History of DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS According to Keen (1978),[1] the concept of decision support has evolved from tw o main

areas of research: The theoretical studies of organizational decision mak ing done at the Carnegie Institute of Technology during the late 1950s and early 1960s, and the technical work on interactive computer systems, mainly carried o ut at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the 1960s. It is considered t hat the concept of DSS became an area of research of its own in the middle of th e 1970s, before gaining in intensity during the 1980s. In the middle and late 19 80s, executive information systems (EIS), group decision support systems (GDSS), and organizational decision support systems (ODSS) evolved from the single user and model-oriented DSS. According to Sol (1987)[2] the definition and scope of DSS has been migrating ov er the years. In the 1970s DSS was described as "a computer based system to aid decision making". Late 1970s the DSS movement started focusing on "interactive c omputer-based systems which help decision-makers utilize data bases and models t o solve ill-structured problems". In the 1980s DSS should provide systems "using suitable and available technology to improve effectiveness of managerial and pr ofessional activities", and end 1980s DSS faced a new challenge towards the desi gn of intelligent workstations.[2] In 1987 Texas Instruments completed development of the Gate Assignment Display S ystem (GADS) for United Airlines. This decision support system is credited with significantly reducing travel delays by aiding the management of ground operatio ns at various airports, beginning with O'Hare International Airport in Chicago a nd Stapleton Airport in Denver Colorado.[3][4] Beginning in about 1990, data warehousing and on-line analytical processing (OLA P) began broadening the realm of DSS. As the turn of the millennium approached, new Web-based analytical applications were introduced. The advent of better and better reporting technologies has seen DSS start to eme rge as a critical component of management design. Examples of this can be seen i n the intense amount of discussion of DSS in the education environment. DSS also have a weak connection to the user interface paradigm of hypertext. Bot h the University of Vermont PROMIS system (for medical decision making) and the Carnegie Mellon ZOG/KMS system (for military and business decision making) were decision support systems which also were major breakthroughs in user interface r esearch. Furthermore, although hypertext researchers have generally been concern ed with information overload, certain researchers, notably Douglas Engelbart, ha ve been focused on decision makers in particular. Taxonomies As with the definition, there is no universally-accepted taxonomy of DSS either. Different authors propose different classifications. Using the relationship wit h the user as the criterion, Haettenschwiler[5] differentiates passive, active, and cooperative DSS. A passive DSS is a system that aids the process of decision making, but that cannot bring out explicit decision suggestions or solutions. A n active DSS can bring out such decision suggestions or solutions. A cooperative DSS allows the decision maker (or its advisor) to modify, complete, or refine t he decision suggestions provided by the system, before sending them back to the system for validation. The system again improves, completes, and refines the sug gestions of the decision maker and sends them back to her for validation. The wh ole process then starts again, until a consolidated solution is generated. Another taxonomy for DSS has been created by Daniel Power. Using the mode of ass istance as the criterion, Power differentiates communication-driven DSS, data-dr iven DSS, document-driven DSS, knowledge-driven DSS, and model-driven DSS.[6] A communication-driven DSS supports more than one person working on a shared tas k; examples include integrated tools like Microsoft's NetMeeting or Groove[7] A data-driven DSS or data-oriented DSS emphasizes access to and manipulation of a time-series of internal company data and, sometimes, external data. A document-driven DSS manages, retrieves, and manipulates unstructured informati on in a variety of electronic formats. A knowledge-driven DSS provides specialized problem-solving expertise stored as facts, rules, procedures, or in similar structures.[6]

 A model-driven DSS emphasizes access to and manipulation of a statistical, finan cial, optimization, or simulation model. Model-driven DSS use data and parameter s provided by users to assist decision makers in analyzing a situation; they are not necessarily data-intensive. Dicodess is an example of an open source modeldriven DSS generator[8]. Using scope as the criterion, Power[9] differentiates enterprise-wide DSS and de sktop DSS. An enterprise-wide DSS is linked to large data warehouses and serves many managers in the company. A desktop, single-user DSS is a small system that runs on an individual manager's PC. Definition A system that supports technological and managerial decision making by assisting in the organization of knowledge about ill-structured, semistructured, or unstr uctured issues. A structured issue has a framework comprising elements and relat ions between them that are known and understood. Structured issues are generally ones about which an individual has