Waves and Sound

8 Mechanical Waves

Types of Wave

1. Mechanical waves are produced by a disturbance in a material medium and are

transmitted by the particles of the medium vibrating to and fro.
2. Such waves can be seen or felt and include waves on a rope or spring, water waves
and sound waves etc.
3. A progressive or traveling waves is a disturbance that carries energy form one place
to another without transferring matter. There are 2 types; transverse and longitudinal.
4. In a transverse wave the direction of the disturbance is at right angles to the direction
of the wave.
5. A transverse wave can be generated by fixing a rope on one end and moving the other
end rapidly up and down. The disturbance generated by the hand is passed along from
one part of the rope to the next which performs the same motion but slightly later.
6. In longitudinal waves, the disturbance is along the direction of the waves and is made
of compressions and rarefactions.

Describing waves

7. Terms to describe waves

can be explained using a
Displacement- distance
graph.
8. The wavelength (lamda)
is the distance between 2
successive crests
9. The frequency is the
number of complete
waves generated per
second. E.g. the end of a
rope is jerked up and
down twice every second,
two waves are produced a
second. The frequency is
2 waves per second or 2Undisturbed
position
Hz. The frequency of the
source is equal to the
frequency of the wave.
10. The frequency can also be defined as the number of waves passing a chosen point per
second.
11. The speed (v) of the wave is the distance moved by a crest in 1 second.
12. The amplitude (a) is the height of a crest or the depth of a trough measured from the
undisturbed position.
13. The Phase is the directions of the vibrations of parts of the wave.
14. If two points have the same speed in the same direction they are in phase. If points
have opposite directions of vibrations then they are out of phase.

The wave equation

15. The speed of the wave = frequency * wavelength.

The ripple tank

16. The behavior of waves can be studied in a ripple tank. It consists of a transparent tray
containing water, having a lamp over it and a white screen below to receive the wave
images.
17. Pulses of ripples are obtained by dipping a finger for circular waves or a ruler for
straight ones.
18. Continuous ripples are produced by an electric motor on a bar which gives straight
ripples.
19. The ripples can be studied more easily by observing them through a stroboscope. The
speed of the stroboscope is such that the waves advance one wave length each time a
slit passes your eye, and then the waves appear at rest.

Reflection
20. waves follow the same laws of reflection as light
a. The angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
b. The incident wave, the normal and the reflected wave all lie in the same plane.
21. If straight waves hit a bar placed at 60 degrees, then the angle of incidence is 30
degrees as the angle between the wave front and the strip is also 60 degrees.

Refraction

22. If a part of the ripple tank is made shallower, with a glass block, then the wavelength
is smaller but the frequency doesn’t change so the wave is slower. In the shallower
area.
23. When a glass block is put in an angle to the straight waves then the waves bend
towards the normal. The wavelength is smaller but the frequency remains the same
because the frequency is equal to the frequency of the source.

Diffraction

24. If straight waves pass through a small gap, smaller than the wave length, then they
become circular and spread out in all directions.
25. If the gap is wider than the wavelength, then the waves travel straight on. Spreading
occurs but it is less obvious.
Interference

26. When two sets of continuous circular waves cross in a ripple tank this pattern is
obtained.
27. When the crest from s1 arrive at the same time as the crest
from s2, a larger crest is formed and the waves are said to be
in phase.
28. When a crest and a trough meet, they cancel out each others
amplitude and the water is at rest. The waves are out of phase
because the they have opposite direction of vibrations.
29. Interference or superposition is the combination of waves to
give a larger or smaller wave.
30. A steady interference pattern is obtained with water waves
because in a ripple tank because both sets of waves have the
same frequency and wavelength are exactly in phase when they leave their sources.
They are said to be coherent.

Polarization

31. This effect occurs with only transverse waves.

32. If transverse waves are created in all directions only the vertical one can pass through
a vertical slit. The wave is said to be polarized vertically.
33. If a horizontal slit is used afterward, the wave is stops.
34. Between the two slits, the wave is plane polarized, in this case vertical.
35. The vertical and the horizontal slits are said to be crossed.

