Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Variable Loading
Variable loading results when the applied load or the induced stress on a component is not constant but changes with time In reality most mechanical components experience variable loading due to
-Change in the magnitude of applied load
Example: Extrusion process
Fatigue
Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with variable loading or more precisely to cyclic stressing or straining of a material ASTM Definition of fatigue
The process of progressive localized permanent structural changes occurring in a material subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses at some point or points and that may result in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations.
Fatigue failure of a steam engine connecting rod due to PURE TENSION load.
No surface crack. Crack may initiate anywhere that is the weakest or unknown source of weakness.
The crack propagated radially outward until some time after which the sudden rupture occurred.
In this rod, the crack initiated due to forging flake slightly below the centre line.
Fatigue life methods Fatigue strength and endurance limit Endurance limit modifying factors Stress concentration and notch sensitivity Fluctuating stresses Combination of loading modes Variable, fluctuating stresses, cumulative fatigue damage
Low cycle fatigue (LCF) : 1 N 103 ; High cycle fatigue (HCF) : N > 103
Stress life methods Based on stress levels only Least accurate of the three, particularly for LCF It is the most traditional because easiest to implement for a wide range of applications Has ample supporting data Represents high cycle fatigue adequately Strain life methods Involves more detailed analysis of plastic deformation at localized regions Good for LCF Some uncertainties may exist in results because several idealizations get compounded Hence normally not used in regular practice but only for completeness and special occasions Linear elastic fracture mechanics methods (LEFM) Assumes that crack is already present and detected The crack location is then employed to predict crack growth and sudden rupture with respect to the stress nature and intensity Most practical when applied to large structures in conjunction with computer codes and periodic inspection
R. R. Moore high-speed rotating beam machine. Pure bending by means of weights and no transverse shear. The specimen shown is very carefully machined and polished with a final polishing in the axial direction to void circumferential scratches. Number of revolutions of the specimen required for failure are recorded. The first test is made at a stress that is some what under the ultimate strength of the material. Next, the test is repeated for a lower load, and so on. The results are plotted in the S-N diagram, which is either semi-log or log-log.
SFD
Mb BMD
The S-N Diagram for steel (UNS G41300), normalized, Sut=812 MPa.
Endurance Limit, It is the stress at which the component can sustain infinite number of cycles
For non-ferrous metals and alloys, the S-N diagram never becomes horizontal and hence they do not have endurance limit. Hence, a stress at a specific number of cycles, normally at 5*108 cycles, must be used as fatigue strength
S e' = Endurance limit obtained in reverse bending S e = Endurance limit in the actual loading conditions
Stress concentration
The single most influential factor leading to high possibility of crack initiation Stress concentration can be due to Function of geometry (sudden change in size/diameter; holes in the structure etc. and surface texture (surface finish, presence of disintegrations etc.)
w d
Actual / Fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf Also called as fatigue strength reduction factor
K f = 1 + q(K t 1) or K fs = 1 + qshear (K ts 1) q = notch sensitivity value (from Fig. 6 - 20 & 6 - 21) K t = Theoretical stress concentration factor (or geometric factor, from tables)
Notch Sensitivity plot for Steels and UNS A92024-T wrought Al alloys
(Reverse bending or reverse axial loads)
Notch Sensitivity plot for Steels and UNS A92024-T wrought Al alloys
(Reversed torsion condition)
Estimation of Kf
Kf = 1+q(Kt -1). When q=0, the material has no sensitivity to notches, and hence Kf=1. When q=1, or when notch radius is large for which q is almost equal to 1, the material has full notch sensitivity, and Kf = Kt. For all grades of cast iron, use q=0.20. Use the different graphs as given to obtain q for bending/axial and torsional loading.
Whenever the graphs do not give values of q for certain combinations of data, use either Neuber equation or Heywood equation.
Torsion :
Estimation of Kf Use Heywood equation when the notch is NOT circular/cylindrical but is a tranverse hole or shoulder or groove.
K
f
Kt = 2 (K t 1 ) 1+ Kt
a r
where a values are given in the Table 6 - 15; page 335 r = hole size/shoul der size/groov e size