to hydrogen in fuel, etc also get affected by change in exit gas temperature, but the major impact on these losses is by fuel and ambient property. When dry gas loss and carbon loss are kept to the optimum level then the boiler is operated with its best efficiency.

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Combustion Combustion occurs when fossil fuels, such as natural gas, fuel oil, coal or gasoline, react with oxygen in the air to produce heat. The heat from burning fossil fuels is used for industrial processes, environmental heating or to expand gases in a cylinder and push a piston. Boilers, furnaces and engines are important users of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, meaning they are composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen. When fossil fuels are burned, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are the principle chemical products, formed from the reactants carbon and hydrogen in the fuel and oxygen (O2) in the air. The simplest example of hydrocarbon fuel combustion is the reaction of methane (CH4), the largest component of natural gas, with O2 in the air. When this reaction is balanced, or stoichiometric, each molecule of methane reacts with two molecules of O2 producing one molecule of CO2 and two molecules of H2O. When this occurs, energy is released as heat. CH4 + 2O2 => CO2 + 2H2O Reactants => Products + Heat In actual combustion processes, other products are often formed. A typical example of an actual combustion process is shown in Figure 1. Fuel has reacted with air to produce the products shown on the right.

The combining of oxygen in the air and carbon in the fuel to form carbon dioxide and generate heat is a complex process, requiring the right mixing turbulence, sufficient activation temperature and enough time for the reactants to come into contact and combine. Unless combustion is properly controlled, high concentrations of undesirable products can form. Carbon monoxide (CO) and soot, for example, result from poor fuel and air mixing or too little air. Other undesirable products, such as nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2), form in excessive amounts when the burner flame temperature is too high. If a fuel contains Combustion Analysis Basics 2 TSI Incorporated sulfur, sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas is formed. For solid fuels such as coal and wood, ash forms from incombustible materials in the fuel.

Combustion Analysis Combustion analysis is part of a process intended to improve fuel economy, reduce undesirable exhaust emissions and improve the safety of fuel burning equipment. Combustion analysis begins with the

measurement of flue gas concentrations and gas temperature, and may include the measurement of draft pressure and soot level. To measure gas concentration, a probe is inserted into the exhaust flue and a gas sample drawn out. Exhaust gas temperature is measured using a thermocouple positioned to measure the highest exhaust gas temperature. Soot is measured from a gas sample drawn off the exhaust flue. Draft is the differential pressure between the inside and outside of the exhaust flue. Once these measurements are made, the data is interpreted using calculated combustion parameters such as combustion efficiency and excess air. A more in depth analysis will examine the concentration of the undesirable products described earlier.

Why Perform Combustion Analysis? Improve Fuel Efficiency The largest sources of boiler heat losses are shown Figure 2. Heat energy leaving the system exhaust flue (or stack) is often the largest single source of lost fuel energy and is made up of the Dry Gas loss and Latent Heat Loss. Although some flue loss is unavoidable, an equipment tune-up using combustion analysis data can often significantly reduce this source of heat loss and save fuel costs by improving fuel efficiency. Table 1 gives examples of yearly cost savings that can be realized by improving equipment efficiency by five percent.

Figure

Reduce Emissions Carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particles are undesirable emissions associated with burning fossil fuels. These compounds are toxic, contribute to acid rain and smog and can ultimately cause respiratory problems. Federal and state laws govern the permissible emission rates for these pollutants under the guidance of the Clean Air Act and oversight of the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). State and local environmental agencies also exert authority in regulating the emissions of these pollutants. Combustion analysis is performed to monitor toxic and acid rain forming emissions in order to meet these federal, state and local regulations. For specific information on emissions as they relate to a particular region, contact the local regulatory agency. For general information about U.S. regulations, refer to Appendix D, Emissions.

Improve Safety Good equipment maintenance practice, which includes combustion analysis, enables the boiler technician to fully verify and maintain the equipment operating specifications for safe and efficient operation. Many boiler manufacturers suggest that flue gas analysis be performed at least monthly. Boiler adjustments that affect combustion will tend to drift with time. Wind conditions and seasonal changes in temperature and barometric pressure can cause the excess air in a system to fluctuate several percent. A reduction in excess air can cause, in turn, a rapid increase of highly toxic carbon monoxide and explosive gases, resulting in rapid deterioration in system safety and efficiency. Low draft pressures in the flue can further result in these combustion gases building up in the combustion chamber or being vented indoors. Excessive draft pressures in the flue also can cause turbulence in the system. This can prevent complete combustion and pull explosive gases into the flue or cause flame impingement and damage in the combustion chamber and to the heat exchanger material.

