Dr. V. Madhu, Assistant Professor (Che.

,), JCET UNIT I ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY Definition, scope and importance of environment need for public awareness - concept of an ecosystem structure and function of an ecosystem producers, consumers and decomposers energy flow in the ecosystem ecological succession food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function of the (a) forest ecosystem (b) grassland ecosystem (c) desert ecosystem (d) aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries) Introduction to biodiversity definition: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity bio-geographical classification of India value of biodiversity: consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values Biodiversity at global, national and local levels India as a mega-diversity nation hot-spots of biodiversity threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts endangered and endemic species of India conservation of biodiversity: In-situ and ex-situ conservation of biodiversity. Field study of common plants, insects, birds. Field study of simple ecosystems pond, river, and hill slopes, etc. Environment: All biological and non biological things surrounding an organism is called an environment. It is also defined as the sum of total of water, air and land, interrelationship among themselves and also with the human beings, other living organisms and property. Environmental Science: It is the study of environment, its biotic and abiotic and their inter relationship. Environmental science will be defined as the study of the earth, air, water, and living environments, and the effects of technology thereon. Environmental Engineering: It is the application of engineering principles to the protection and enhancement of the quality of the environment and to the enhancement and protection of public health and welfare. Environmental education:
It is the process of educating the people for preserving quality environment.

Types of environment: Natural environment Man made environment

Natural environment: All natural things, biotic and abiotic are collectively called natural environment. (e.g) soil, water, tree and air. Manmade environment: Created by man Powerful engineering agent Man modifies the environment using modern technologies according to his necessity.

Classification

Component of environment as per British literature: Consist of 3 components Abiotic (or) non living Biotic (or) living Energy component

As per American literature, the components of environment are listed as 1. Hydrosphere(Water) 2. Atmosphere(Air) 3. Lithosphere(Land) 4. Biosphere(Flora/Fauna/Microbes) 5.Anthrosphere (man made things) Atmosphere: The air that covers the earth is known as atmosphere. It is 500 km from earth. It is essential for all living organisms. 78% N2, 21% O2 and 1% other gases.

Structure of atmosphere:

Troposphere (1 to 15 km) 75% atmospheric air contain moisture

Stratosphere (18 to 50 km) consists of large amount of O3 free from moisture and clouds prevents UV radiation from sun

Mesosphere (50 to 85 km) less ozone more nitrogen oxide

Function of atmosphere: 1. It maintains heat balance on the earth by absorbing the IR radiations. 2. Gases present in atmosphere are essential for sustaining life. Lithosphere: Function:
Hydrosphere:

Oxygen supports life Carbon dioxide essential for photosynthesis of plants Nitrogen essential nutrient for plant growth. It consists of soil and rock components of earth. Home for human beings and wild life. Store house of minerals and organic matter. The aquatic envelope of the earth. It includes oceans, lakes, streams,

river and water vapour. In the hydrosphere 97% of water is not suitable for drinking and only3% is fresh water.
Functions of hydrosphere:

Drinking purpose Irrigation Power production Industries and transport

Biotic or living component: (e.g) Animals, plants and micro organisms. Interaction of biological environment with physical environment is called biosphere. Flow energy across biotic and abiotic components. It plays an important role in living organisms. (e.g) solar energy, nuclear energy, geo thermal energy etc.
SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 1. This study crates awareness among the people to know about various renewable and non renewable resources of a region. The endowment or potential, pattern of utilization and the balance of various resources available for future use in the state or a country are analyzed in the study.

Biosphere: Energy component:

2. A study of environmental science is getting lot of attention not only in the field of pollution control but also to sustain the life and nature 3. It provides the knowledge about ecological system causes, effects and relationships between the components. 4. It provides necessary information about biodiversity richness and the potential dangers to the species of plants, animals and microorganism in the environment 5. This study enables one to understand the causes and consequences of natural and man induced disasters, pollutions and measures to minimize theses effects. 6. It enables one to evaluate alternative responses to environmental issues before deciding an alternative course of action. 7. This study enables environmentally literate citizens to make appropriate judgment and decisions for the protection and improvement of the earth. 8. This study exposes the problems of over pollution, health, hygiene etc and the role of arts, science and technology in eliminating the ills from the society. 9. This study tries to identify and develop appropriate and indigenous eco friendly skills and technologies to various environmental issues. In short scope of environmental studies is broad based and it encompasses a large number of areas and aspects, broadly listed below: 1. Natural Resources- their conservation and management 2. Ecology and biodiversity 3. Environmental pollution and control 4. Social issues in relation to development and environment 5. Human population and environment There are some major issues like global warming, depletion of ozone layer, dwindling forests and energy resources, loss of global biodiversity etc., that are going to affect the man kind as a whole and for that we have to think globally. Importance of Environmental Study There is a proverb If you plan for one year, plant rice, if you plan for 10 years, plant trees and if you plan for 100 years, educate people. If we wish to manage our planet earth, we have to make all the persons environmentally educated. The study of environmental science makes us understand the scientific basis for establishing a standard which can be considered acceptably safe, clean and healthy for man and natural ecosystem. World population is increasing at an alarming rate especially in developing countries. The natural resources endowment in the earth is limited. The methods and techniques of exploiting natural resources and advanced. The resources are over-exploited and there is no foresight of leaving the resources of the future generations. The unplanned exploitation of natural resources lead to pollution of all types and at all levels.