Questions

1. a. 5 waves lengths with a combined wavelength of 5cm, so 1 wave has a wavelength

of 1cm.
b. In 5 seconds, 5 waves are passing through a point so in 1 second 1 wave is passing
through that point so the frequency is 1Hz.
c. The speed is 1*1= 1cm/s
2. During refraction of a wave, the speed and wavelength changes, but the frequency
stay the same because the frequency of the source is equal to the frequency of the
wave.
3. a. It is not circular because the speed of the wave is different in all directions because
the depth is different.
b. Side AB has been raised because the ripples travel more slowly towards it so it is
shallower.
4. a. A trough
b. (i) 2cm, (ii)10cm/s, (iii) 5 Hz
c. 2 pencils 3 cm away from each other.
5. Diffraction takes place and refraction, (the speed of the ripples is more and the wave
length is greater, but it doesn’t bend to any direction because the waves are arriving at
the normal).
9 Electromagnetic radiation

Electromagnetic Spectrum
1. The electromagnetic spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared light, visible light,
ultraviolet light, x rays, and gamma rays. Visible light, which makes up only a tiny fraction of the
electromagnetic spectrum, is the only electromagnetic radiation that humans can perceive with their
eyes.

Type of Wave Source

Radio waves Radio transmitting tower
Microwaves Microwaves ovens
Infra red Electric fires
Light Sun
Ultra violet Mercury lamps
X rays X ray tube
Gamma rays Radioactive source (uranium)

2. All electromagnetic waves are caused by electrons in atoms undergoing an energy

change.

Properties

3. All types of electromagnetic waves travel through space at 300,000,000 m/s, i.e. with
the speed of light.
4. They exhibit interference, diffraction and polarization, which suggests they have a
transverse waves.
5. They obey the equation v = f* lamda.
6. They carry energy from one place to another and can be absorbed by matter to cause
heating and other effects. The frequency and the smaller the wavelength, the greater
the energy carried. Therefore gamma rays have the most energy.
7. This can be shown by the photoelectric effect, in which electrons are emitted when a
electromagnetic wave falls on metals. As the frequency of the wave increases, so does
the speed (and energy) with which electrons are emitted.
8. Because of its electrical origin, its ability to travel through space and its wave like
properties, electromagnetic radiation is termed as progressive transverse waves.
9. The wave is a combination of electric and magnetic field which vary in value and are
directed at right angles to each other and to the direction of the wave.

Light Waves
10. Red light has the longest wavelength, around 0.0007mm and violet light has the
shortest wavelength, around, 0.004 mm.
11. Light of one color is known as monochromatic light.
12. It is the frequency of light that decides its color, rather than its wavelength, which is
different in different media, as its speed.
13. Different frequencies of light, travel at different speed through a transparent media
and so are refracted by different amounts.
14. The refractive index of a material depends on the wavelength of light. (if they travel
at different speeds, then their wave lengths are different, connects with the wave
formula).
15. The amplitude of light (or any other) wave depends on the intensity of the sources, i.e
the brighter it is in the case of light.

Infrared radiation
16. Our bodies detect infrared radiation, by its heating effect on the skin. It is sometimes
called heat radiation.
17. Any thing that gets hot, but below 500 degrees emits IR alone.
18. At 500 degrees, objects become red hot, and emit IR (as well as red light).
19. At 1500 degrees, things emit white light and IR.
20. IR is also detected by special temperature sensitive photographic film, which allows
photographs to be taken in the dark.
21. IR sensors are used by satellites and aircraft for weather forecasting and land use,
assessing heat loss from buildings and locating victims of an earthquake.
22. It is also used for drying paint on cars and more treating muscle injuries, and in
remote controls for interacting with the programs.

Ultraviolet radiation
23. UV rays have a shorter wavelength than light. They cause sun tan, help with the
production vitamin D and cancer.
24. Dark skin is able to absorb more UV, reducing the amount reaching the lower tissues.
25. You can protect yourselves by using sunglasses and suntan lotion.
26. UV causes fluorescent paints and clothes washed in some detergents to fluoresce.
27. They reradiate the energy that they received from UV as light.
28. This can be used to find invisible signatures.
29. UV lamps used for scientific purposes have mercury vapor which gives out UV when
current passes through it.
30. Fluorescent lamps also work in a similar way. But they have chemicals called
phosphors, which radiate the energy as light.