considerable experiential familiarity. A dec ision support system (DSS) is not intended to provide support to humans about st ructured issues since little cognitively based decision support is generally nee ded. Emphasis in the use of a decision support system is upon provision of support to decision makers in terms of increasing the effectiveness of the decision-making effort. This support involves the systems engineering steps of formulation of a lternatives, the analysis of their impacts, and interpretation and selection of appropriate options for implementations. See also Systems engineering. Decisions may be described as structured or unstructured, depending upon whether or not the decision-making process can be explicitly described prior to its exe cution. Generally, operational performance decisions are more likely than strate gic planning decisions to be restructured. Thus, expert systems are usually more appropriate for operational performance and operational control decisions, whil e decision support systems are more appropriate for strategic planning and manag ement control. The primary components of a decision support system are a database management sy stem (DBMS), a model-base management system (MBMS), and a dialog generation and management system (DGMS). An appropriate database management system must be able to work with both data that are internal to the organization and data that are external to it. Model-base management systems provide sophisticated analysis and interpretation capability. The dialog generation and management system is desig ned to satisfy knowledge representation, and control and interface requirements. (1) (Digital Signature Standard) A National Security Administration standard for authenticating an electronic message. See RSA and digital signature. (2) (Digital Satellite System) A direct broadcast satellite (DBS) system from Hu ghes Electronics Corporation that delivers more than 175 TV channels. DSS receiv ers and dishes are made by RCA and other manufacturers. USSB and DirecTV provide the content. See DBS. (3) (Decision Support System) An information and planning system that provides t he ability to interrogate computers on an ad hoc basis, analyze information and predict the impact of decisions before they are made. An Integrated Solution Database management systems (DBMSs) let you select data and derive information f or reporting and analysis. Spreadsheets and modeling programs provide both analy sis and "what if?" planning. However, any single application that supports decis ion making is not a DSS. A DSS is a cohesive and integrated set of programs that share data and information. A DSS might also retrieve industry data from extern al sources that can be compared and used for historical and statistical purposes . An integrated DSS directly impacts management decision-making. Decision Support Decision support systems increasingly use OLAP databases, which provide rapid ac cess to multidimensional views of the data. A user can quickly flip from "by pro duct" to "by region" with a multidimensional database.

Broadly speaking, decision support systems are a set of manual or computer-based tools that assist in some decision-making activity. In today's business environ ment, however, decision support systems (DSS) are commonly understood to be comp uterized management information systems designed to help business owners, execut ives, and managers resolve complicated business problems and/or questions. Good decision support systems can help business people perform a wide variety of func tions, including cash flow analysis, concept ranking, multistage fore-casting, p roduct performance improvement, and resource allocation analysis. Previously reg arded as primarily a tool for big companies, DSS has in recent years come to be recognized as a potentially valuable tool for small business enterprises as well . The Structure of Decisions In order to discuss the support of decisions and what DSS tools can or should do , it is necessary to have a perspective on the nature of the decision process an d the various requirements of supporting it. One way of looking at a decision is in terms of its key components. The first component is the data collected by a decision maker to be used in making the decision. The second component is the pr ocess selected by the decision maker to combine this data. Finally, there is an evaluation or learning component that compares decisions and examines them to se e if there is a need to change either the data being used or the process that co mbines the data. These components of a decision interact with the characteristic s of the decision that is being made. STRUCTURED DECISIONS. Many analysts categorize decisions according to the degree of structure involved in the decision-making activity. Business analysts descri be a structured decision as one in which all three components of a decisionthe da ta, process, and evaluationare determined. Since structured decisions are made on a regular basis in business environments, it makes sense to place a comparative ly rigid framework around the decision and the people making it. Structured decision support systems may simply use a checklist or form to ensure that all necessary data is collected and that the decision making process is no t skewed by the absence of necessary data. If the choice is also to support the procedural or process component of the decision, then