The pollution and degraded environment seriously affect the health of all living things on earth, including man. The people should take a combined responsibility for the deteriorating environment and begin to take appropriate actions to save the earth. Education and training are needed to save the biodiversity and species extinction. The urban areas, coupled with industries, are the major sources of pollution. The number and area of the protected are should be increased so as to protect the wild life. There are several environmental problems which have been solved by using environmental studies. Some of these are: a) global warming b) population problems c) depletion of ozone layer d) habitat destruction and species extinction e) energy production f) groundwater depletion and contamination

Need for public awareness Everybody should know what is happening around them. Public awareness very essential to help understand pro and con of Various advertisements, documentaries, feature films etc. are being made to be Environmental pollution cannot be removed by laws alone. Newspapers and other magazines are publishing out of lot of articles on this Government with its separate ministry- Ministry of Environment and Forest

environmental problems. telecasted on the video media.

subject. has also launched many campaigns like displaying several hoardings, posters etc.through out the country. Plantation of several trees on various occasions, especially on World The proper implementation and especially public participation are important Public participation is possible only when the public is aware about the Environment Day which falls on 5th June of every year, is undertaken on large scale aspects. ecological and environmental issues. The public has to be educated about the fact that if we are degrading our environment we are actually harming ourselves.

 Individuals of school, colleges, industries, service centers, village, urban centers etc. should realize the importance of day to day environmental issues. The individuals should practice environmental conservation principles and create awareness among family members. The individuals could expose the problems by writing in the newspapers/discuss about the environmental evils in forums and make the people to become aware of the same. There is a need to meet the people and discuss again and again, so that the problem is alive till it is eliminated. The Nongovernmental organizations, in India and abroad, are doing tremendous efforts in conserving the environment. Ecosystem Living organisms cannot be isolated from their non-living environment because the later provides materials and energy for the survival of the farmer. An ecosystem is therefore defined as a natural functional ecological unit comprising of living organisms and their non-living environment that interact to form a stable self supporting system. Eg. Pond, lake, desert, grassland, forest, etc. An Ecosystem is a group of biotic communities of species interacting with one another and with their non living environment exchanging energy and matter. In other words, it is study of the inter-relations between living organisms and their environment. The community of organisms and populations that are interacting with one another and with the chemical and physical components of their environment is called ecosystem. Ecosystem is defined as a self-sustained community of plants and animals existing in its own environment.

What is Ecology? Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms or group of organisms with their environment. The environment consists of both biotic and abiotic components. Ecology is the science that deals with the relationships between living organisms with their physical environment and with each other Ecology is concerned with the study of organisms in various habitats viz. land, oceans, fresh water, and air. Ecology can also be defined as the study of the structure and function of nature. Ecosystem Structure:

A system is an arrangement of matter so related to form a whole (unit). The living organisms (biotic community) of an area and their non-living environment function together as one unit called ecological system or ecosystem

Each ecosystem has two components i.e. Biotic and Abiotic substances. In short, ecosystem can be described as Life Support System.

What are the components of ecosystem? An ecosystem has two major components Biotic (Living) component Abiotic ( Non-Living) components

Biotic (Living) Component: It includes all living organisms of the environment. The biotic component can be divided into two major groups (basing on food preparation and dependent for food):

a) Autotrophs (Producers): Self food producing organisms are known as autotrophs. They depend on the environment for raw materials and utilize sunlight for the production of their own food, hence called as producers and

b) Heterotrophs (Consumers): These are the organisms mostly animals that cannot utilize sun light directly like autotrophs for their food preparation, because they donot have chlorophyll. Hence they consume plants and plant products produced by the autotrophs. They can also be termed as consumers.