Radio waves
31. They have the longest wavelengths of all electromagnetic radiation.
32. They are used to send images, sound and other information across long distances.
a. Long, medium and short waves (2km to 10m): These diffract around hills
and are received on the other side. They are also reflected by the
ionosphere, long range radio is made possible.
b. VHF &UHF wave (10m to 10cm): These are short wave length waves,
which needs a straight, clear line path to the receiver. They are not
reflected by the ionosphere and are used for local radio and television.
c. Microwaves (a few cms): These are used for international
telecommunications, television relay via geostationary satellites, for
mobile phones and low orbital satellites. The microwave signals are send
form dish antennas through the ionosphere, amplified by satellites and
then send back to any part of the world.
i. They are also used for radar and cooking since they cause water
molecules to heat up. Living cells are also killed for this reason.

X rays
33. These are produced when high speed electrons are stopped by metal in X-ray tubes.
They have smaller wavelengths than UV.
34. They are absorbed to some extent by living cells and they affect photographic film.
35. With materials such as bone and teeth, they form shadow images, which is used for
medical and industrial purposes.
36. X ray machines needed to be shielded with lead since normal body cells are killed by
them, and smaller doses cause cancer.
37. Gamma rays are more penetrating and dangerous than x rays. They are used to kill
cancer cells and bacteria on surgical instruments and food.

Questions

1a. 0.7um
b. 0.4um

2a. radio waves have the longest wavelengths.

b. X-rays

3a. UV
b. microwaves
c. gamma rays
d. IR
e. microorganisms
f. ray diagrams

4.a. 300000000m/s / 100000000hz = 3m

b. 60000/300000 = 0.0002 s

10 Sound Waves

Origin and transmission of Sound

1. All sources of sound have a part that vibrates. A guitar has strings that vibrate and we
have vocal cords inside the voice box.
2. The sound is carried through the air and into our ears. The air is important, as sound
requires a material medium for it to be transmitted.
3. Sound also gives interference and diffraction effects.
4. Because of this and its other properties, sound is a form of energy which travels as a
longitudinal progressive.

Longitudinal waves

Waves on a spring

5. In progressive longitudinal waves, the particles of the medium vibrate to and fro to
the direction of the wave.
6. A longitudinal wave can be sent through a spring, by repeated pushing and pulling
one end.

Sound waves
7. Sound waves are made of compressions and rarefactions.
8. A Speaker has a cone which is made to vibrate by electricity. When the cone moves
forwards, the air in front is compressed. When the cone moves back, the air is
rarefied.
9. The wave progresses through the air, but the air as a whole does not move. The air
particles vibrate backwards and forward a little as the wave passes.
10. When the wave enters your ear, the compressions and rarefactions cause small rapid
pressure changes on the eardrum and you experience the sensation of sound.
11. The number of compressions produced per second is the frequency, and this is equal
to the frequency of the source.
12. The distance between 2 successive compressions is the wavelength.
13. As in transverse waves, speed = frequency * lamda.
The ear
14. Outer ear: The ear canal collects and directs the sound waves on a thin membrane
called the eardrum. The ear drum vibrates at the same frequency as the sound waves.
15. The middle ear: This contains 3 tiny boney, the outer most (ossicles) joined to the ear
drum and the innermost fits into a small hole called the oval window. When the
eardrum vibrates so does the 3 bones.
16. The inner ear: the vibrations from the ossicles are passed on to the sensitive part of
the ear. This is a fluid in a coiled tube called the cochlea containing auditory nerve
endings which send off impulses to the brain when the fluid in the cochlea vibrates.
17. Never endings in the beginning of the cochlea respond to high frequency sound, and
the nerve ending in the back of the cochlea respond to low frequency sound. This way
the brain can distinguish them.
18. Humans can only hear sounds from the frequency of 20Hz to 20000Hz. These are the
limits of audibility and the upper limit comes down with age.
19. The semicircular canals are not concerned with hearing. The information from them,
allows us to stay balanced.
20. A hearing aid can be used to send an amplified sound to the eardrum when someone
can hear only quite loud sounds.
21. If the ear drum or middle ear has worse damage, an aid can transfer sound directly to
the cochlea through the skull bones.
22. Deafness occurs when the cochlea or auditory nerves are damaged.

Reflection and echoes

23. Sound waves are reflected well from hard flat surfaces, such as walls or cliffs and
they obey the same laws of reflection as light. The reflected sound forms an echo.
24. If the reflecting surface is less than 15 meters from the source of the sound, then the
echo joins up with the original sound, which then seems to be prolonged. This is
called reverberation.
25. It is desirable a bit in concert halls to stop it sounding dead, but too much can cause
confusion.