Whats Measured? Combustion analysis involves the measurement of gas concentrations, temperatures and pressure for boiler tune-ups, emissions checks and safety improvements. Parameters that are commonly examined include: Oxygen (O2) Carbon Monoxide (CO) Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Exhaust gas temperature Supplied combustion air temperature Draft Nitric Oxide (NO) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide As described earlier, simple combustion involves the reaction of oxygen in the air with carbon and hydrogen in the fuel, to form carbon dioxide and water and produce heat. Under ideal conditions, the only gases in the exhaust flue are CO2, water vapor and nitrogen from the combustion air. When O2 appears in the flue exhaust, it usually means that more air (20.9 percent of which is O2) was supplied than was needed for complete combustion to occur. Some O2 is left over. In other words, the

measurement of O2 gas in the flue indicates that extra combustion air, or Excess Air, was supplied to the combustion reaction. This is demonstrated in Figure 3 where the bar on the right represents the exhaust gas composition.

When too little air is supplied to the burner, there is not enough oxygen to completely form CO2 with all the carbon in the fuel. Instead, some oxygen combines with carbon to form carbon monoxide (CO). CO is a highly toxic gas associated with incomplete combustion and efforts must be made to minimize its formation. This effort goes hand-in-hand with improving fuel efficiency and reducing soot generation.

This formation of CO gas is illustrated in Figure 4.

As a rule, the most efficient and cost-effective use of fuel takes place when the CO2 concentration in the exhaust is maximized. Theoretically, this occurs when there is just enough O2 in the supplied air to react with all the carbon in the fuel supplied. This quantity of supplied air is often referred to as the theoretical air. The theoretical air required for the combustion reaction depends on fuel composition and the rate at which the fuel is used (e.g. pounds per hour, cubic feet per minute, etc.). In real-world combustion, factors such as the condition of the burner and the burner design also influence the amount of air that is needed. The theoretical air is rarely enough. The general relationship between the O2 supplied and the concentration of CO2 and CO in the exhaust is illustrated in Figure 5. As the air level is increased and approaches 100% of the theoretical air, the concentration of CO molecules decreases rapidly as they pick up additional oxygen atoms and form CO2. Still more combustion air and CO2 reaches a maximum value. After that, air begins to dilute the exhaust gases, causing the CO2 concentration to drop. The maximum value of CO2 is dependant on the type of fuel used.\

Temperature and Draft

Exhaust Gas Temperature and Supplied Combustion Air Temperature Heat leaving the exhaust flue with the hot gases is not transferred to do useful work, such as producing steam. This heat loss becomes a major cause of lower fuel efficiency. Because the heat content of the exhaust gas is proportional to its temperature, the fuel efficiency drops as the temperature increases. An example of efficiency loss due to the increase in stack gas temperature is shown in Figure 6. When determining heat loss from the flue, the temperature of the supply air is subtracted from the flue gas temperature. This gives the net temperature and accounts for the heat supplied to the system by the supply air. Some heat loss is unavoidable. The temperature in the flue needs to remain high enough to avoid condensation inside the stack. One process for recovering some of the heat loss in the exhaust is to use the hot flue gases to preheat the supply air before it is introduced into the combustion chamber. Figure 6. Flue Temperature vs. % Efficiency (fuel oil)

Draft Draft

Draft refers to the flow of gases through the heat generating equipment, beginning with the introduction of air at the back of the burner. Once combustion occurs, the heated gas leaves the combustion chamber, passes heat exchangers and exits the exhaust stack. Depending upon the design of the equipment, draft is natural, meaning combustion air is pulled in by buoyant heated gases venting up the stack, or it is mechanical, meaning air is pushed or pulled through the system by a fan. Often, draft relies on a combination of both natural and mechanical means. Adequate draft is typically verified by measuring the pressure in the exhaust stack. The manufacturer of the fuel burning equipment provides specifications for the required draft pressure and locations for making the draft measurement. Measurement is important since environmental influences such as changes in barometric pressure and ambient temperature can influence the flow. Typical draft pressures are in the range of 0.5 to 0.5 inches of water column. Excessive draft can prevent heat transfer to the system and increase the flue temperature if the excess air percentage is not elevated. If the excess air increases from the high draft, the flue temperature will decrease. Low draft pressures can cause temperatures in the flue to decrease, allowing water vapor to condense in the flue, forming acid and damaging the system. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Nitrogen oxides, principally nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), are pollutant gases that contribute to the formation of acid rain, ozone and smog. Nitrogen oxides result when oxygen combines with nitrogen in the air or in the fuel. NO is generated first at high flame temperatures, then oxidizes further to form NO2 at cooler temperatures in the stack or after being exhausted. The NO concentration is often measured alone, and the NO2 concentration is generally assumed to comprise an additional five percent of the total nitrogen oxides. The nitrogen oxide gas concentrations are sometimes combined and referred to as the NOX concentration. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Sulfur dioxide combines with water vapor in the exhaust to form a sulfuric acid mist. Airborne sulfuric acid is a pollutant in fog, smog, acid rain and snow, ending up in the soil and ground water. Sulfur dioxide itself is corrosive and harmful to the environment. Sulfur dioxide occurs when the fuel contains sulfur and where the emission levels are directly related to the amount of sulfur in the fuel. The most cost-effective way to reduce sulfur emissions is to select a low-sulfur or de-sulfured fuel. Hydrocarbons (HCs)/Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Organic compounds are sometimes present in the combustion exhaust products because of incomplete

combustion. Hydrocarbons (HCs), or volatile organic compounds (VOCs), are best reduced through proper burner maintenance and by maintaining the proper air/fuel mixture. Soot Soot is the black smoke commonly seen in the exhaust of diesel trucks, and is present whenever fuel oils or solid fuels are burned. Excessive soot is undesirable because it indicates poor combustion and is responsible for coating internal heat transfer surfaces, preventing good thermal conductivity. Over time, serious damage to the heat exchanger can occur. Soot is primarily unburned carbon, and is formed for the same reasons CO is formedinsufficient combustion air, poor mixing and low flame temperature. As with CO, it is usually impossible or impractical to entirely eliminate soot formation for some fuel types.