Decomposers: These are most important group of organisms in the ecosystem.Plants and animals take birth, grow in size, mature, reproduce, then after old agethey die. These decomposers decompose the dead bodies. In absence of decomposers the earth will be packed only with dead bodies

Abiotic (Non-Living) Component: Non living components of an ecosystem include all the physical and chemical factors that influence living organisms, like air, water, soil, rocks etc. Non-living Components are essential for the living world. With no sunlight, water, air and minerals, life cannot exist. Non-living components include all the physical and chemical factors of an ecosystem that affect the living organisms. Some examples are: physical factors include- Sunlight, Temperature, Precipitation, Nature of soil, Fire and water currents. Chemical factors: Percentage of water and air in soil, salinity of water, oxygen dissolved in water, nutrients present in soil. Autotrophs (Producers) Are organisms that are capable of making their required food themselves. eg;green plants, shrubs, grasses etc. Heterotrophs (consumers) Are those organisms which depend on others for their energy requirements eg Insects, Deer, Tiger ,Cat etc. Decomposers: The organisms which derive their nutrition by breaking down the complex organic molecules to simpler organic compounds and ultimately into inorganic nutrients are called decomposers. Example: Bacteria, Fungi etc. List any 2 characteristics of ecosystem. Ecosystem is the major ecological unit. It consists of both biotic and abiotic components. Through the biotic and abiotic components nutrtient cycle and energy flow occur.

Energy Flow in Ecosystem: Energy is the capacity to do work. Solar energy is transformed into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis, and is stored in plant tissue and then transformed into mechanical and heat forms during metabolic activities. The energy, in the biological world, flows from the sun to plants and then to all heterotrophic organisms such as microorganisms, animals and man. The flow of energy from producer level to top consumer level is called energy flow. The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional. The study of energy transfer at different trophic level is known as 'Bioenergetics'

Food Chain: The transfer of food energy from its source in plants through a series of organisms where eating and being eaten is repeated a number of times are called food chain. Plants by photosynthesis convert solar energy into protoplasm. Small herbivores consume the vegetable matter and convert into animal matter which in turn eaten by large carnivores. This sequence of eaten and being eaten, produces transfer of food energy known as food chain.

The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain. The transfer of food energy from its source in plants through a series of organisms where eating and being eaten is repeated a number of times are called food chain Grazing food chain Grazing food chain starts with green plants and goes to decomposer food chain through herbivores and carnivores. Detritus food chain Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter and goes to decomposer food chain through herbivores and carnivores. Parasitic Food Chain: This type of food chain starts from big hosts and ends with parasitic organisms. Significance of Food Chains Food chain studies help, Understanding the feeding relationships and the interaction between organisms in any ecosystem. Comprehend the energy flow mechanism and matter circulation in ecosystems. Understand the movement of toxic substances and the problem of 'Biological magnification' in the ecosystem. Analyse the biological diversity in an ecosystem. Food Web: The food relationship between various organisms is being depicted by linking all the possible prey and predators of different food level. In an ecosystem linking of feeding habit relations will provide a food web. Food web is the interlocking pattern of various food chains in an ecosystem

Ecological succession The progressive replacement of one community by another till the development of stable community in a particular area is called Ecological succession. Biological Magnification Certain harmful substances, usually ones not found in nature but introduced by man, may get into plants and/or animals. These poisonous substances may not be broken down in the body or excreted easily, efficiently and quickly. Instead, they accumulate in the tissues, and as the living organism eats more, the concentration of these substances increases and they pass from one trophic level to the next. Since man is an omnivore and has access to all trophic levels for food, he gets the toxic substances into his body in large amounts. Secondary and tertiary consumers located on top of the food chain also get the poison into their body, and accumulate in large concentrations. This phenomenon is called 'Biological magnification'. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS: The graphical representation of structure and functions of tropic levels of an ecosystem, starting with the producer at the base and each successive trophic level forming the top is known as ecological pyramids. The energy biomass and number of organisms gradually decreases from the producer level to the consumer level. The total mass of herbivores in an ecosystem will generally be less than the total mass of plants. Similarly the total mass of carnivores will be less than the total mass of herbivores. The graphical representation of the number, biomass and energy of various energy levels is called ecological pyramid. In any ecological pyramid the producer forms the base and the successive levels form the tires which can make the top.

