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I/C: KALLURI VINAYAK

Variable Loading
Variable loading results when the applied load or the induced stress on a component is not constant but changes with time In reality most mechanical components experience variable loading due to
-Change in the magnitude of applied load
Example: Extrusion process

-Change in direction of load application


Example: a connecting rod

-Change in point of load application


Example: a rotating shaft

Fatigue
Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with variable loading or more precisely to cyclic stressing or straining of a material ASTM Definition of fatigue
The process of progressive localized permanent structural changes occurring in a material subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses at some point or points and that may result in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations.

Fatigue Failure- Mechanism


Three stages are involved in fatigue failure
-Crack initiation -Crack propagation -Fracture / Rupture

Introduction to Fatigue in Metals


Final rupture occurs over a limited area, characterizing a very small load required to cause it

Beach marks showing the nature of crack propagation

Crack initiation at the outer surface


Crack initiation, propagation and rupture in a shaft subjected to repeated bending

Crack initiation at the root of keyway at B

Crack propagation occurs over a time period

Final failure over the small area at C due to sudden rupture

Connecting rod failed by fatigue failure

Flash line of forging

The crack got initiated at the flash line of forging.

Fatigue failure of a steam engine connecting rod due to PURE TENSION load.

Radial direction of crack propagation

No surface crack. Crack may initiate anywhere that is the weakest or unknown source of weakness.

The crack propagated radially outward until some time after which the sudden rupture occurred.

In this rod, the crack initiated due to forging flake slightly below the centre line.

Approach to Fatigue Failure in Analysis and Design

Fatigue life methods Fatigue strength and endurance limit Endurance limit modifying factors Stress concentration and notch sensitivity Fluctuating stresses Combination of loading modes Variable, fluctuating stresses, cumulative fatigue damage

Fatigue Life Methods


predict the failure in number of cycles N to failure for a specific type of loading

Low cycle fatigue (LCF) : 1 N 103 ; High cycle fatigue (HCF) : N > 103
Stress life methods Based on stress levels only Least accurate of the three, particularly for LCF It is the most traditional because easiest to implement for a wide range of applications Has ample supporting data Represents high cycle fatigue adequately Strain life methods Involves more detailed analysis of plastic deformation at localized regions Good for LCF Some uncertainties may exist in results because several idealizations get compounded Hence normally not used in regular practice but only for completeness and special occasions Linear elastic fracture mechanics methods (LEFM) Assumes that crack is already present and detected The crack location is then employed to predict crack growth and sudden rupture with respect to the stress nature and intensity Most practical when applied to large structures in conjunction with computer codes and periodic inspection

Stress Life Method

R. R. Moore high-speed rotating beam machine. Pure bending by means of weights and no transverse shear. The specimen shown is very carefully machined and polished with a final polishing in the axial direction to void circumferential scratches. Number of revolutions of the specimen required for failure are recorded. The first test is made at a stress that is some what under the ultimate strength of the material. Next, the test is repeated for a lower load, and so on. The results are plotted in the S-N diagram, which is either semi-log or log-log.

pure reversed bending without transverse shear

SFD

Mb BMD

The S-N Diagram for steel (UNS G41300), normalized, Sut=812 MPa.

Endurance Limit, It is the stress at which the component can sustain infinite number of cycles

Endurance limit for non-ferrous metals and alloys


The plot in the S-N diagram never becomes horizontal for non-ferrous metals and alloys For non-ferrous metals and alloys, stress at a specific number of cycles, normally at 5*108 cycles, must be used as fatigue strength

For different aluminium alloys (which is non-ferrous)

For non-ferrous metals and alloys, the S-N diagram never becomes horizontal and hence they do not have endurance limit. Hence, a stress at a specific number of cycles, normally at 5*108 cycles, must be used as fatigue strength

Estimation of Endurance Limit


Instead of referring to experimental data-bank each time, it should be possible to quickly estimate the value of endurance limit using some kind of formula To enable that, data has been generated for different types of steels, for endurance limit with respect to the ultimate tensile strength This plot seemed to closely follow a combination of two straight lines, of which the second being almost horizontal at Sut=1460 MPa For steels, Endurance limit :
for Sut 1460 MPa 0.5 S ut S = 700 MPa for S ut > 1460 MPa
' e

S e' = Endurance limit obtained in reverse bending S e = Endurance limit in the actual loading conditions

Stress concentration
The single most influential factor leading to high possibility of crack initiation Stress concentration can be due to Function of geometry (sudden change in size/diameter; holes in the structure etc. and surface texture (surface finish, presence of disintegrations etc.)

Stress concentration (Kt )-revised Kt=Theoretical stress concentration factor


Maximum stress Kt = Nominal stress
P Nominal stress = (w d )t max = K t nom K t = Determined through experiments or numerical simulation such as FEM

w d

Actual / Fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf Also called as fatigue strength reduction factor

K f = 1 + q(K t 1) or K fs = 1 + qshear (K ts 1) q = notch sensitivity value (from Fig. 6 - 20 & 6 - 21) K t = Theoretical stress concentration factor (or geometric factor, from tables)

Notch Sensitivity plot for Steels and UNS A92024-T wrought Al alloys
(Reverse bending or reverse axial loads)

Fig: 6-20 ; page : 295

Notch Sensitivity plot for Steels and UNS A92024-T wrought Al alloys
(Reversed torsion condition)

Fig: 6-21 ; page : 296

Estimation of Kf
Kf = 1+q(Kt -1). When q=0, the material has no sensitivity to notches, and hence Kf=1. When q=1, or when notch radius is large for which q is almost equal to 1, the material has full notch sensitivity, and Kf = Kt. For all grades of cast iron, use q=0.20. Use the different graphs as given to obtain q for bending/axial and torsional loading.

Whenever the graphs do not give values of q for certain combinations of data, use either Neuber equation or Heywood equation.

Estimation of Kf Use the Neuber equation when the notch is circular/cylindrical.


q= 1+ where 1 a r and K f = 1 + q ( K t 1)

a is Neuber constant and is a material constant

a = f ( S ut ), i.e function of ultimate strength. r = notch radius


For steel, with Sut in kpsi, the Neuber constant can be approximated by a thirdorder polynomial fit of data as
2 3 Bending or axial : a = 0.246 3.08(10 3 ) Sut + 1.51(10 5 ) Sut 2.67(10 8 ) Sut

Torsion :

2 3 a = 0.19 2.51(10 3 ) Sut + 1.35(10 5 ) Sut 2.67(10 8 ) Sut

Estimation of Kf Use Heywood equation when the notch is NOT circular/cylindrical but is a tranverse hole or shoulder or groove.
K
f

Kt = 2 (K t 1 ) 1+ Kt

a r

where a values are given in the Table 6 - 15; page 335 r = hole size/shoul der size/groov e size

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