Determining Combustion Efficiency Combustion efficiency is a measure of how effectively energy from the fuel is converted into useful energy (e.g. to create steam). Combustion efficiency is determined by subtracting the heat content of the exhaust gases, expressed as a percentage of the fuels heating value, from the total fuel-heat potential, or 100%, as shown in the formula below.

%Combustion Efficiency 100% stack heat losses Stack heat losses are calculated using gas concentration and temperature measurements from combustion analysis, and using the fuels specifications for chemical composition and heat content. These fuel specifications are unique properties of the fuel, determined from chemical analysis by the fuel supplier. Typical fuel specifications for some common fuels are presented in Appendix B, Fuel Specifications. Stack heat losses are primarily from the heated dry exhaust gases (CO2, N2, O2) and from water vapor formed from the reaction of hydrogen in the fuel with O2 in the air (refer to Figure 2). When water goes through a phase change from liquid to vapor, it absorbs a tremendous amount of heat energy in the process. This heat of vaporization, or latent heat, is usually not recovered. The white cloud seen exiting

a stack on a cold day is mostly condensing water vapor giving up its latent heat to the atmosphere. The calculations used to determine heat losses and combustion efficiency are presented in Appendix C, Calculations. Fortunately, modern portable analyzers, like TSIs CA-CALC Combustion Analyzers, automatically perform combustion efficiency calculations, typically with better accuracy than manual calculations or charts. Table 2 below shows the combustion efficiency for fuel oil under various conditions.

What Is a Superheater?
A superheater is a device found in steam boilers that is used to convert wet, saturated steam into dry steam. Superheaters are a very beneficial part of the steam cycle, because dry steam contains more thermal energy and increases the overall efficiency of the cycle. Not only that, dry steam also is less likely to condense within the cylinders of a reciprocating engine or the casing of a steam turbine. Boiler superheaters can be found in three varieties: radiant superheaters, convection superheaters and seperately fired superheaters. Radiant superheaters are located directly within the combustion chamber of the boiler itself. This arrangement allows for the burner from the boiler to heat both the boiler tubing and the superheater tubes, making radiant superheaters highly effective devices. These are most commonly found in steam power plants and also were widely used in steam automobiles. In steam automobiles and power plant boilers alike, the superheater tubes sometimes known as vaporizer coils were located directly on top of the burner. Steam usually is run through the superheater after it has been admitted through the throttle. Convection superheaters are most commonly found on locomotives. Much like a convection oven, this type of superheater utilizes the hot gases from the burner to reheat the steam. A convection superheater can be extremely efficient, because most of the thermal energy is given only to the boiler tubing, and what would normally be exhaust instead heats the superheater tubes. These are also found in power plants, but they were mostly implemented in steam locomotives. On steam locomotives, convection superheaters are slightly different from what one would find in stationary steam power plants. Both use the same principle of utilizing hot gases, but locomotive superheaters usually are somewhat separate from the boiler itself. Instead, they are positioned in front of the boiler, and hot gases from the boiler tubing go through tubing of the superheater. Superheaters have many advantages, the most notable being reduced fuel consumption and increased efficiency. The only disadvantage is increased maintenance costs, but superheaters still generally are considered to be worth any extra costs. Another disadvantage of superheaters is found almost exclusively on locomotives using fire-tube boilers. Without proper and regular

maintenance, the tubing within the superheater is prone to rupture. If the tubing was to rupture, high pressure steam could escape through the opening and into the firebox of the locomotive, and such an event would put any personnel in the engine cab in serious danger.

Economizer
Definition of Economizer: a frugal person who limits spending and avoids waste Economizer on wiseGEEK:

When installing a boiler economizer, i t is important to use a product which is suitable for the boiler. Some manufacturers offer economizers for their boilers, while companies which make standalone economizers can come to inspect the boiler to determine which product would be most suitable.

There are a number of different devices that fall into this broad category, with economizers used for managing energy consumption in boiler systems, the use of water in the manufacturing process, and the utilization of both electricity and natural gas as part of the operation. In some instances, the economizer functions as a heat exchanger that helps to regulate the production and use of heat.

Fi re Tube Boilers
Whether or not a vertical boiler employs a fi re tube or water tube construction usually depends on the application. Most traditional steam launches and earlier steam automobiles used fi re-tube boilers for their simplicity and low cost of materials. The only problem is that all of the water within the system needs to be heated at once; this makes building pressure a long process and carries an increased r isk of a steam explosion.