it is quite possible to de velop a program either as part of the checklist or form. In fact, it is also pos sible and desirable to develop computer programs that collect and combine the da ta, thus giving the process a high degree of consistency or structure. When ther e is a desire to make a decision more structured, the support system for that de cision is designed to ensure consistency. Many firms that hire individuals witho ut a great deal of experience provide them with detailed guidelines on their dec ision making activities and support them by giving them little flexibility. One interesting consequence of making a decision more structured is that the liabili ty for inappropriate decisions is shifted from individual decision makers to the larger company or organization. UNSTRUCTURED DECISIONS. At the other end of the continuum are unstructured decis ions. While these decisions have the same components as structured onesdata, proc ess, and evaluationthere is little agreement on their nature. With unstructured d ecisions, for example, each decision maker may use different data and processes to reach a conclusion. In addition, because of the nature of the decision there may only a limited number of people within the organization that are even qualif ied to evaluate the decision. Generally, unstructured decisions are made in instances in which all elements of the business environmentcustomer expectations, competitor response, cost of secu ring raw materials, etc.are not completely understood (new product and marketing strategy decisions commonly fit into this category). Unstructured decision syste ms typically focus on the individual or team that will make the decision. These decision makers are usually entrusted with decisions that are unstructured becau se of their experience or expertise, and therefore it is their individual abilit y that is of value. One approach to support systems in this area is to construct a program that simulates the process used by a particular individual. In essenc e, these systemscommonly referred to as "expert systems"prompt the user with a ser

ies of questions regarding a decision situation. "Once the expert system has suf ficient information about the decision scenario, it uses an inference engine whi ch draws upon a data base of expertise in this decision area to provide the mana ger with the best possible alternative for the problem," explained Jatinder N.D. Gupta and Thomas M. Harris in the Journal of Systems Management. " The purporte d advantage of this decision aid is that it allows the manager the use of the co llective knowledge of experts in this decision realm. Some of the current DSS ap plications have included long-range and strategic planning policy setting, new p roduct planning, market planning, cash flow management, operational planning and budgeting, and portfolio management." Another approach is to monitor and document the process that was used so that th e decision maker(s) can readily review what has already been examined and conclu ded. An even more novel approach used to support these decisions is to provide e nvironments that are specially designed to give these decision makers an atmosph ere that is conducive to their particular tastes. The key to support of unstruct ured decisions is to understand the role that individuals experience or expertis e plays in the decision and to allow for individual approaches. SEMI-STRUCTURED DECISIONS. In the middle of the continuum are semi-structured de cisions, and this is where most of what are considered to be true decision suppo rt systems are focused. Decisions of this type are characterized as having some agreement on the data, process, and/or evaluation to be used, but are also typif ied by efforts to retain some level of human judgment in the decision making pro cess. An initial step in analyzing which support system is required is to unders tand where the limitations of the decision maker may be manifested (i.e., the da ta acquisition portion, the process component, or the evaluation of outcomes). Grappling with the latter two types of decisionsunstructured and semi-structuredca n be particularly problematic for small businesses, which often have limited tec hnological or work force resources. As Gupta and Harris indicated, "many decisio n situations faced by executives in small business are one-of-a-kind, one-shot o ccurrences requiring specifically tailored solution approaches without the benef it of any previously available rules or procedures. This unstructured or semi-st ructured nature of these decisions situations aggravates the problem of limited resources and staff expertise available to a small business executive to analyze important decisions appropriately. Faced with this difficulty, an executive in a small business must seek tools and techniques that do not demand too much of h is time and resources and are useful to make his life easier." Subsequently, sma ll businesses have increasingly turned to DSS to provide them with assistance in business guidance and management. Key Dss Functions Gupta and Harris observed that DSS is predicated on the effective performance of three functions: information management, data quantification, and model manipul ation: "Information management refers to the storage, retrieval, and reporting o f information in a structured format convenient to the user. Data quantification is the process by which large amounts of