ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijimpeng

Model-based simulation of the synergistic effects of blast and fragmentation on a concrete wall using the MPM
Wenqing Hua, Zhen Chenb,
a

Baker Engineering and Risk Consultants, Inc., 3330 Oakwell Court, San Antonio, TX 78218-3084, USA b Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Missouri-Columbia, Center for Explosion Resistant Design, Columbia, MO 65211-2200, USA Received 5 February 2004; received in revised form 18 May 2005; accepted 22 May 2005 Available online 20 July 2005

Abstract With the development of the material point method (MPM) that is an extension from computational uid dynamics (CFD) to computational structural dynamics (CSD), a model-based simulation is performed in this paper to investigate the synergistic effects of blast and fragmentation on structural failure. As can be found from the open literature, the synergistic effects of blast and fragmentation have been usually simulated via a combined approach through an interface between CFD codes and CSD codes. As a consequence, numerical solutions are very sensitive to the choices of different time steps and spatial meshes for different physical phenomena, especially for the multi-physics involved in the initiation and evolution of structural failure. Hence, a coupled approach within a single computational domain seems to be necessary if objective results are needed. In this paper, a numerical procedure is proposed with the use of the MPM, so that different kinds of gradient and divergence operators could be discretized in a single computational domain without involving xed mesh connectivity. To simulate the evolution of impact failure, the transition from continuous to discontinuous failure modes is identied via the bifurcation analysis. The potential of the proposed model-based simulation procedure is demonstrated through 1D and 2D isothermal cases including cased bomb expansion and fragmentation, blast wave expansion through a broken case, and blast and fragment impact on a concrete wall. The preliminary results obtained in this numerical study provide a better understanding of the synergistic effects on impact/blast-resistant

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 573 882 0311; fax: +1 573 882 4784.

E-mail address: chenzh@missouri.edu (Z. Chen). 0734-743X/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2005.05.004

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096 2067

structural design. An integrated experimental, analytical and computational effort is required to further improve the proposed procedure for general applications. r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Blast; Impact; Material point method; Synergistic effects; Coupled CFD and CSD

1. Introduction Explosive devices have been used for hundreds of years, yet little information is available on the synergistic effects of blast and fragmentation on targets [1,2]. When the air driven by the explosive ows at high speed, the blast wave as a steep pressure occurs, which is followed by an exponential decay of pressure. In addition to the blast wave, explosions produce fragments and missiles (for instance, part of bomb case) that could cause structural damage. A metal case in contact with explosive is usually broken into chunky fragments with the dimension in one direction being no more than a few times larger than those in the other directions. The initial velocity for a fragment may be as high as 3 or 4 km/s. The blast wave interacting with and loading the fragments causes the damage of the target synergistically [3], which involves highly non-linear transient phenomena. Although physical experiments play a vital role in the characterization of such problems, they could be very costly, and often difcult to instrument. Numerical simulation, on the other hand, offers an alternative approach. There are two major problems to be considered in the numerical analysis of such events. One is the need for an accurate material characterization in terms of the constitutive models, since the structural failure due to explosion involves plasticity, damage, localization, thermal softening, phase transition and fragmentation. The other is that a robust spatial discretization method must be developed for large-scale simulation of multi-physical phenomena involved in blast responses. Based on the previous research on the constitutive modeling of failure evolution, the focus of this paper is on the spatial discretization of multiphysics involved, with the use of the material point method (MPM). As can be found from the open literature, the synergistic effects of blast and fragmentation on structural failure have been usually simulated via an uncoupled approach or a combined approach with an interface between computational uid dynamics (CFD) codes and computational structural dynamics (CSD) codes. Baum [4] employed two codes, i.e. FEFLO98 (CFD) and DYNA3D (CSD), to simulate the weapon detonation/fragmentation and the resulting blast and fragments interaction with the target. With the combined CFD/CSD methodology, the structure was used as the master-surface to dene the extent of the uid region, while the uid was used as the master-surface to dene the loads. The transfer of loads, displacements, and velocities was carried out via a fast interpolation algorithm. Several types of commercially available software for dynamic failure simulation, such as AUTODYN-2D & 3D [5], have combined their multi-processors to include all the materials under consideration. In AUTODYN-2D & 3D codes, the Lagrange processor is typically used for modeling solid continua and structures, and the Euler processor for modeling gases, uids and the large distortion of solids. In addition, an arbitrary Lagrange Euler (ALE) processor is included, which can be used to provide automatic rezoning of distorted grids. Although these processors are powerful in certain situations, it is necessary to combine them to simulate the synergistic effects of blast and fragmentation on targets. Thus, a