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Once ignition occurs, the ignition source is removed and the vapors should then stop burning; if they continue to burn without the source, however, then the fi re point for a chemical has been reached. In a closed cup experiment, the process is similar but the container for the chemical is lidded and the ignition source is introduced through the lid.

Water Tube Boilers

The cooling of the steam allows i t to change forms and become water again. When this happens, the water is returned to the boiler, forming a cyclical process. A thermal power station has advantages and disadvantages.

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Hot gases from a burner below f low through the tubes, where the heated tubing generates enough heat to create steam. Water tube boilers are the exact opposite, as water runs through the tubes, which are heated by flames surrounding them.

What Are the Different Types of Combustion Equipment W What Are the Different Types of Combustion Equipment?
Combustion equipment consists of machinery designed to burn a fuel source in combination with the oxygen in air to produce heat and energy. The different types of combustion equipment include furnaces, boilers, turbines, and engines. The design can be further identified by the fuel source such as oil, natural gas, coal, or wood. A furnace, or direct-fired heater, is a type of enclosed chamber where heat is generated by combustion of some type of fuel. A blower introduces air into the heating chamber where it is combined with the fuel and burned. A furnace can be used to produce heat energy for the heat itself, converted into mechanical energy to drive a process, or into electrical energy as in a power plant. The heat generated can be transferred away from the furnace through tubes filled with water, air, or heat-t ransfer oil. Boilers are combustion equipment units that produce steam or heated water to run industrial processes or to provide heat for buildings. The major types of industrial boilers are water-tube and fire-tube. Water-tube boilers move water through tubes running through a furnace chamber where fuel is combusted. The heat of combustion t ransfers through the tube walls to heat the water and create steam. Fire-tube boilers send heated gases generated by fuel combustion through tubes that pass through a water-filled chamber, where the heat t ransfer causes the water to vaporize into steam Turbines are machines that create power through the rotation of blades or vanes by the movement of gas or liquid. A gas turbine uses a compressor to produce pressurized air. Combustion of the compressed air mixed with fuel generates a high-pressure gas that moves a rotor. This type of combustion equipment is found in smaller capacity power plants and in jet engines. An internal combustion engine produces energy by igniting fuel under high pressure in an enclosed space. The gas expansion created by the burning of fuel is turned into mechanical energy to move a crankshaft or rotor. These engines drive automobiles, electrical generators, pumps, forklifts, and other industrial machinery.

Various fuels are used by different types of combustion equipment. Liquid petroleum products are the most common fuel sources in engines and turbines and may include gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and heavier residual products such as bunker fuel. A large number of boilers, especially those producing building heat, are fired with natural gas. Power plants burning coal produce a significant percentage of the energy used worldwide. Wood-fired furnaces are less common in industrial applications and are more likely to be found in residential use.

What Are the Different Types of Combustion Systems?

Combustion systems are chemical reactions between a material that can be burned as a fuel and the chemical compounds found in oxidants, substances that t ransfer oxygen atoms. The main purpose behind combustion is to create some sort of energy to produce the physical science definition of work. Essentially, it is the production of a certain amount of energy t ransferred by the force of heat and fire. Common examples of combustion systems include boilers, fireplaces, furnaces, gas burners and other heating systems. Household appliances are one of the most common uses of combustion systems. In a boiler, a closed unit is filled with water or another type of f luid and heated to vaporize the f luid to supply heat to other devices. A fireplace, which generally burns wood or gas, is placed within an architectural construct for the purpose of heating or cooking. Furnaces, t raditionally designed to manufacture ceramics or metals, use a fuel source to heat materials or the air i tself. Likewise, gas burners use natural gas or propane mixed with the air to generate a f lame, which can be used to cook or burn substances. There are a number of different types of combustion techniques used in these systems, each requiring different levels of fuel and oxidants. Complete combustion essentially burns the fuel, usually a hydrocarbon, and produces very lit tle secondary material. Pyrolysis, or incomplete combustion, occurs when the oxidant is not readily available or limi ted, causing the combustion system to be partially quenched. Low-temperature combustion without a f lame is called smoldering, like a burnt out campfire. On the opposite end of the spectrum, rapid combustion is a situation in which heat and light are produced very quickly, such as in the case of thermobaric weapons, like bunker-busters. Two different types of fuels can be used in combustion systems: liquids or solids. In the case of liquids, combustion occurs during the gas phase. Liquid is heated into a gas, which catches fire when mixed with oxidants. Solid fuels need three distinct phases to successfully work. The fuel needs to be preheated, followed by the production of gases which burn and eventually the solid fuel turns into charcoal.

Perhaps the most common form of combustion systems is the engine. This is designed in two different formats: the internal and external combustion engine. Internal combustion engines contain a chamber in which fuel and the oxidizer are mixed to produce energy. External combustion engines involve the heating of a f luid through a heat exchanger, producing usable work.