Types of ecological pyramids: pyramid of numbers pyramid of biomass

 pyramid of energy Pyramid of number: It depicts the number of individual organisms at different trophic levels of food chain. Cycles: The circulation of the chemical elements in its biosphere from the environment to organisms and back to the environment is called cycle Name any four Ecosystems. (A.U. June 2006) Forest Ecosystem Grassland Ecosystem Desert Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem FOREST ECOSYSTEM Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild animals Types: tropical deciduous, evergreen, wet green Littoral and swamps Sub tropical Characteristics: Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc Biotic : forest trees, shrubs and animals Structure: Producer : trees and shrubs Consumer : Primary elephants, deer etc. Secondary snakes, birds, lizards etc Tertiary lions, tigers etc Decomposers : fungi, bacteria

Desert Ecosystem Desert occupies 17 % of land. Structure of Desert Ecosystem: Abiotic components include, light, temperature, minerals. Biotic Components Producers : These are shrubs, especially bushes, some grasses, and few trees. E.g. Cacti, Xerophytes, mosses Consumers: The most common animals are reptiles, and insects, there are some rodents, and birds, and above all ship of desert camels, feed on tender plants. Decomposers: These are very few as due to poor vegetation the amount of dead organic matter is less. They are some fungi and bacteria. GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM: Dominated by grass few shrubs and trees are also found rainfall average but erratic overgrazing leads to desertification. Three types depending on the climate 1. Tropical grass lands found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg. Savannas in Africa. Animals Zebra, giraffes etc. fires are common in dry seasons termite mounds produce methane leads to fire high in photosynthesis deliberate burning leads to release of high CO2 global warming. 2. Temperate grasslands flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and very hot summer - dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow soil is quite fertile cleaned for agriculture. 3. Polar grasslands found in arctic polar region organism arctic wolf, fox, etc. A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the year known as permafrost summer insects and birds appear.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM Definition: Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as fresh water and marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic ecosystems. Types: 1. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem seasonal in nature organisms: algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often exposed to anthropogenic pressure like cloth washing, bathing, cattle bathing, swimming etc. 2. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem Zonation or stratification, especially during summer is a common one.

Bio-Geo- Chemical Cycles Nutrients, unlike energy are recycled in the ecosystem. The Producers of an ecosystem take up several basic nutrients from their non-living ecosystem. Materials are in limited quantity in the earths system and to keep the system going continuously, these materials get transformed into biomass of the producers. Thus they are utilized by the consumer population and are ultimately returned to the environment with the help of reducers or decomposers. The unique method evolved in nature is recycling materials continuously is by linking them in cycle changes. This cyclic exchange of nutrient material between the living organisms & their nonliving environment is called Bio-Geochemical cycle.

The movement or circulation of biogenetic nutrients through the living and nonliving components of the biosphere or of any ecosystem is called biogeochemical cycling Schematic diagram for bio-geo- chemical cycles

Hydrological Cycle The natural flow of water through various components of environment resulting in the global circulation is called water cycle. Steps in Hydrological Cycle: Evaporation: Surface water is heated by sun and evaporates to become water vapour, water vapour floats in the air. Condensation: As water vapour rises into the air it gradually cools and condenses and become minute droplet of water. Clouds: Tiny droplets of water together form clouds. Precipitation: The fall of water on earth surface in any form of water it may be in the form of dew, drizzle, rain is known as precipitation. Runoff: Precipitated rain water accumulates and flows on the surface and subsurfaces towards rivers, streams, and underground stores and ultimately reaches to sea. Percolation & infiltration: The process of stored water flowing under earth, merge to the ground water source is called percolation and infiltration Transpiration: The water which directly evaporates from leaves of plants is called Transpiration. Completion of Cycle: All the water bodies continues its journey towards the natural slope and meet the sea where the cycle starts again.

Carbon Cycle: Carbon dioxide gas is emitted from various natural and anthropogenic sources such as volcanic eruptions, burning forests, decomposition of carbonates, factories & Automobile exhausts, during respiration by humans and plants. The plants consume carbon dioxide during the process of photosynthesis. The major reservoir for carbon dioxide are in oceans, carbon dioxide dissolves readily in water. On land and in water, plants take up carbon dioxide and convert it into carbohydrates during the process of photosynthesis. 6CO2 + 6H20 C6 H12 O6 + 6 CO2 The plants are eaten by animals and when plants & animals die the carbon content in the organic matter again return to the soil with the help of decomposers.