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2068 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

mapping technique is required to link the data transportation among different computational domains. While it is fairly easy for the remapping algorithm to generate a Cartesian Euler grid from a Lagrangian approach to an Euler one, it is usually very difcult to ll the custom-tted shapes [6]. As a consequence of such a combined approach through an interface communication, numerical solutions are very sensitive to the choices of different time steps and spatial meshes for different physical phenomena, especially for the multi-physics involved in the initiation and evolution of structural failure. Hence, a coupled approach without interface treatment within a single computational domain seems to be necessary for model-based simulation. Particle, element-free, and meshless methods have been receiving considerable attention recently. One of such methods is the MPM. The MPM has evolved from a Particle-in-Cell (PIC) method called FLIP, which was originally developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory for uid dynamics problems involving shock waves [7,8]. Starting from the early 1990s, Sulsky et al. modied FLIP into the MPM for solid dynamics problems, such as impact and penetration, as shown by representative Refs. [912]. Since the MPM is an extension from the discretization method for CFD to that for CSD, it is natural to design a model-based simulation tool, based on the MPM, to investigate the synergistic effects of blast and fragmentation on structural failure. Structural failure involves multi-physical phenomena such as instantaneous responses, diffusion and wave propagation, which is characterized by the evolution of localized failure [12]. As can be found from the open literature, two different kinds of approaches have been proposed over the last 20 years to model and simulate the evolution of localization, namely, continuous and discontinuous ones. Decohesion and fracture-mechanics-based models are representative of discontinuous approaches, in which strong discontinuities are introduced into a continuum body such that the governing differential equations remain well posed for given boundary and/or initial data. On the other hand, nonlocal (integral or strain gradient) models, Cosserat continuum models and rate-dependent models are among the continuous approaches proposed to regularize the localization problems, in which the higher order terms in space and/or time are introduced into the stressstrain relations so that the mathematical model is well-posed in a higher order sense for given boundary and/or initial data. Only weak discontinuities in the kinematical eld variables are allowed in the continuous approaches, i.e., the continuity of displacement eld must hold in the continuum during the failure evolution. Since the discontinuous bifurcation identies the transition from continuous to discontinuous failure modes, it appears that a combined ratedependent local continuum damage/plasticity and decohesion approach could be sound in physics and efcient in computation [13]. As a result, the gap between the continuous and discontinuous approaches could be bridged to simulate a complete failure evolution process without invoking higher order terms in space. Based on the previous research [12,13], a rate-dependent local continuum damage/plasticity model is combined with a rate-dependent decohesion model via the bifurcation analysis in this paper to simulate the dynamic failure of concrete with the use of the MPM. The remaining sections of the paper are organized as follows. The governing equations for solids and uids along with the constitutive relations are described in Section 2. Based on the basic framework of the MPM, a numerical scheme for the uidsolid coupling in a single computational domain is proposed in Section 3. In Section 4, several examples are given to show the features of the proposed model-based simulation tool. In the rst example, we test the algorithm for the strong shock with the Riemann problem in one spatial dimension and the SedovTaylor blast wave problem in two spatial dimensions. In the second example, a

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096 2069

concrete wall subjected to a high-velocity steel yer is considered to demonstrate the characteristics of the rate-dependent transition from continuous to discontinuous failure modes. Then we examine the algorithm for uidstructure interaction via a piston-container problem and a piston-gas problem. In Section 5, the proposed model-based simulation tool is employed to simulate several interacting physical phenomena in a 2D computational domain, such as cased bomb expansion and fragmentation, blast wave expansion through the broken case, and blast and fragment impact on a concrete wall. As a result, a better understanding of the synergistic effects on impact/blast-resistant structural design could be obtained through this numerical study. Finally, conclusions and the future work are discussed based on the current research results.

2. Governing differential equations To describe the equations in the paper, scalars are denoted by plain letters, and the rst or higher order tensors by bold-faced letters or conventional symbols, respectively, except as noted otherwise. The dot represents the inner product between tensor quantities of the rst or higher orders. 2.1. Conservation equations As illustrated in Fig. 1, a region of gas, uid or solid material points occupies a volume O0 p initially and Ot at later times. For the current position x 2 Ot , at time t, let rx; t be the mass p p density, vx; t be the particle velocity, rx; t be the Cauchy stress tensor, and bx; t be the specic body force in the current conguration. The conservation equation of mass takes the form of _ r rr v,
0 t

(1)

0 xp t xp

Fig. 1. Spatial discretization with the MPM.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2070 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

where the superposed dot represents the material time derivative, and r is the gradient operator with respect to the current conguration. The conservation of linear momentum is given by r r rb r_ . v Neglecting the conduction of heat, the conservation of energy can be written as _ r_ r : e e
1 2 rv T

(2) (3)