Speed of sound.

26. The speed of sound depends on the medium. It is more in solids than liquids or gases.
27. The speed of sound in air is 330m/s.
28. In air the speed increases with temperature, and at high altitudes, when the
temperature is lower the decreases,
29. Changes in atmospheric pressure don’t change the speed.
30. An estimate of the speed of sound can be made if you stand 100 meters from a high
wall and clap your hands.
31. Echoes are produced. When the clap rate is such that the clap and the echo of the
previous clap coincide, then the sound has traveled the distance twice.
32. By timing 30 such claps, the time for one clap can be found, with which the speed of
sound can be determined.
a. Speed = 2*distance /time for one clap and echo.
Refraction, diffraction and interference

Refraction
33. When sound waves enters a medium of different density, its speed changes and it
refracts towards or away from the normal. This happens to seismic waves.
Diffraction
34. Audible sound has a wavelength from 1.5cm(20kHz) to 15 meters (20hz).
35. When waves pass through gaps between these lengths, they undergo diffraction, like
through a doorway. This explains why can hear round corners.
36. Low frequency (large wavelength) get diffracted more than high frequency (small
wave length).

Interference
37. I two speakers are kept close together, then a steady interference pattern originates.
The variations of loudness of the sound are due to the reinforcing and canceling of the
waves.

Ultrasonics

38. Sound waves above 20kHz are too high to be heard by the human ear (ultrasonic), but
they can be detected electronically and displayed on a cathode ray oscillator, CRO.
a. Quartz Crystal oscillators: Ultrasonic waves are produced by a quartz
crystal which is made to vibrate electrically at the required frequency.
They emit a narrow beam in the direction the crystal vibrates. The
ultrasonic receiver is also a quartz crystal which is made to vibrate by the
ultrasonic waves and produces an electrical signal, which is amplified. The
same crystal can act as the transmitter and receiver.
b. Ultrasonic echo techniques: Ultrasonic waves are partially or totally
reflected from surfaces at which the density of the medium changes. This
property is exploited in techniques such as non destructive testing of
materials, sonar and medical purposes. A bat uses ultrasonic waves to
judges its position. We can use a CRO to measure the time between the
original beam and the echo to determinate the distance using this formula:
i. Distance = velocity *time / 2.
ii. Using sonar, ships with can determine the depths of the sea or a
shoal of fish.
iii. It is used in medical ultrasonic imaging because cells and bones (to
some extent) reflect the waves and at the same time they are not
dangerous to cells.
c. Other uses: Ultrasound can be used in ultrasonic drills to cut holes of any
shape and size in hard materials such as glass and steel.
Questions:

1. 330*5 = 1,650 meter away

2a. 320/1 = 320m/s
b.240*4/3- 320m/s
c. 320*2=640, 640/2 = 320meters

3a. It can be diffracted, reflected, refracted and interfered.

b. Sound is a longitudinal wave. In a longitudinal wave, the particles of the medium
vibrate to and fro along the direction of the wave, whereas in transverse waves, the
particles of the medium vibrate at 90 degrees to the direction of the wave.

4. Ultrasonic waves have a frequency above 20kHz. Ultrasonic waves are produced by a
quartz crystal which is made to vibrate electrically at the required frequency. They emit a
narrow beam in the direction the crystals vibrates. They can be used for monitoring
unborn babies because ultrasonic because tissue cells reflect ultrasonic waves and at the
same time they are not dangerous like x-rays. Also when using x-rays , they are absorbed
by the cells ad only reflected by bones.

5. a. i. A compression is when the air particles are close together and the pressure is
higher.
ii rarefaction take place when the air particles are further apart and the pressure is lower.

b. 132 hz
c. 198 meters

11 Music Notes

1. Irregular vibration make noise, e.g. the vibrations from an engine

2. Regular vibrations make musical notes which have three properties- pitch, loudness
and quality.

Pitch
3. The pitch of the note depends on the frequency of the sound wave reaching the ear,
i.e. the frequency of the source of sound.
4. A high pitched tone has a high frequency and a short wavelength.
5. The frequency of middle C note is 256 Hz.
6. Notes are an octave apart if the frequency of one is twice that of the other.
7. Notes of a known frequency can be produced in a lab by using a signal generator
supplying a.c. to a speaker. The cone of the speaker vibrates at the frequency of the
a.c.
8. A tuning fork can also be used. A tuning fork is made of 2 steel prongs which vibrate
together when struck. The prongs move in and out to produce rarefactions and
compressions.