Idealized diagram illustrating photosynthesis for a green plant (tree) and generalized reaction

Nitrogen Cycle:
Nitrogen comprises 78.08 % of the atmosphere making it the largest constituent of the gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth. Nitrogen is a part of vital organic compounds in microrganisms, such as amino acids, proteins and DNA. Nitrogen in the air becomes a part of biological matter mostly through the actions of bacteria and algae in a process known as nitrogen fixation. In plants, Nitrogen fixing bacteria take nitrogen from the air and convert it into ammonia, NH3

The ammonia is further converted by other bacteria first into nitrite ions, NO2-, and then into nitrate ions, NO3-. Plants utilize the nitrate ions as a nutrient or fertilizer for growth Nitrogen is incorporate in many amino acids which are further reacted to make proteins. To complete the cycle other bacteria in the soil carry out a process known as denitrification which converts nitrates back to nitrogen gas.

Phosphorus Cycle: Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals in the form of ions PO43- and HPO42-. It is a part of DNA-molecules, of molecules that store energy (ATP and ADP) and of fats of cell membranes. Phosphorus is also a building block of certain parts of the human and animal body, such as the bones and teeth. Phosphorus can be found on earth in water, soil and sediments. Phosphorus is most commonly found in rock formations and ocean sediments as phosphate salts. Phosphate salts that are released from rocks through weathering usually dissolve in soil water and will be absorbed by plants. Animals absorb phosphates by eating plants or plant-eating animals. When animals and plants die, phosphates will return to the soils or oceans again during decay. After that, phosphorus will end up in sediments or rock formations again, remaining there for millions of years. Eventually, phosphorus is released again through weathering and the cycle starts over.

Sulfur Cycle Sulphur is one of the components that make up proteins and vitamins. Proteins consist of amino acids that contain sulphur atoms. Sulphur is important for the functioning of proteins and enzymes in plants, and in animals that depend upon plants for sulphur. Plants absorb sulphur when it is dissolved in water. Animals consume these plants, so that they take up enough sulphur to maintain their health. Most of the earth's sulphur is tied up in rocks and salts or buried deep in the ocean in oceanic sediments. Sulphur can also be found in the atmosphere. It enters the atmosphere through both natural and human sources. Natural recourses can be for instance volcanic eruptions, bacterial processes, evaporation from water, or decaying organisms. When sulphur enters the atmosphere through human activity, this is mainly a consequence of industrial processes where sulphur dioxide (SO2) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gases are emitted on a wide scale.

When sulphur dioxide enters the atmosphere it will react with oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide gas (SO3), or with other chemicals in the atmosphere, to produce sulphur salts. Sulphur dioxide may also react with water to produce sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Sulphuric acid may also be produced from dimethylsulphide, which is emitted to the atmosphere by plankton species.

All these particles will settle back onto earth, or react with rain and fall back onto earth as acid deposition. The particles will than be absorbed by plants again and are released back into thatmosphere, so that the sulphur cycle will start over again.

Oxygen Cycle:
Oxygen is the second most abundant gas in Earths atmosphere The oxygen cycle starts off in plants. Plants are able to use the energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen in a process called photosynthesis.

Plants breathe in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen When the water in a steam enters a pond, microorganisms in the pond begin to break down organic matter, consuming oxygen in the process. Animals form the other half of the oxygen cycle. We breathe in oxygen which we use to break carbohydrates down into energy in a process called respiration. Animals breathe that oxygen and both plants and animals use the sugars for energy

Role of IT in Environment Remote sensing techniques Information about minerals, forest fires, endangered species, quality of water, etc. Weather forecasting Biotechnology, Bioengineering, Genome sequencing, DNA database, etc. Study of environmental changes STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS AND BIRDS Biodiversity or the variability among plants, animals and microbes found on this earth is just remarkable and has tremendous potential in terms of its consumptive, productive, social and ecological value. It is worthwhile to know about some common plants, insects and birds of our locality. Plants Study the common plants of your locality, including trees, shrubs and herbs. You can study them mainly in relation to their value. a) Medicinal plants: Local people often have indigenous knowledge about the medicinal value of various plants. Find out which of the plants in your locality have medicinal value? b) Timber wood trees: Note down the important trees of your locality which yield timber wood. c) Miscellaneous: Note down the names of plants which have other uses like producing gum, resins, tannin, dye, rubber, fiber etc. Insects: Identify some common insects of your locality Which may be spreading diseases Which are crop-pests or animal pests

 Which help in pollination of ornamental/crop flowers? Birds: Identify some common birds of your locality. Find out how some of them are useful to us and some cause damage to our crops/fruits. Observe small birds with long beaks pollinating flowers. Observe the birds in the plough-field seating insects/leaves.