_ rv denoting the strain rate. Gases, with e being the specic internal energy and e uids and solids are distinguished by the constitutive equations. The governing differential equations can be formulated based on the conservation equations, constitutive models and certain kinematic conditions for given initial and boundary data. 2.2. Constitutive equations for solids Standard elastoplasticity models are used for metal yers. A rate-dependent local continuum damage/plasticity model is combined with a rate-dependent decohesion model via the bifurcation analysis to simulate the evolution of dynamic failure of concrete, as described below. To estimate stress-wave-induced fracturing, a combined rate-dependent local continuum damage/plasticity model has evolved over a number of years, which was primarily applied to the case of rock fragmentation [14,15]. Within the loading regime of the model, an isotropic elasticity tensor governs the elastic material behavior; a scalar measure of continuum damage is active through the rate-dependent degradation of the elasticity tensor if the conning pressure PX0 (tensile regime); and a pressure-dependent perfectly plastic model is used if Po0 (compressive regime). The evolution equation for rate-dependent tensile damage can be described as follows:    K IC 2 5k 16 m v ; v v 1 Cd , Cd 2 rC_max 9  161 v2 C d ; K 1 DK D 91 2 v in which C d is a crack-density parameter, K IC the fracture toughness, v the mean volumetric strain, max the maximum volumetric strain rate experienced by the material at fracture, C p _ E=r the uniaxial wave speed with E being Youngs modulus, and D a single damage parameter. Also, K and v are the original bulk modulus and Poissons ratio, respectively, for the undamaged material, and the barred quantities represent the corresponding parameters of the damaged material. The model parameters k and m can be determined by using the fracture stress versus strain rate curve. The rate form of stressstrain relation for the rate-dependent tensile damage model is given by _ _ r Ted : e
ed

(4)

in which T is the tangent stiffness tensor. To identify the transition from continuous to discontinuous failure modes, and the corresponding normal to the surface of discontinuity, the bifurcation analysis of the acoustic tensor must be performed based on Eq. (4). As shown in the previous work [16], the failure angle is rate-independent although the transition level is ratedependent for the tensile damage model.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096 2071

Based on the representative research on decohesion models [17,18], a bifurcation-based ratedependent decohesion model is formulated here to predict decohesion or separation of continuum. As shown in Fig. 2 for 2D cases, n and t denote the unit normal and tangent vectors to the cohesive surface, respectively. To determine the constitutive relation between the traction s and decohesion (displacement jump) ud, the following equations, which satisfy the thermodynamic restrictions, must be solved simultaneously for a given strain rate: _ e _ r Ted : _ ed continuum elastodamage; _ _ srn traction equilibrium; (5a) (5b) (5c) (5d) (5e)

_ _ ud lm evolution of decohesion; _ ed _ l n  m m  n 2Le decohesion strain; consistency condition

F d te U 0 1 ly 0

in which l is a dimensionless monotonically increasing variable parametrizing the evolution of decohesion, and Le is the effective length representing the ratio of the volume to the area of the decohesion within a material element. For the purpose of simplicity, an associated evolution equation is employed, namely, m u0 Ad s=s Ad s1=2 , so that the effective traction takes the form of se s m u0 s Ad s1=2 (6)

with the reference surface energy U 0 being the product of the reference decohesion scalar u0 and corresponding scalar traction t0 . The components of the positive denite tensor of material parameters, Ad, with respect to the nt basis, are given by 3 2 1 0 2 7 6 tnp (7) Ad t2 4 0 1 5. 0 t2
tp

m n u
.d

Fig. 2. A 2D material element with decohesion.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2072 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

At the initiation of decohesion, it follows from Eqs. (5e), (6) and (7) with l 0 that t2 t2 nb tb 1, t2 t2 tp np (8)

where the normal and tangential tractions, tnb and ttb , are determined from the discontinuous _ bifurcation analysis, and depend on both the strain state and strain rate, i.e. tnb tnb e; e and _ ttb ttb e; e. By letting C m ttp =tnp , different failure modes can be simulated by using different values of C m and Eq. (8). The relation between the traction and decohesion can be adjusted via changing the value of y, as shown in Fig. 3. With the proposed computational approach, the rate-dependent decohesion model is used to predict the evolution of microcracking based on the bifurcation analysis of continuum damage, and a fracture-mechanics-based model can then be employed to trace the crack propagation if a macrocrack occurs. Since the location and the orientation of the cohesive surface is determined via the bifurcation analysis, the mesh-independent (objective) results could be obtained.

2.3. Constitutive equations for compressible uids The stress tensor for a viscous uid point takes the form of r PI d, (9)

where I is the second-order unit tensor, and the scalar P would be the hydrostatic pressure if the uid is brought to rest or the hydrodynamic pressure if the uid is in motion. Note that the scalar P in Eq. (9) for an incompressible uid is simply the mechanical pressure, s11 s22 s33 =3, while the scalar P for a compressible uid is identied with an equation of state. The tensor d is called the deviatoric stress tensor and it denes the state of stress in the uid due solely to its motion. By postulating the deviatoric stress tensor to be a linear function of the strain rate tensor, the constitutive equation of a uid is _ _ r 2mN e lN ekk I PI, (10)

_ _ where ekk is the trace of the strain rate tensor e, mN is the coefcient of (dynamic) viscosity, and lN is the second coefcient of viscosity.
e

e*

U0 >1.0 =1.0 <1.0

1.0

1.0

Fig. 3. Decohesion relation in terms of l.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096 2073

2.3.1. Equation of state for a perfect gas The equation of state for a perfect gas, where pressure P is related to material density r and specic internal energy e, is given by P g 1re (11) in which g is the ratio of specic heat. In general, g decreases with the increase of temperature and increases with the increase of pressure. For the sake of simplicity, g is assumed as a constant in the following examples. At each time step, the density and the specic internal energy are updated for _ each gas material point as rtDt rt =1 ekk Dt, and from Eq. (3), p p _p etDt et rtDt : etDt =rtDt Dt. p p p p (12)