Gas Combustion

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I t is certainly cleaner than burning many fossil fuels, creating lower amounts of pollution per unit of energy generated. However, a number of factors can influence the cleanliness of natural gas combustion, including the precise mixture of components in the gas, the efficiency of the conditions under which i t is combusted, and the fil tering system used to t rap byproducts, if such a fil ter is in place.

To cut down the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere, post-combustion capture is used. The f lue gas is passed through a capturing unit, which combines the carbon gas with a solvent

h Air Combustion
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Even if they are only used for short periods of t ime, such open-ai r methods of waste combustion can be quite dangerous to personnel and harmful to the environment.

Complete combustion occurs when the fuel and oxygen are in the perfect combination, or ratio, to completely burn the fuel. This condition also is referred to as stoichiometric or zero excess ai r combustion. On the other hand, incomplete combustion may leave some of the fuel unused

Steam Turbine Auxiliaries

Steam turbines are one of the major drivers of power generators in todays power plants. There are several types of turbines and a number of mechanical arrangements to obtain maximum efficiency and output. The auxiliaries however are very similar, performing equally important tasks in their systems. Steam Turbine Auxiliaries

Introduction In the previous article on power plant auxiliaries we looked at the important part played by the auxiliaries of a dual drum water tube boiler. Following on from there, here we will examine the main auxiliaries of the associated steam turbine, using the same method of locating and describing the functions of the different components within the relevant systems. Please refer to the drawing to when reading the component descriptions which are numbered in sequence as in the descriptions. Lube-oil System 1. Pumps The lubricating oil system has three separate pumps which supply the bearings and hydraulic system with oil.

Lube oil Jacking pump this is used when the turbine is being rotated by the turning gear. Emergency Lube oil Pump this cuts in if the turbine trips through loss of power. Lube oil Booster Pump this pump is used at start-up and ensures an adequate flow at slow speeds. It cuts out when the turbine reaches operation speed Main lube oil pump this pump draws the oil from a lube oil tank and supplies the turbine bearings and governor. This is normally a centrifugal pump driven by the turbine or generator shaft.

2. L.O. Filters Some systems have duplex filters on the suction and discharge pipework of the pumps, but at a minimum a set on the discharge. These remove any debris picked up by the oil before the oil is fed to the bearings. 3. L.O. Coolers The oil lubricates the bearings absorbing the heat from friction. This heat is dissipated by the coolers. These are usually tube coolers, water being the medium used to cool the oil. 4. L.O. Centrifuge The centrifuge is usually positioned above the lube oil tank and runs continually whilst the turbine is operating, only coming off line for cleaning. It draws the lube oil from the lube oil tank removing any water and particles by centrifugal force before discharging the clean oil back to the tank. 5. Turbine Governor As the loads on the generator vary requiring more or less steam to the turbine, the governor responds by controlling the speed of the turbine. The governor is hydraulically operated by lube oil supplied by the main pump.

The Steam Condensate System 6. Steam Turbine Condenser Expanded steam from the low pressure turbine is drawn into the tube condenser by a vacuum which is maintained at 28"- 29"Hg where it is condensed by water which has been cooled in the cooling tower. 7. Air Ejector The air ejectors are used to create the initial vacuum in the condenser and maintain a vacuum of 28-29"Hg for optimum steam evaporation. The ejectors draw the air out of the condenser by passing high pressure steam through a vortex piping arrangement thus causing the vacuum. 8. Condensate Pump This pump draws the water from the bottom of the condenser or hotwell and pumps it up to the deaerator. 9. Tray Deaerator This is a pressure vessel with a horizontal and vertical section somewhat like a comic strip submarine shape. It effectively removes the air and oxygen from the feed water (condensate) which would otherwise damage the inside of the boiler tubes by corrosion. There are several types of deaerators; we will look at the tray type which is a vessel having a horizontal section with a vertical dome. The bottom horizontal section is used to collect and store the deaerated water; the vertical section has perforated trays set at intervals along its upper length. The condensate enters at the top of the vertical section cascading down through the trays, meeting steam injected from the sides and gathers at the bottom section where it is heated by steam coils or sprays. The air is vented from the very top of the deaerater vertical domed section. 10. Boiler Feed Pump This pump takes the water from the deaerator and pumps it through a series of feed heaters into the boiler economizer (see boiler auxiliaries article) and into the boiler top drum through the feed water control valve. The water used to condense the steam to condensate is now pretty hot itself, so it needs to be cooled down before being used again. The cooling tower is used for this purpose. It is a vertical hyperboloid concrete structure with a honeycombed interior usually of plastic and the water enters at the top cascading down through the plastic sections. It draws in air from the bottom, which rising up through the tower mixes with the water thus cooling it helped by evaporation, the resultant plume rising out of the top of the tower. 12 Cooling Medium Pumps

These pumps circulate the cooling medium from the main vacuum condenser and LO cooler to and from the cooling tower.