Loudness

9. A note becomes louder when more sound energy enters our ears than before. This
happens when the source is vibrating at a larger amplitude
10. If a guitar sting is plucked harder, then its amplitude increases, as does that of the
resulting sound wave and the note is heard louder because more energy was used to
make it.

Quality

11. The same note on different instruments sounds different because the notes differ in
quality or timbre.
12. The difference arises because no instrument (except a tuning fork and a signal
generator) emits a pure note, i.e. of one frequency.
13. Notes consist of a main fundamental frequency mixed with many others called
overtones, which are usually weaker and have frequencies that are exact multiplies of
the fundamental wave. The number and strength of overtones decides the quality of
the note, i.e. the sound of the
instrument.
14. The wavefornt of a note played
near a microphone connected to a
CRO can be displayed on the
CRO screen.
15. The pure note of a tuning fork
has a sine waveform, and is the
simplest form of sound wave.
16. All these instruments have the same fundamental frequencies, but what makes them
sound different is the strength and number of overtones.

Vibrating strings and stationary waves

17. In a string instrument, the string is a tightly stretched length of wire.

18. When the string is plucked, transverse waves travel to both ends, which are fixed, and
then they are reflected. Interference occurs between the incident wave and the
reflected wave and a stationary or standing wave pattern is formed.
19. In this pattern, certain points on the string called nodes are at rest, and point’s midway
of each pair of nodes is at maximum amplitude.
They are called antinodes.
20. A string can vibrate in various ways. If the
standing wave has one loop, then a fundamental
note is produced. If the standing wave has more
than one loop then overtones are produced
which have more nodes and higher frequency
that the fundamental note.
21. In all cases the separation of the nodes and the
antinodes is one quarter of the wavelength of
the wave on the string causing the note.
22. The frequency of the fundamental wave produced by a sting depends on its
a. Length: the shorter the strings, the higher the frequency.
b. Tension: tight wires produce higher notes
 c. Mass per unit length: thinner strings have higher frequency.

Resonance
23. All objects have a natural frequency of vibration. This vibration can be started and
increased by another object vibrating at this natural frequency. This is called
resonance.
24. The heavy pendulum X, when it is set swinging, forces the other light ones to swing
at the same frequency.
25. But D, which has the same length as X vibrates with a higher amplitude. It resonates
with X.

Advantages
26. A playground swing can be made to swing higher by pushing it at the right time.
27. Resonance occurs in sound when the column of air in a wind instrument or the air in
the hollow body of a string instrument is made to vibrate. The air resonates and this
creates volume of the sound.
28. Electrical resonance is used in radio and television tuners so that only transmissions
of a particular frequency are picked up.
29. Stones of calcium compounds in the kidney can cause pain. One treatment focuses
beams of ultrasonic waves on them at their resonant frequency and breaks them up.

Disadvantages
30. If a large structure such as a tall suspension bridge starts vibrating at its natural
frequency, then it will collapse.
31. This is what caused the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, in the USA to collapse in 1940,
because crosswinds caused resonant vibration.
32. Nowadays, bridges are tested in wind tunnels to make sure that their natural
frequencies are outside the range of vibrations caused by the wind.
33. Some singers can produce very high frequency notes that are able to break wine
glasses when the notes have the same frequency as the natural frequency of glass.

Noise Pollution
1. Unpleasant irregular vibrations are called noises. High pitched noises are more
annoying than low pitched ones.
2. Noise can cause tiredness, damage the ear and result in a loss of concentration.
3. A sudden increase in loudness causes most damage.
4. Some of the main nose polluters are road traffic.
5. Ways of reducing unwanted noise is to design quieter engines. For example rotating
shafts in machines are better balanced so that they don’t cause vibration. Car engines
are mounted f metal brackets via rubber clocks which absorb the vibrations and don’t
pass it to the car body.
6. In homes, sound insulating materials such as carpets and curtains are used.
7. Also people who work with noisy instruments wear ear protection.
8. Noise levels are measure in decibels, dB, by a noise meter.
9. The human ear can barely hear at o dB, a normal conversation is 60 db and a plane is
100 dB.