BIODIVERSITY Objectives: To learn the concept of Biodiversity To understand various types of biodiversity To ascertain the value and importance of biodiversity To know the Indian context of Biodiversity To absorb various threat perceptions to the biodiversity To know the remedial measures for preserving the biodiversity Definition of Biodiversity: Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem complexes in which they occur. (or) Biodiversity means the variety and variability of all living organisms. Types of biodiversity or Levels of biodiversity: Biodiversity is at three levels Genetic Diversity, Species Diversity and Ecosystem Diversity. Genetic Biodiversity: Genetic biodiversity means the variation of genes within a species. It is basic source of biodiversity. The genes found in organisms can form enormous number of combinations each of which gives rise to some variability. Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one generation to other. When the genes within the same species show different versions due to new combinations, it is called genetic variability. For example, all rice varieties belong to the species Oryza sativa, but there are thousands of wild and cultivated varieties of rice which show variations at the genetic level and differ in their colour, size, shape, aroma and nutrient content of the grain. This is genetic diversity of rice. Species Biodiversity: Species biodiversity means variety of species within a region. This is the variability found within the population of a species or between different pecies of a community. Ecosystem Biodiversity:

Ecosystem biodiversity refers to variety of ecosystem in a particular region or zone as for example various ecosystems include forests, wetlands, arid zones,deserts etc. All these have their own fauna and flora (biodiversity). This is the diversity of ecological complexity showing variations in ecological niches, tropic structure, food-webs, nutrient cycling etc. The ecosystems also show variations with respect to physical parameters like moisture, temperature, altitude precipitation etc. Biogeoporahical Classification of India: India has different types of climate and topography in different parts of the country and these variations have induced enormous variability in flora and fauna. India has a rich heritage of biological diversity and occupies the tenth position among the plant rich nations of the world. There are ten different bio-geographic habitats in India. 1. Trans-Himalayan Upper regions 2. Himalayan North-West Himalayas, West, Central and East Himalayas 3. Desert Kutch, Thar and Ladakh 4. Semi-Arid Central India, Gujarat-Rajwara 5. Western Ghats Malabar Coast, Western Ghat Mountains 6. Deccan Peninsula Deccan Plateau South, Central, Eastern, Chhota Nagpur 7. Gangetic Plain Upper Ganetic Plain, Lower Gangetic Plain 8. North-East India Brahmaputra Valley, North Eastern Hills 9. Islands Andaman Islands, Nicobar Islands, Laskhadweep etc. 10. Coasts- West Coast and East Coast Value of Biodiversity: Biodiversity in terms of its commercial utility, ecological service, social and aesthetic value has enormous importance. The multiple uses of biodiversity is classified as follows: 1. Consumptive use value: These include direct use values where the biodiversity product can be harvested and consumed directly e.g. fuel, food, drugs, fiber etc. Food: A large number of wild plants and shrubs are consumed by human beings as food. About 80000 edible plants species have been reported from wild. About 90% of present day food crops have been domesticated from wild tropical plants. Even now our agricultural scientists make us of the existing wild species of plants that are closely related to our crop plants for developing new hardy strains. A large number of wildanimals are also our sources of food. Drugs and medicines: About 75% of the worlds population depends upon plants or plant extracts for medicines. The wonder drug Penicillin used as anantibiotic is derived from a fungus called Penicillium. Likewise, we get Tetracyclin from a bacterium. Quinine, the cure for malaria is obtained from the bark of Cinchona tree Digitalin is obtained from foxglove (Digitalis) which is an effective cure for heart ailments.

 Fuel:

Recently vinblastin and vincristine, two anticancer drugs, have been obtained from Periwinkle (Catharanthus) plant, which possesses anticancer alkaloids. A large number of marine animals are supposed to possess anti-cancer properties which are yet to be explored systematically. Our forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are also products of fossilized biodiversity. Fire wood collected by individuals are directly consumed by tribals and local villagers