2.3.2. Equation of state for explosives To design devices using high explosives, simple equations of state that can be easily calibrated with experiments are needed. An example of such an equation of state is the JonesWilkinsLee (JWL) form. The JWL equation of state models the pressure generated by chemical energy in an explosive, and can be written as     o o oc , (13) er1 V C 2 1 er2 V P C1 1 r1 V r2 V V where C 1 ; C 2 ; r1 ; r2 , and o are constants, V r0 =r the relative volume with r0 and r being the initial and current density, respectively. c denotes the internal energy. Tables of the constants for the JWL equation of state are available in [19]. 2.4. Articial viscosity It is well known that most numerical simulations of compressible-uid shocks would yield more accurate results if certain type of articial viscosity is used at the shock front. The articial viscosity implemented here with the MPM is similar to that rst proposed in 1950 by von Neumann and Richtmyer [20], and later modied by other researchers [21,22], i.e., _ kk e q rlc0 l e2 c1 a_ kk q0 _ if ekk o0, (14a)

if ekk 40, (14b) p where l A in two spatial dimensions with A being the area of computational element, a p gP=r is the local sound speed, and c0 and c1 are dimensionless constants.

3. The MPM for uidstructure interaction 3.1. The MPM To accommodate the discontinuities of different degrees involved in structural failure, a robust spatial discretization method is a necessity without invoking a xed mesh connectivity. Although the MPM is still under development, sample calculations have demonstrated the robustness and

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2074 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

potential of this method for the challenging problems of current interests [912,23]. The essential idea of the MPM is summarized as follows for the completeness of the proposed procedure. The MPM discretizes a continuum body with the use of a nite set of N p material points in the original conguration that are tracked throughout the deformation process, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Let xt (p 1; 2; . . . ; N p ) denote the current position of material point p at time t. Each p material point at time t has an associated mass M p , density rt , velocity vt , Cauchy stress tensor rt , p p p strain et , and any other internal state variables necessary for constitutive modeling. Thus, these p material points provide a Lagrangian description of the continuum body. Since each material point contains a xed amount of mass for all time, the conservation of mass, Eq. (1), is automatically satised. At each time step, the information from the material points is mapped to a background computational mesh (grid). This mesh covers the computational domain of interest, and is chosen for computational convenience. After the information is mapped from the material points to the mesh nodes, the discrete equations of the conservation of linear momentum, Eq. (2), can be solved on the mesh nodes. The weak form of the conservation of linear momentum can be found, based on the standard procedure used in the nite-element method, to be Z Z rw a dO rss : rw dO O Z ZO s rc w dS rw b dO, 15
sc O

in which w denotes the test function, a is the acceleration, ss is the specic stress (i.e. stress divided by mass density), cs is the specic traction vector (i.e. traction divided by mass density), b is the specic body force, O is the current conguration of the continuum, and Sc is that part of the boundary with a prescribed traction. The test function w is assumed to be zero on the boundary with a prescribed displacement. Since the whole continuum body is described with the use of a nite set of material points (mass elements), the mass density term can be written as rx; t
Np X p1

M p dx xt , p

(16)

where d is the Dirac delta function with dimension of the inverse of volume. The substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) converts the integrals to the sums of quantities evaluated at the material points, namely,
Np X p1

M p wxt ; t axt ; t p p
Np X p1

M p ss xt ; t : rwjxtp p 17

wxt ; t cs xt ; th1 wxt ; t bxt ; t p p p p

with h being the thickness of the boundary layer. As can be seen from Eq. (17), the interactions among different material points are reected only through the gradient terms. Because there is no xed mesh connectivity in the MPM, impact, localization and the transition from

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096 2075

continuous to discontinuous failure modes can be simulated without the difculties associated with remeshing and master/slave nodes. The momentum equation is solved at the grid nodes. On the boundary between the uid and the structure, the internal forces in mixed soliduid elements determine the interface conditions. Material points within the same computational grid element at a given time step would have the same increment in strain, but have different stress increments because each material point follows its own constitutive equation, as discussed next. 3.2. Fluidstructure interaction Based on the previous work [24], a numerical scheme with the MPM algorithm for uidstructure interaction is developed in this paper. No matter whether the materials are solids or uids, they are discretized to be a set of material points. The initial information, such as mass, density, velocity, stress state, pressure, internal energy and other properties, is assigned at each material point. The effect of the uid on the solid and vice versa will be determined on the grid when the momentum equation is solved at each grid node. The coupling of the uid and solid is indirect in the sense that the pressure from a uid material point is not directly applied to the neighboring solid material points. Instead, the forces from uid and solid material points, f i , are calculated together at grid node, i, where the divergence of the material point stress, based on Eq. (17), is summed as follows: X X r rf V f ;p r ss V s;p ) f i (18)
f s