information are condensed and analytic ally manipulated into a few core indicators that extract the essence of data. Mo del manipulation refers to the construction and resolution of various scenarios to answer 'what if' questions. It includes the processes of model formulation, a lternatives generation and solution of the proposed models, often through the us e of several operations research/management science approaches." Entrepreneurs and owners of established enterprises are urged to make certain th at their business needs a DSS before buying the various computer systems and sof tware necessary to create one. Some small businesses, of course, have no need of a DSS. The owner of a car washing establishment, for instance, would be highly unlikely to make such an investment. But for those business owners who are guidi ng a complex operation, a decision support system can be a valuable tool. Anothe r key consideration is whether the business's key personnel will ensure that the necessary time and effort is spent to incorporate DSS into the establishment's operations. After all, even the best decision support system is of little use if the business does not possess the training and knowledge necessary to use it ef fectively. If, after careful study of questions of DSS utility, the small busine

ss owner decides that DSS can help his or her company, the necessary investment can be made, and the key managers of the business can begin the process of devel oping their own DSS applications using available spreadsheet software. Dss Uncertainties and Limitations While decision support systems have been embraced by small business operators in a wide range of industries in recent years, entrepreneurs, programmers, and bus iness consultants all agree that such systems are not perfect. LEVEL OF "USER-FRIENDLINESS". Some observers contend that although decision supp ort systems have become much more user-friendly in recent years, it remains an i ssue, especially for small business operations that do not have significant reso urces in terms of technological knowledge. HARD-TO-QUANTIFY FACTORS. Another limitation that decision makers confront has t o do with combining or processing the information that they obtain. In many case s these limitations are due to the number of mathematical calculations required. For instance, a manufacturer pondering the introduction of a new product can no t do so without first deciding on a price for the product. In order to make this decision, the effect of different variables (including price) on demand for the product and the subsequent profit must be evaluated. The manufacturer's percept ions of the demand for the product can be captured in a mathematical formula tha t portrays the relationship between profit, price, and other variables considere d important. Once the relationships have been expressed, the decision maker may now want to change the values for different variables and see what the effect on profits would be. The ability to save mathematical relationships and then obtai n results for different values is a feature of many decision support systems. Th is is called "what-if" analysis, and today's spreadsheet software packages are f ully equipped to support this decision-making activity. Of course, additional fa ctors must be taken into consideration as well when making business decisions. H ard-to-quantify factors such as future interest rates, new legislation, and hunc hes about product shelf life may all be considered. So even though the calculati ons may indicate that a certain demand for the product will be achieved at a cer tain price, the decision maker must use his or her judgment in making the final decision. If the decision maker simply follows the output of a process model, then the dec ision is being moved toward the structured end of the continuum. In certain corp orate environments, it may be easier for the decision maker to follow the prescr iptions of the DSS; users of support systems are usually aware of the risks asso ciated with certain choices. If decision makers feel that there is more risk ass ociated with exercising judgment and opposing the suggestion of the DSS than the re is in simply supporting the process, the DSS is moving the decision more towa rd the structured end of the spectrum. Therefore, the way in which a DSS will be used must be considered within the decision-making environment. PROCESSING MODEL LIMITATIONS. Another problem with the use of support systems th at perform calculations is that the user/decision maker may not be fully aware o f the limitations or assumptions of the particular processing model. There may b e instances in which the decision maker has an idea of the knowledge that is des ired, but not necessarily the best way to get that knowledge. This problem may b e seen in the use of statistical analysis to support a decision. Most statistica l packages provide a variety of tests and will perform them on whatever data is presented, regardless of whether or not it is appropriate. This problem has been recognized by designers of support systems and has resulted in the development of DSS that support the choice of the type of analysis. Components Design of a Drought Mitigation Decision Support System. Three fundamental components of a DSS architecture are:[5][6][10][11][12] 1. the database (or knowledge base), 2. the model (i.e., the decision context and user criteria), and 3. the user interface.