2. Productive use values: These are the commercially usable values where the product is marketed and sold. It may include lumber or wild gene resources that can be traded for use by scientists for introducing desirable traits in the crops and domesticated animals. These may include the animal products like tusks of elephants, musk from musk deer, silk from silk-worm, wool from sheep, fir of many animals, lac from lac insects etc, all of which are traded in the market. Many industries are dependent upon productive use values of biodiversity e.g.paper and pulp industry, plywood industry, Railway sleeper industry, Silkindustry, textile industry, ivory-works, leather industry, pearl industry etc. Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered species, smuggling of fur, hide, horns, tusks, live specimen etc. 3. Social value: These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and psychospiritual aspects of the people. Many of the plants are considered holy and sacred in our country like Tulsi( Holy basil), Peepal, Mango, Lotus, Bael etc. The leaves, fruits or flowers of these plants are used in workshipor the plant itself is worshipped. The tribal people are very closely linked with the wild life in the forests. Their social life, songs, dances and customs are closely woven around the wildlife. Many animals like Cow, Snake, Bull, Peacock, Owletc. also have significant place in our psycho-spiritual arena and thus hold special social importance. Thus biodiversity has distinct social value, attached with different societies. 4. Ethical value: It is also sometimes known as existence value. It involves ethical issues like all life must be preserved. It is based on the concept of Liveand Let Live. 5. Aesthetic value: Great aesthetic value is attached to biodiversity. Ecotourism is estimated to generate about 12 billion dollars of revenue annually that roughly gives the aesthetic value of biodiversity. 6. Option value: These values include the potential of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need to be explored. There is a possibility that we may have some potential cure for AIDS or cancer existing within the depths of a marine ecosystem, or a tropical rain forest.

The option value also includes the values, in terms of the option to visit areas where a variety of flora and fauna, or specifically some endemic, rare or endangered species exist. 7. Ecosystem service value: Recently, a non-consumptive use value related to self maintenance of the ecosystem and various important ecosystem services has been recognized. It refers to the services provided by ecosystems like prevention of soil erosion, prevention of floods maintenance of soil fertility, cycling of nutrients, fixation of nitrogen, cycling of water, their role as carbon sinks, pollutant absorption and reduction of the threat of global warming etc. Different categories of biodiversity value clearly indicate that ecosystem, species and genetic diversity all have enormous potential and a decline in biodiversity will lead to huge economic, ecological and socio-cultural losses. Global Biodiversity: All the three levels (Genetic Diversity, Species Diversity and Ecosystem Diversity) are linked and constitute a gene pool. The 1992, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development at Rio put biological diversity on the international agenda by signing the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This convention addresses many issues ranging from forests, agriculture to Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs). The success of convention can be evaluated in two main ways a) By analyzing the changes in biodiversity components (i.e. species and ecosystems) b) by measuring the effectiveness of measures taken to implement the convention. The present scientific reports quote about 13 to 14 million species on earth, but about 2 million species are discovered. According to the Worldwide Fund for Nature, scientists have identified about 14 million having species. Of these around 10.3 million are animals and 248000 are higher plants. But human knowledge of the worlds biodiversity is still not complete. Higher plants have also been fairly well studied but it is possible that15 percent more may still be discovered. Biological Diversity at National Level (Indian Biodiversity): Every country is characterized by its own biodiversity depending mainly on its climate. India has a rich biological diversity of flora and fauna. Overall six percent of the global species are found in India. It is estimated that India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries of the world 11th in terms of number of endemic species of higher vertebrates 6th among the centers of diversity and origin of agricultural crops. Total number of living species identified in our country is 150000. Out of a total 25 biodiversity hot-spots in the world, India possesses two, one in the north-eastregion and one in the Western Ghats. Indian is also one of the 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world.

Biological Diversity at Local Level: Tamil nadu has rich biological diversity which consists of 5 national parks, 20 wild life sanctuaries and 2 Biosphere reserves Some important locations in tamil nadu are 1. Anamalai wild life sanctuary 2. Mudumalai wild life sanctuary 3. Mundanthurai wild life sanctuary 4. Vedanthangal birds sanctuary 5. Guindy national park 6. Chennai Crocodile bank 7. Kanthankulam birda bank 8. Kalakkadu wild life sanctuary 9. Parambikulam sanctuary India as a Mega-Diversity Nation: India is one of the 12 mega-diversity countries in the world. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India (2000) records 47000 species of plants and 81000 species of animals which is about 7% and 6.5% respectively of global flora and fauna. About 62% of amphibians and 50% of Lizards are endemic in india Western ghats are the site of maximum endemism. Among the flowering plants 5000 species are there in india thus from agro-diversity point of view. India has been the center of origin of 166 species of crop plants and 320 species of cultivated crops. Agro-species present in india are rice, sugarcane, banana, tea, cucumber, jackfruit, turmeric, etc. Number of rare species such as royal Bengal tiger, the india elephant, Asia lion gir, White tiger of Rewa, are exclusively found in sun cotinenet. Indian forests cover 64.01 million hectares having rich biodiversity of plants in the Trans-Himalayan, north-west, west, central and eastern Himalayan forests, western ghats, coasts, deserts, Gangetic plains, deccan plateau and the Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands. Due to very diverse climatic conditions there is a complete colourful spectrum of biodiversity in our country. Human population further contributes to make india a mega diversity nation. Hot- Spots of Biodiversity: Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are termed as hot spots of biodiversity. Species which are restricted only to particular areas are known as endemic. India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are endemic to India. There are 25 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global level out of which two are present in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. These hotspots covering less than 2% of the worlds land area are found to have about 50% of the terrestrial biodiversity.