using the uid and solid stresses, rf and rs, and the respective material point volumes, V f ;p and V s;p . Eq. (18) and Fig. 4 symbolically show accumulation of the grid forces from uid (subscript f) and solid (subscript s) material points. The net effect of the force summation is that the grid forces cause accelerations of neighboring uid and solid material points. There is no interpenetration between uid and solid material points, which is due to the fact that the material points move in a continuous velocity eld obtained by solving the momentum equation. The continuity of the velocity eld implies that material points in the same computational cell will never overlap with each other, and that they move as dictated by the linear velocity eld. Since the material point is history-dependent, it is convenient to carry strain and stress, as well as history variables along with the material points. The MPM applies constitutive equations at material points, which allows easy evaluation and tracking of history-dependent variables. It also allows computations with solids and uids to be performed independently since each material point retains its identity (material properties) throughout the computation. For solids, standard solution schemes for elasticity, plasticity and continuum damage constitutive models are used to evaluate the stress increment and update history variables. For uids, a variety of equations of state can be employed at the material points for different materials. Since two unknowns, etDt p and rtDt , appear in Eq. (12), an iterative procedure is generally required to solve this equation p together with Eqs. (10) and (11) to make the whole system accurate up to ODt2 ODs2 [25] with Ds being the computational mesh size. The detailed description of the proposed algorithm can be found in the Appendix A.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2076 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096
solid material point carrying stress s steel case concrete

explosive

fluid material point carrying stress f X air

Fig. 4. Fluidstructure interaction.

4. Demonstration of the proposed procedure In this section, several numerical examples are given to demonstrate the proposed model-based simulation tool. First, we verify the algorithm for the strong shock through the Riemann problem in one spatial dimension and the SedovTaylor blast wave problem in two spatial dimensions. Next, a concrete wall subjected to a high-velocity steel yer is considered to demonstrate the potential of the proposed procedure in simulating impact, localization and the rate-dependent transition from continuous to discontinuous failure modes. We then examine the algorithm for uidstructure interaction through the piston-container problem and the piston-gas problem. In each simulation, an explicit time integration scheme is used with the time step satisfying the stability criteria. 4.1. Simulation of shock propagation in uid 4.1.1. Riemann problem The simulation of the Riemann problem, a 1D shock tube problem [26], could test the implementation of the MPM uid formulation of strong shocks. The initial state for the Riemann problem consists of a region of high density and pressure on the left, separated by a diaphragm from a region of low density and pressure on the right as shown in Fig. 5. When the diaphragm is suddenly removed, the pressure difference forces the contact discontinuity to move to the right.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096 2077

P = 1.00 L = 1.00 L t=0 u = 0.0 P = 0.001 R R= 0.125 u = 0.0 PL= 1.00 t>0 PR= 0.001

Fig. 5. Riemann uid propagation problem.

The contact discontinuity acts like a piston, creating a shock that propagates to the right through the less dense region and a rarefaction wave that propagates to the left through the denser region. The initial conditions for the Riemann problem are given in Fig. 5, where the subscripts L and R refer to the left and right regions, respectively. An equation of state for perfect gas is used with g 1:40. For these initial conditions, the initial shock waves have a relatively high Mach number M % 14:43 [27]. This is a 1D problem, but it is solved with the MPM in two dimensions, and the solution variables are constant with respect to the y (vertical) direction. A square background grid is used with 200 1 square elements of dimension size of 0.005, and nine material points are initially placed in each grid cell, for a total of 1800 material points. The governing differential equations are nondimensionalized. Fig. 6 shows the density, velocity, pressure and energy proles with both the quasi-analytical solution (dotted line) and simulation results (solid line) at time t 0:143. The simulation is performed with articial viscosity which smoothes the oscillations at the shock front, but also smears the shock slightly. The parameters for the articial viscosity in Eq. (14) are c0 2:0 and c1 1:0. All data are plotted at the material points. The signicant unbalanced physical variables are observed in the rarefaction wave when the material points are crossing the cell boundary, which results in the noise in the rarefaction wave. In general, the simulation matches the quasianalytical solution quite well. 4.1.2. SedovTaylor blast wave problem The classical SedovTaylor blast wave is created on a rectangular grid by setting the pressure at the central zone to certain very high value. The expansion of this high-pressure region drives a spherical blast wave into the surrounding uniform medium. The radial prole of this blast wave should match the quasi-analytical solution of a point explosion in a uniform medium given by Sedov [28]. Fig. 7 illustrates the initial conguration. The computational domain is 0.6 m 0.6 m with square cell size of 0.005 m. The initial high pressure is set as 1.0 GPa at the central four cells with 1.0 Pa at the surrounding medium. An equation of state for perfect gas is used with g 1:67. In order to save computational time as well as fulll the accuracy requirements, we assign various

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2078 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

Fig. 6. Results of Riemann problem simulation with the MPM (dashed line for analytic solution).