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Modern Steam Turbines

There are two basic types of steam turbines: Impulse and Reaction turbines. The impulse turbine is normally used for high and intermediate steam turbines, whereas the reaction turbine is used for low steam turbines. However modern turbines can also be a combination of these two types.
Steam Turbines in Power Plants

Overview

The type of rotating equipment we will look at in this article will be steam turbines used for power generation.The first steam turbine for this application was invented by Sir Charles Parsons, and his first one came on line in 1888. This was a great advancement from the other steam turbines around at the time as it was a revolutionary multi-stage turbine which used the expanded steam much more efficiently than the conventional single stage ones. We shall look therefore at a typical modern Parsons Turbine used to generate power for the National Grid, which at present is responsible for producing 80% of the world's electricity.

Types of Steam Turbines There are two basic types of steam turbines: Impulse and Reaction turbines. The impulse turbine is normally used for high and intermediate steam turbines, whereas the reaction turbine is used for low steam turbines. However, modern turbines can have a combination of these two types in the high/low pressure stages.

Steam Flow Through the Turbine The sequence of steam passage through the turbine is as follows: (see image) Superheated steam (above 500C and 170bar) is injected into the high pressure (HP) stage of the turbine through a ring of static nozzles. These nozzles project the steam at the precise angle onto the rotor blades to extract the maximum energy from it. The blades on the HP rotor are quite small and the diameter of the rotor gets larger from the steam entrance to the exit where it is redirected to the boiler to be reheated to 500C. This reheated steam is injected into the intermediate stage (IP) of the turbine, in which, like the HP stage, the rotor gets progressively bigger in diameter from the steam entrance to exit (the blade sizes become larger as the pressure of the steam drops). Finally the steam is directed into the LP section of the turbine where the blades are the largest, to accommodate the flow of lower exhaust steam from the IP. The steam exits the LP stages and enters the condenser, which is under a vacuum and, the resulting condensate is pumped back to the boiler by the feed pump.

Image

Assembly and Maintenance of Steam Turbines Very fine clearances that are imperative to the efficient operation of the turbine exist between the rotating turbine blades and the fixed blades/nozzles. Therefore it is essential that great care be employed in assembly in order to maintain these tolerances. Another important point to be considered before assembling the rotor to the turbine is the balancing of the rotor, which is normally carried out by a specialist company. Also crucial to smooth running is the alignment of

the turbine drive shaft to the generator drive shaft, which can be carried out using dial gauges or the more modern method of laser shaft alignment. With speeds of 3000 RPM for 50 Hz and 3600 RPM for 60 Hz, these measures along with the initial bedding in of the main white metal bearings will ensure that no vibration takes place during operation.

Running a Steam Turbine up from Cold Finally, there are strict procedures to be adhered to when the turbine is stationary and when running up from cold. It is essential that only superheated steam is used as any water can severely damage the blades. Because the condenser is normally under a vacuum, if a vacuum is applied when the turbine is off-line, the turning gear should be used to slowly rotate the shaft. This avoids the possibility of the vacuum bowing the turbine shaft. It is imperative to "warm through" the turbine inlet and exhaust steam system several hours before the turbine/generator is due to come on line. This is carried out (after disengaging the turning gear), by running the turbine for one minute at 10-15 RPM then stopping it for one minute before repeating. This ensures that all three stages of the turbine along with the pipework and pumps are fully expanded to working conditions and the lube oil is up to optimum temperature and pressure.

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at Different Types of Steam Turbines

Impulse and reaction turbines, being dependent on the shape of the rotor blades and the method of steam entry and exit, are the two main types. Impulse turbines are usually of the intermediate and high pressure types and reaction turbines low pressure, but some are a combination of both.
The Two Types of Steam Turbines

The modern steam turbine can be divided into two types, impulse and reaction turbines.

Impulse Turbines

In this type of turbine the superheated steam is projected at high velocity from fixed nozzles in the casing. When the steam strikes the blades (sometimes called buckets), it causes the turbine shaft to rotate. The high pressure and intermediate pressure stages of a steam turbine are usually impulse turbines.

Reaction turbines

In this type of steam turbine the steam passes from fixed blades of the stator through the shaped rotor blades nozzles causing a reaction and rotating the turbine shaft. The low pressure stage of a steam turbine is usually a reaction type turbine. This steam having already expanded through the high and intermediate stages of the turbine is now of low pressure and temperature, ideally suited to a reaction turbine. Although there only two types of steam turbine there are numerous mechanical arrangements of these, which include reheat steam turbines, cross compound steam turbines, single casing turbines, tandem steam turbines, condensing and exhaust steam turbines and, axial and radial flow steam turbines.
Mechanical Arrangements of Steam Turbines

In this article we shall examine the following mechanical arrangements of steam turbines, Single casing steam turbine Tandem reheat steam turbine Compound steam turbine
Single Casing Steam Turbine