(a)

Eastern Himalayas: Eastern Himalayas comprises Nepal, Bhutan, and neighboring states of Nothern India They display an ultra-varies topography that fosters species diversity and endemism. Its estimated that the Eastern Himalayas consists of about 9000 plant species, with 3500 endemic plants. Among that at least 55 flowring plants endemic to this area are recognised as rare. Regarding the animals, about 63% mammals are found in Eastern Himalayas and 60% of indian birds are recorded in the north Eastern region. (b) Western Ghats: It extends along a 17000 km strip of forests in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala and has 40% of the the total endemic plant species. The major centers of diversity are Agastyamalai Hills and Silent valley- the new Amambalam Reserve Basin. It is reported that only 6.8% of the original forests are existing today while the rest has been deforested or degraded. As regards the fauna, as many as 315 species of vertebrates belonging to 22 genus are endemic. There are 117 species of amphibians in the region of which 89 species are endemic. Of the 165 species of reptiles found in western ghats 88 species are endemic. Threats to Biodiversity: Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution. The process of extinction has become particularly fast in the recent years of civilization. In the century the human impact has been so severe that thousands of species and varieties are becoming extinct annually. One of the estimates by the noted ecologist puts figure of extinction at 10000 species per year or 27 per day. Loss of habitat Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single largest cause of biodiversity loss. Billions of hectares of forests and grasslands have been cleared over the past 10000 years for conservation into agriculture lands, pastures, settlement areas or development projects. There has been a rapid disappearance of tropical forests in our country also, at arate of about 0.6% per year. The habitat loss are mainly caused by 1. Deforestation activities 2. Various development activities and projects 3. Agriculture activities 4. Population explosion 5. construction of dam 6. discharge of industrial effluents use of pesticides. 7. Illegal trade of wild life 8. Human activities such as grazing and hunting Poaching:

Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals i.e. poaching is another threat to wildlife. Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered species, smuggling of wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live specimens and herbal products worth millions of dollars per year continues.

Man-Wildlife Conflicts: We have discussed about the need to preserve and protect wildlife. However, sometimes we come across conflicting situations when wildlife starts causing immense damage and danger to man and under such conditions it becomes very difficult for the forest department to pacify the affected villages and gain local support for wildlife conservation. Instances of man animal conflicts keep on coming to lime light from severalstates in our country. In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were killed in the last 5years by elephants. In retaliation the villagers killed 95 elephants in the border region of KoteChamarajanagar belt in Mysore have been reported recently. Theman-elephant conflict in this region has arisen because of massive damage done by the elephants to the farmers cotton and sugarcane crops. The agonized villagers electrocute the elephants and sometimes hide explosives in the sugarcane fields, which explode as the elephants intrude into their fields. Very recently in June, 2004 two men were killed by leopards in Powai, Mumbai. A total of 14 persons were killed during 19 attacks since January by the leopards from the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai which has triggered a panic among the local residents. Causes of Man-animal conflicts: Decreasing habitats of tigers, elephants, rhinos and bears due to shrinking forests cover are compelled to move outside the forests and attack the field or sometimes even humans. Very often the villagers put electric wiring around their ripe crop fields. The elephants get injured, suffer in pain and turn violent. Remedial Measures to Curb the Conflict: Tiger Conservation Project (TCP) has made provisions for making available vehicles, tranquillizer guns, binoculars and radio sets etc. to tactfully deal with any imminent danger. Adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation scheme must be started, along with substantial cash compensation for loss of human life. Solar powered fencing should be provided along with electric current proof trenches to prevent the animals from straying into fields. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders and adequate fodder, fruit and water should be made available for the elephants within forest zones. Endangered species: A species is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical level. Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction Or A species present in such small numbers that it is at risk of extinction (disappearance).

Endemic species The species which are found only in a particular region are known as Endemic species Conservation of biodiversity: The enormous value of biodiversity due to their genetic, commercial, medical, aesthetic, ecological and optional importance emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity. There are two approaches to biodiversity conservation: (1) In situ conservation (within habitat): This is achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna in nature itself e.g. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve Forests etc (2) Ex situ conservation (outside habitats): This is done by establishment of gene banks, seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collection etc.