numbers of material points into different computational domains: 25 material points are placed in each of central four grid cells; between the radius r 0:01 and 0:05 m, 16 material points are placed in each grid cell; between the radius r 0:05 and 0:10 m, 9 material points are placed in each grid cell. Between the radius r 0:10 and 0:20 m, 4 material points are placed in each grid cell; otherwise, one material point per grid cell is used. The density and pressure distribution at 41.0 ms of the MPM simulations are shown in Fig. 8. Articial viscosity is also employed in this simulation with c0 2:0 and c1 1:0 so that the shock spreads over several cells. As can be seen in Table 1, the peak shock pressure and shock travel distance nearly match the quasi-analytical solution given by Sedov [28]. 4.2. Impact on concrete The computational domain for the model problem is illustrated in Fig. 9 in which a concrete wall is subjected to a high-velocity steel yer. The bifurcation analysis is performed to model the

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096 2079

1.0 GPa

0.6 m

Fig. 7. Initial conguration of SedovTaylor blast wave problem.

transition from continuous failure mode (governed by rate-dependent tensile damage) to discontinuous failure mode (governed by rate-dependent decohesion). Since there is a lack of experimental data in the open literature to calibrate all the model parameters involved, the simulation results presented here could only qualitatively demonstrate the failure evolution in the concrete wall under impact. The following assumptions are made for the purpose of simplicity: No crack closure effect is taken into account. No strain rate effect is considered in the compressive regime. No bifurcation analysis is performed in the compressive regime. The size of the entire computational domain is 1.5 m 1.5 m, which is discretized with a 60 60 uniform grid. Initially, there are four material points in each grid cell. The plane strain state is considered with free boundary conditions. A rate-independent elasticperfectly plastic von Mises model with an associated ow rule is used to describe the steel yer with Youngs modulus E 200:0 GPa, mass density r 7850 kg=m3 and Poissons ratio u 0:29. The yield strength of steel is 500 MPa. For the concrete wall, the model parameters are assigned the following values: Youngs modulus E 25:0 GPa, mass density p 2320 kg=m3 , and Poissons ratio u 0:15, with the fracture toughness r K IC 1:0 Mpa m. Based on the work [14], the model parameters m and k for concrete are 26 3 chosen to be 6 and 5 10 l/m in the tensile regime, respectively. An elasticperfectly plastic DruckerPrager model with a non-associated ow rule is used in the compressive regime of the concrete wall. Note that the rate-dependent damage as described in Section 2 is active in the tensile regime of the concrete wall before the discontinuous bifurcation

0.6 m

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2080 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

10 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 8 6 4 2 0 0 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.05 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15

10 8 6 4 2 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 10 5 0 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

(a)

0.05

x 10
10 8

0.1 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6

Pressure (Pa)

6 4 0.3 2 0.2 0 0.3 0.2 0.1

x (m)

(b)

y (m)

0.1 0

Fig. 8. (a) Density distribution of SedovTaylor blast wave simulation with the MPM and (b) pressure distribution of SedovTaylor blast wave simulation with the MPM.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096 Table 1 Comparison of theoretical and numerical solutions of SedovTaylor blast wave problem at 41.0 ms Peak overpressure (MPa) Quasi-analytical solution Numerical solution 5.23 4.60 Shock travel distance (m) 0.1677 0.1750 2081

1000

50

125 100

Fig. 9. The initial conguration of a plane-strain impact problem (unit: mm).

occurs. At each time step, the bifurcation analysis of acoustic tensor must be performed until the localization line in the strain space of Mohr osculates the major principal circle of strain [16]. As soon as the transition from continuous to discontinuous failure modes is identied, the decohesion model is active with mode I failure being dominant. The failure initiation value, tnp , is found to be the largest principal stress based on the bifurcation analysis. C m is chosen to be 10, and t0 tnp is used for the mode I failure. The reference decohesion scalar, u0 , is assigned to be 4 6 10 m. The parameter y is chosen to be 1.0, which provides a linear relation between the traction and decohesion. The main owchart of implementation of constitutive models for the impact problem is illustrated in Fig. 10. The failure pattern of the concrete wall due to the impact of steel yer at time 0.442 ms is shown in Fig. 11. Note that the normal to decohesion surface at the center point of the concrete wall is parallel to the x-coordinate based on the bifurcation analysis. Also, as can be observed from Fig. 12, the impact induces signicant material failure close to the middle section of the concrete wall. Coupled with the presence of multiple wave reverberations due to geometric effects, the most

100

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2082 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

Compressive regime (P < 0) Pressure (P)

Tensile Regime (P > 0)

Before Bifurcation Drucker-Prager Model After Bifurcation Bifurcation

Continuum Damage Model

Decohesion Model

Fig. 10. The main owchart of implementation of constitutive models for the impact problem.
1.5

y (m) 0.5 0 0

0.5 x (m)

