1. How the DNA is organization into chromosomes?

(2 marks) ANS: The genetic information in all living things is stored in DNA which is present in chromosomes. Adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine (A, T, G, and C) molecules make up the DNA. Every living organism has the difference in the sequence of DNA. They contain coded information that is required to construct a living organism and to direct the way it functions. The bases are paired, A with T, and G with C. The DNA in each of your cells contains 3 billion (3,000,000,000) of these base pairs. Those 3 billion base pairs make up 6 feet of DNA and are organized into 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs of chromosomes. 22 pairs of chromosomes contain what is called autosomal DNA and the 23rd pair contains DNA that determines the gender of the child. A male is XY and a female is XX. A routine parentage test examines non-coding regions of the autosomal DNA but also examines a section of the 23rd pair of chromosomes to determine if the tested individual is male or female. Our Y-STR test examines the DNA that is present on the Y-chromosome, which is present only in males. Cellular DNA is never bare and unaccompanied by other proteins. Rather, it always forms a complex with various protein partners that help package it into such a tiny space. This DNA-protein complex is called chromatin, wherein the mass of protein and nucleic acid is nearly equal. Within cells, chromatin usually folds into characteristic formations called chromosomes.

Each chromosome is essentially a package for one very long, continuous strand of the DNA. In higher organisms, structural proteins, some of which are histones that provide a scaffold upon which DNA is built into a compact chromosome. The DNA strand is wound around histone cores, which, in turn, are looped and fixed to specific regions of the chromosome.

Fig:-Chromatin condensation changes during the cell cycle During interphase (1), chromatin is in its least condensed state and appears diffused distributed throughout the nucleus. Chromatin condensation begins during prophase (2) and chromosomes become visible. Chromosomes remain condensed throughout the various stages of mitosis (2-5). 2) What is the importance of different types of RNA in context to central dogma? (2 marks) ANS: DNA is found mostly in the cell nucleus, but another type of nucleic acid, RNA, is common in the cytoplasm. Watson and Crick proposed that RNA must copy the DNA message in the nucleus and carry it out to the cytoplasm, where proteins are synthesized. Crick also predicted the existence of an "adaptor" molecule that reads the genetic code and selects the appropriate amino acids to add to a growing polypeptide chain. This proposed flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein became known as the "Central Dogma." As it turned out, several types of RNA are involved in the utilization of genetic information. In the nucleus, the DNA code is "transcribed," or copied, into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. In the cytoplasm, the mRNA code is "translated" into amino acids. Translation is orchestrated at the ribosome itself partly composed of RNA with transfer RNA playing the role of adaptor.

3) How a DNA replicates? (2 marks)

ANS: As the final step in the Central Dogma is to transmit the genetic information between parents and progeny, the DNA must be replicated faithfully. So,replication is carried out by a complex group of proteins called helicase that unwind the superhelix, unwind the double-stranded DNA helix, and, using DNA polymerase and its associated proteins, copy or replicate the master template itself so the cycle can repeat DNA RNA protein in a new generation of cells or organisms. DNA replication has two requirements that must be met: 1. DNA template 2. Free 3' -OH group Proteins of DNA Replication
1. DNA Helicase - These proteins bind to the double stranded DNA and stimulate the 2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

separation of the two strands. DNA single-stranded binding proteins - These proteins bind to the DNA as a tetramer and stabilize the single-stranded structure that is generated by the action of the helicases. Replication is 100 times faster when these proteins are attached to the single-stranded DNA. DNA Gyrase - This enzyme catalyzes the formation of negative supercoils that is thought to aid with the unwinding process. DNA polymerase Primase - The requirement for a free 3' hydroxyl group is fulfilled by the RNA primers that are synthesized at the initiation sites by these enzymes. DNA Ligase - The final replication product does not have any nicks because DNA ligase forms a covalent phosphodiester linkage between 3'-hydroxyl and 5'-phosphate groups.

During DNA replication the following occurs: 1) An enzyme called helicase separates the DNA strands (the space where they separate is called the replication fork). 2) DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to the separated strand of DNA. 3) The DNA polymerase enzyme finishes adding nucleotides and there are two identical DNA molecules. 4) How genetic information flows from DNA to RNA? (2 marks) ANS:

Transcription is the process by which the information contained in a section of DNA is transferred to a newly assembled piece of messenger RNA (mRNA). During transcription, a DNA sequence is read by RNA polymerase, which produces a complementary, antiparallel RNA strand. As opposed to DNA replication, transcription results in an RNA complement that includes uracil (U) in all instances where thymine (T) would have occurred in a DNA complement. It is facilitated by RNA polymerase and transcription factors. In eukaryote cells the primary transcript (pre-mRNA) is often processed further via alternative splicing. In this process, blocks of mRNA are cut out and rearranged, to produce different arrangements of the original sequence. Transcription is the first step leading to gene expression. The stretch of DNA transcribed into an RNA molecule is called a transcription unit and encodes at least one gene. If the gene transcribed encodes a protein, the result of transcription is messenger RNA (mRNA), which will then be used to create that protein via the process of translation. Alternatively, the transcribed gene may encode for ribosomal RNA (rRNA) or for transfer RNA (tRNA), other components of the protein-assembly process, or other ribozymes. DNA Transcription:- DNA consists of four nucleotide bases [adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T)] that are paired together (A-T and C-G) to give DNA its double helical shape. There are three main steps to the process of DNA transcription.

RNA Polymerase Binds to DNA

DNA is transcribed by an enzyme called RNA polymerase. Specific nucleotide sequences tell RNA polymerase where to begin and where to end. RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA at a specific area called the promoter region.

Elongation

certain proteins called transcription factors unwind the DNA strand and allow RNA polymerase to transcribe only a single strand of DNA into a single stranded RNA polymer called messenger RNA (mRNA). The strand that serves as the template is called the antisense strand. The strand that is not transcribed is called the sense strand. Like DNA, RNA is composed of nucleotide bases. RNA however, contains the nucleotides adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil (U). When RNA polymerase transcribes the DNA, guanine pairs with cytosine and adenine pairs with uracil.

Termination

RNA polymerase moves along the DNA until it reaches a terminator sequence. At that point, RNA polymerase releases the mRNA polymer and detaches from the DNA. Since proteins are constructed in the cytoplasm of the cell by a process called translation, mRNA must cross the nuclear membrane to reach the cytoplasm. Once in the cytoplasm, mRNA along with ribosomes and another RNA molecule called transfer RNA, work together to produce proteins. Proteins can be manufactured in large quantities because a single DNA sequence can be transcribed by many RNA polymerase molecules at once.

5) What do you understand by splicing of mRNA? (2 marks) ANS: RNA splicing is an essential and precisely regulated post-transcriptional process that occurs prior to mRNA translation. It is thought that at least 70% of the approximately 30,000 genes in the human genome undergo alternative splicing and that, on average, a given gene gives rise to 4 alternatively spliced variants - encoding a total of 90-100,000 proteins which differ in their sequence and therefore, in their activities. A gene is first transcribed into a pre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA), a copy of the genomic DNA containing both introns (destined to be removed during pre-mRNA processing) and exons (destined to be retained within the mRNA in order to code the protein sequence). During RNA splicing, exons are either retained in the mRNA or targeted for removal in different combinations to create a diverse array of mRNAs from a single pre-mRNA. This process is known as alternative RNA splicing.

Types of splicing alteration observed that include exon skipping, introns retention and use of alternative splice donor or acceptor sites. These give rise to different protein is of forms in different tissues, developmental states, or disease conditions.