This is one of the simplest steam turbines and as the name implies has all its stages of steam turbines under the one casing. They are also all connected to a common drive shaft. The superheated steam is supplied to the high pressure turbine, entering it at the smallest diameter end and expanding through the turbine as the rotor blades get bigger until finally exiting and passing onto the intermediate stage. Here it also expands through the blades which are becoming larger towards the exit. These two stages are usually impulse turbines. From here the steam which is almost fully expanded enters the dual low pressure stage where it expands through the ever increasing in size rotor blades until at almost the last stage it is drawn into the condenser. This last stage is normally a reaction turbine.
Tandem Reheat Steam Turbine

This assembly consists of four stages all in line on the same shaft but can have several casings. The superheated steam enters the High Pressure stage (HP) where it expands through the small diameter rotor blades before exiting and being returned to the boiler. In the boiler the steam is superheated again and is directed to the Intermediate Pressure stage (IP). Here it expands through larger diameter rotor blades exiting to the Low Pressure turbines In the final stage there are two identical sets of Low Pressure turbines (Dual LP). The exiting steam from the IP turbine is divided equally between the two turbines passing through quite large diameter rotors and blades. The steam expands through both of the LP turbines by being drawn into the vacuum condenser.

Cross Compound Steam Turbine

An arrangement of these were popular marine turbines used for propelling ships, until being replaced by the more economical large two-stroke diesel engines. The marine turbines used a double reduction gearbox to reduce the normal high revolutions from the turbines to a propeller

shaft rotation of around 100 revs. However, cross compound steam turbines used in power stations do not require a gearbox, having two separate direct drive-shafts to the two generators. In a cross compound steam turbine the superheated steam enters the High Pressure stage, expanding through the rotor blades before exiting to the Intermediate Pressure stage, both turbine rotors being on the same drive shaft. This HP/IP turbine rotates at 3600rpm driving a 2 pole generator. The exiting steam now crosses over from the IP stage into the Low Pressure turbine, where it expands through the rotor blades, driving its own shaft and giving up the last of its energy before being drawn into the vacuum condenser. This LP turbine rotates at 1800 rpm driving a 4pole generator

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Are

the Different Types of Combustion Equipment

What's a Prime Mover?

Our power generation system is based on prime movers. This article describes the importance of prime movers, and the historical development of power generation machines. We also look at where the phrase actually came from.
Introduction of the Term "Prime Mover"

The unique feature of our civilization, which makes it different from all others, is the wide use of mechanical power. Earlier, animals had been trained to help us for various purposes such as for travelling and for agriculture usage. After this, a revolution in wind power came into play. For example, ships used wind power to travel. After some time, the use of power from running streams started. When we learned to convert the heat of chemical reactions into mechanical energy, it revolutionized the world. Machines which were used for this purpose are known as heat engines and the whole system of these machines is called prime movers.
Definition of Prime Mover

The actual meaning of prime mover is a primary source of power. It means all the machinery that provide power for performing different mechanical work. Technically, it is a group of machines that transform energy from thermal, electrical, or pressure into mechanical form for use in different sources for some mechanical work. Engines and turbines are examples.
The First Prime Mover

The first prime mover that had a revolutionary effect was the gun. They work under the principle of a heat engine. It was hard to recognize that the very important difference between the bow and the gun was the substitution of gunpowder for the bowmans muscles. This made a revolution because the musket was originally inferior to the bow in range and accuracy, but, through persistence, the range and accuracy of musket became more advanced. The effectiveness of this prime mover is still being increased.
Development of Prime Movers

Another revolution was begun when the technology of the steam engine was improved by Watt. He changed the concept by using an intermediate working fluid. The effect of this improved technology was that the products of combustion did not act directly on the moving parts of the mechanism. After some time, they started using the ancient principle of the turbine in place of the piston engine to work with the power of steam.

For power generation, three principal competitors are introduced in the field of production of mechanical power. They are the steam turbine plant, the diesel piston engine, and the gasoline piston engine. Steam turbines became the most important prime mover for power generation around the turn of the nineteenth century. They were widely used in the power plants for marine vessels, too. However, these types of engines had an important disadvantage- they could not produce high pressure, high temperature steam. Because of this, new bulky and expensive steam generating equipment, the boiler and the nuclear reactor, were introduced. They are intended to produce steam as an intermediate working fluid. Later many other power generation systems were introduced. Those systems are more beneficial because they reduce a step in changing water into steam. They produce the hot gases themselves, and the hot gases are used directly to drive the turbine. The example

of such types of power generators is piston diesel. In many locations these machines started replacing bulky power plants for power generation.

Gasoline engines were used in the early days for aircraft propulsion. A device named the gas turbine was also introduced during that time, and it supplanted the use of superchargers based on piston engines. The main development of the gas turbine started only after the Second World War. They were based on shaft power technology and were called turboprops. After some time the development of turbojet engines for aircraft usage started, and these are based on mass airflow rather than shaft output. However, the gas turbine is still being used worldwide because they can be used in variety of applications.

Summary

Earlier efforts at power generation systems had some advantages and some disadvantages; however, only few of them were focused on the design and development of effective gas turbines. Todays gas turbines, the prime movers that generate our electricity, provide the most effective power plant in every respect. They have high reliability, low lubricating oil consumption, and a high power to weight ratio.