1.5

Fig. 11. The failure pattern with impact velocity being 1500 m/s.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096 2083

intense deformations occur within 23 times of the characteristic dimensions of the yer. Within this region, strain rates in excess of 10,000/s are common, as are large strains, and pressures well in excess of the material strength. In the simulation, we did not make use of the initial symmetry of the problem. The problem as a whole was analyzed and motion of all material points was traced. It is worth noting that the initial symmetry of the system is in general preserved although localized loss of symmetry is observed. As can be seen, the MPM does not exhibit the nite element pathology associated with distorted meshes and instabilities, and the MPM does not exhibit the orientation effect often seen with nite elements when discontinuities are allowed to propagate at various angles to the mesh sizes. Hence, characteristics of impact, localization and the ratedependent transition from continuous to discontinuous failure modes could be qualitatively predicted by the proposed model-based simulation procedure. 4.3. Fluidstructure interaction 4.3.1. Piston-container problem To verify the algorithm for the uidstructure interaction, a piston-container problem is considered rst. Fig. 13 shows the piston-container and its ideal MPM representation. Attached to the piston is a spring of constant K and length L with little mass. The piston can move without friction to compress or expand a compressible, inviscid, and adiabatic uid with density r and bulk modulus B. As can be seen, the interaction between the uid and solid (spring) occurs only at the single interface between the different materials. At this interface, the uid and solid stresses contribute internal forces for the solution of the momentum equation. The objective is to compare the theoretical frequency of vibration [29] with that in the MPM simulation.

1.2 1.1 1 0.9 0.8 y (m)

6 0.
0.2 0.1

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4

0.5

0.1

0.1

0.3 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 X (m) 1

Fig. 12. The damage contour corresponding to Fig. 11.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2084 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

fluid (density , bulk modulus B ) K, L

piston mass m, area Ap heavy material point

1 2

5 6

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

interface
Fig. 13. Conguration for the piston-container MPM simulation.

The continuity, energy, and constitutive relations combine to give the relationship between pressure P and uid particle displacement U as follows: P Br U. (19)

The analytical expression for the natural frequency, o, of vibration of the mass satises the equation q (20) o K rocAp cotoL=c=m 0, p where c is the wave speed B=r, m is the piston mass, and Ap is the cross-sectional area of the piston. The parameters used in Eqs. (19) and (20) for the MPM simulation are assigned the following values: K 1:75 104 N=m, L 0:508 m, Ap 6:45 104 m2 , r 1000:0 kg=m3 , and B 1:09 1010 Pa. The mass density of the piston is 100 times that of the spring. To determine the frequency of vibration, the heavy material point representing the piston is given a small initial velocity and the position of this material point is monitored.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096
time (sec) (m = 175.10 kg dashed line)
0 0.015 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028 0.03 0.032 0.034 0.04

2085

0.03

0.02

0.005 0.01

-0.01 -0.005

-0.02

-0.01 -0.03

-0.015 0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

0.011

0.012

0.013

0.014

-0.04 0.015

time (sec)

(m = 17.51 kg solid line)

Fig. 14. Piston deection in the piston-container simulation.

Table 2 Piston-container periods of vibration Mass (kg) 17.51 175.1 Theoretical o (rad/s) 886.8 281.2 Theoretical period (s) 0.00708 0.02234 MPM simulation period (s) 0.0071 0.0224

Fig. 14 shows the time history of displacements for two different piston masses. The vertical lines in the plot represent the theoretical periods of vibration, as given from the solution of Eq. (20). Table 2 lists the theoretical natural frequencies and periods along with the periods observed in the MPM simulation. As can be seen, the observed periods matches the theoretical ones quite well.

mass deflection (mm) (m = 175.10 kg dashed line)

0.01

mass deflection (mm) (m = 17.51 kg solid line)

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2086 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

steel piston

u0 = 0

perfect gas

u0 = 0

u0 = 26.532 km/s steel piston

0.05 m

0.05 m

0.05 m

Fig. 15. Conguration of piston-gas problem.

9

x 10 2.5 2 1.5 1 stress (Pa) 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2

interface between the gas shock in the gas

and the right piston

shock in the piston

-2.5 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065 0.07 0.075 0.08 X (m)

Fig. 16. A strong shock occurs in a perfect gas at time t 1:3 ms.

4.3.2. Piston-gas problem To further test the ability of the MPM simulation of uidstructure interaction for a strong shock, a piston-gas device is designed as shown in Fig. 15. The perfect gas, with initial velocity u0 0:0, initial pressure P0 1:0 106 Pa, initial density r0 1:2 kg=m3 and g 1:4, is lled between two steel pistons with the left piston being stationary, the right one at initial velocity being 26.352 km/s. The experiment is designed such that the steel piston remains elastic throughout the whole impact process. A square background grid is used with 600 1 square elements of dimension size of 0.25 mm, and one material point is initially placed in each grid cell. According to the Hugoniot equations, a 1.0 GPa shock in the perfect gas is developed, which proceeds from right to left. As can be seen, Fig. 16 illustrates an incident shock pressure in the gas with the magnitude being 1.0 GPa is moving to the left, and a shock wave in the solid piston with the same value along the x-direction is propagating to the right.