The users themselves are also important components of the architecture.[5][12] Development Frameworks DSS systems are not entirely different from other systems and require a structur ed approach. Such a framework includes people, technology, and the development a pproach.[10] DSS technology levels (of hardware and software) may include: 1. The actual application that will be used by the user. This is the part o f the application that allows the decision maker to make decisions in a particul ar problem area. The user can act upon that particular problem. 2. Generator contains Hardware/software environment that allows people to e asily develop specific DSS applications. This level makes use of case tools or s ystems such as Crystal, AIMMS, and iThink. 3. Tools include lower level hardware/software. DSS generators including sp ecial languages, function libraries and linking modules An iterative developmental approach allows for the DSS to be changed and redesig ned at various intervals. Once the system is designed, it will need to be tested and revised for the desired outcome. Classification There are several ways to classify DSS applications. Not every DSS fits neatly i nto one category, but may be a mix of two or more architectures. Holsapple and Whinston[13] classify DSS into the following six frameworks: Textoriented DSS, Database-oriented DSS, Spreadsheet-oriented DSS, Solver-oriented D SS, Rule-oriented DSS, and Compound DSS. A compound DSS is the most popular classification for a DSS. It is a hybrid syst em that includes two or more of the five basic structures described by Holsapple and Whinston[13]. The support given by DSS can be separated into three distinct, interrelated cate gories[14]: Personal Support, Group Support, and Organizational Support. DSS components may be classified as: 1. Inputs: Factors, numbers, and characteristics to analyze 2. User Knowledge and Expertise: Inputs requiring manual analysis by the us er 3. Outputs: Transformed data from which DSS "decisions" are generated 4. Decisions: Results generated by the DSS based on user criteria DSSs which perform selected cognitive decision-making functions and are based on artificial intelligence or intelligent agents technologies are called Intellige nt Decision Support Systems (IDSS).[citation needed] The nascent field of Decision engineering treats the decision itself as an engin eered object, and applies engineering principles such as Design and Quality assu rance to an explicit representation of the elements that make up a decision. Applications As mentioned above, there are theoretical possibilities of building such systems in any knowledge domain. One example is the clinical decision support system for medical diagnosis. Other examples include a bank loan officer verifying the credit of a loan applicant o r an engineering firm that has bids on several projects and wants to know if the y can be competitive with their costs. DSS is extensively used in business and management. Executive dashboard and othe r business performance software allow faster decision making, identification of negative trends, and better allocation of business resources. A growing area of DSS application, concepts, principles, and techniques is in ag ricultural production, marketing for sustainable development. For example, the D SSAT4 package[15][16], developed through financial support of USAID during the 8 0's and 90's, has allowed rapid assessment of several agricultural production sy stems around the world to facilitate decision-making at the farm and policy leve ls. There are, however, many constraints to the successful adoption on DSS in ag riculture[17]. DSS are also prevalent in forest management where the long planning time frame d emands specific requirements. All aspects of Forest management, from log transpo

rtation, harvest scheduling to sustainability and ecosystem protection have been addressed by modern DSSs. A comprehensive list and discussion of all available systems in forest management is being compiled under the COST action Forsys A specific example concerns the Canadian National Railway system, which tests it s equipment on a regular basis using a decision support system. A problem faced by any railroad is worn-out or defective rails, which can result in hundreds of derailments per year. Under a DSS, CN managed to decrease the incidence of derai lments at the same time other companies were experiencing an increase. Benefits 1. Improves personal efficiency 2. Speeds up problem solving in an organization 3. Facilitates interpersonal communication 4. Promotes learning or training 5. Increases organizational control 6. Generates new evidence in support of a decision 7. Creates a competitive advantage over competition 8. Encourages exploration and discovery on the part of the decision maker 9. Reveals new approaches to thinking about the problem space 10. Helps automate managerial processes