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What is a Supercritical Power Plant?

Modern thermal power plants operate at very high pressures greater than the Critical pressure of steam. This article explains the concept of Supercritical power plants. "Steam is no stronger now than it was a hundred years ago, but it is put to better use. - Ralph Waldo Emerson To increase the efficiency of steam power plants the basic method is to improve the thermal efficiency by increasing the operating pressure. To understand what a Supercritical power plant is you have to understand the basics of steam generation.

What happens when you heat water at normal atmospheric pressure?

There are three stages.

As you go on heating the water, the temperature of water increases till it reaches 100 deg C. This is the Sensible Heat addition. Further heating does not increase the temperature; instead small bubbles of steam start to form. The temperature remains constant at 100 deg C till all the water becomes steam. The water absorbs the heat without temperature change for conversion to steam. At atmospheric pressure the Latent Heat of vapourisation is 2256 kJ/kg. Further heating called superheating will increase the temperature of the steam. How high one can go depends on the withstanding capacity of the vessel.

What happens when the water is at a higher pressure, say, at 100 bar? Then the boiling takes place at 311 deg C and the latent heat of vaporisation is 1318 kJ/kg. If the water pressure is 200 bar then the boiling takes place at 366 deg C and the latent heat of vaporisation is 584 kJ/kg. As the pressure increases the boiling temperature increases and the latent heat of vaporisation decreases. A further increase in pressure and temperature leads us to a point at which the latent heat of vaporisation is zero, or there is no boiling. Water directly becomes steam. This is the Critical Pressure and the Critical Temperature. For steam this occurs at 374 deg C and 220.6 bar. Conventional steam power plants operate at a steam pressures in the range of 170 bar. These are Subcritical power plants. The new generation of power plants operate at pressures higher than the critical pressure. These are Supercritical power plants. The operating pressures are in the range of 230 to 265 bar. The efficiency of the Rankine cycle depends on the pressure at which it operates. Higher pressure and temperature increase the efficiency of the thermal cycle and power plant. This is the reason for operating at higher steam pressures.
Ultra Supercritical Power Plants

In the quest for higher efficiency the trend is to go for still higher operating pressures. The next generation of power plants will operate with steam Pressures in the range of 300 bar. These are the Ultra Super Critical Power plants. Ultra Supercritical Units operate at temperatures of 615 to 630 deg C.

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How are Supercritical Boilers different from Subcritical Boilers?

Modern thermal power plants operate at very high pressures greater than the Critical pressure of steam. This article explains how Super Critical power plants are different from the normal power plants. Supercritical power plants were in service from the late fifties. But the technology did not really take off due to problems of reliability especially from the metallurgical aspect. The single most important factor that determines the use of higher and higher pressure and temperatures are the availability of materials to withstand these conditions. Increases in operating pressure and temperatures have to go hand in hand with developments in metallurgy. With more than 600 units in service the reliability issue seems to be resolved. Supercritical units are the standard for future power plants in many countries including China. What are the key differences between the subcritical units and the Supercritical units?
Efficiency

The main advantage and the reason for a higher pressure operation is the increase in the thermodynamic efficiency of the Rankine cycle. Large Subcritical thermal power plants with 170 bar and 540 / 540 C (SH / RH) operate at an efficiency of 38 %. Supercritical units operating at 250 bar and 600/615 C can have efficiencies in the range of 42 %. Ultra supercritical units at 300 bar and 615 / 630 C will still increase the efficiency up to 44 %. Increase in efficiency directly lead to reductions in unit cost of power and CO2 emissions.
Operational Flexibility

Most of the Supercritical units use the once through technology. This is ideal for sliding pressure operation which has much more flexibility in load changes and controlling the power grid. However this also requires more sensitive and quick responding control systems.
Evaporation End Point

In subcritical units the drum acts as a fixed evaporation end point. The furnace water walls act as the evaporator. Not so in the case of a supercritical unit. The evaporation end point can occur in various levels of the furnace depending on the boiler load. The percentage of Superheat in supercritical units is higher than subcritical units. Because of this the furnace tubes act more as

superheaters than waterwalls. This necessitates the use of higher grade of materials like alloy steels in the furnace.
Heat transfer Area

Higher steam temperatures in supercritical units results in a lesser differential temperature for heat transfer. Because of this heat transfer areas required are higher than subcritical units. Higher Superheat steam temperatures entering the HP turbine also mean higher reheater inlet temperatures which again results in a higher heat transfer areas.
Water chemistry

In supercritical units the water entering the boiler has to be of extremely high levels of purity. Supercritical boilers do not have a steam drum that separates the steam and the water. If the entering water quality is not good, carry over of impurities can result in turbine blade deposits.
Materials

Supercritical power plants use special high grade materials for the boiler tubes. The turbine blades are also of improved design and materials. In fact, the very increase in higher pressure and temperature designs are dependendent on the development of newer and newer alloys and tube materials. The aim of the industry is to achieve power plant efficiencies in the range of 50 %.

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