5. Simulation of the synergistic effects of blast and fragmentation on a concrete wall The synergistic effects of blast and fragmentation on targets are of great interest in relation to warhead design as well as to safety analysis. In this section, we will use the proposed model-based

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096 2087

simulation tool to conduct a preliminary investigation on the synergistic effects of blast and fragmentation on a concrete wall in a simplied geometry. Due to the lack of experimental data in the open literature to calibrate all the model parameters involved, only qualitative features could be simulated for the interacting physical phenomena such as cased bomb expansion and fragmentation, blast wave expansion through a broken case, and blast and fragment impact on the concrete wall. 5.1. Model problem description As illustrated in Fig. 17, a 25-mm-thick-walled cylindrical bomb is placed in the center of the square box with dimension size of 1.5 m 1.5 m. Because it is a plane-strain problem, the length of the cased bomb and concrete box could be imagined as being innite along the z-direction. Inside the steel case, there is high-explosive material. Between the cased bomb and concrete box, the ambient air is lled. Besides the assumptions made in Section 4.2, the following assumptions are made for the purpose of simplicity: The whole process is assumed under the adiabatic condition. Turbulence ow is not taken into account.

100 150 250

y
100 1500 100

x z

Fig. 17. Initial conguration of cased bomb in the concrete box lled with air (unit: mm).

100

1500

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2088 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

The size of the entire computational domain is 2.0 m 2.0 m, which is discretized with an 80 80 uniform grid. Initially, there are nine material points per grid cell in the explosive charge with one material point per grid cell for the concrete wall, gas and steel case, respectively. An explicit time integration scheme is used with the time step satisfying the stability criteria. The constitutive models and the material properties for concrete and steel case are the same as those given in Section 4.2. The parameters in the JWL equation of state, Eq. (13), for explosive TNT used in the present study are listed in Table 3, in which c0 is the initial ChapmanJouguet (CJ) energy per volume as the total chemical energy of the explosive, and VOD is CJ detonation velocity of the explosive. For the ambient air, the model parameters are assigned the following values: the ratio of specic heat g 1:4, the material density r 1:29 kg=m3 and the initial specic internal energy e 2:0 106 J=kg. 5.2. Evolution of the explosion In order to demonstrate capabilities of the proposed numerical procedure on simulation of the synergistic effects of blast and fragmentation on the concrete wall, the evolution of the explosion with and without steel case is shown in Figs. 18af and 19af for different time steps. Note that the material points for ambient air are not plotted in the gures for the sake of simplicity of illustration. With steel case, the high pressure of the explosive expands the steel case into several chunky fragments. Initially the cylinder is placed in greater and greater hoop stress when it is explosively expanded. A fracture eventually occurs at some point. The fracture presents a free surface, and a relief wave can travel away from it. Fracture can no longer occur in the relieved region, but tensile stress and plastic ow are still growing in the unrelieved region where a new fracture is free to form. Once the steel cylinder breaks up, the explosive material squeezes out the steel case and moves faster than the steel fragments. The concrete wall is rst hit by air pressure. Then it is impacted by steel fragments with high kinetic energy. The dramatically localized deformation can be observed. On the other hand, without steel case, the explosive drives the air faster by comparing Fig. 19b with Fig. 18b. The shock overpressure arrives the concrete wall earlier than that with steel case, but the damage pattern is signicantly different from that with steel case by comparing Fig. 19f with Fig. 18f. It is found that the whole concrete wall expands at the same time without case. Also, the above observations can be inferred from the damage contours in one quarter of the square concrete box, which are illustrated in Figs. 2021. With steel case the damage develops slowly, and localized damage occurs close to the middle section of the concrete wall. On the other hand, without steel case, the damage evolves uniformly along the concrete wall. The considerable discrepancy with and without case is due to the inertia effect of the steel fragments, which changes the energy distribution of the whole system. At the initial time,
Table 3 JWL parameters used for modeling explosive TNT in the present study C1 (GPa) 373.8 C2 (GPa) 3.747 r1 4.15 r2 0.9 o 0.35 c0 (MJ/m3) 6000 VOD (m/s) 6930 r0 (kg/m3) 1630

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096
STEP 1 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 (a) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 STEP 5 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 STEP 9 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 (e) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 (f) 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 (c) 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 (d) 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 STEP 11 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 (b) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 STEP 7 STEP 3

2089

Fig. 18. (a) Explosive prole at time step I with case; (b) explosive prole at time step III with case; (c) explosive prole at time step V with case; (d) explosive prole at time step VII with case; (e) explosive prole at time step IX with case; and (f) explosive prole at time step XI with case.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2090 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096
STEP 1 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 STEP 5 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 (c) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 STEP 9 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 (d) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 STEP 11 (a) 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 STEP 7 (b) STEP 3

2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 (e)

2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 (f)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Fig. 19. (a) Explosive prole at time step I without case; (b) explosive prole at time step III without case; (c) explosive prole at time step V without case; (d) explosive prole at time step VII without case; (e) explosive prole at time step IX without case; and (f) explosive prole at time step XI without case.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096
Step 7 1.8 1.8 Step 13

2091

1.55

1.55

1.3

1.3

1.05

1.05

0.8 0.8 (a)

1.05

1.3

1.55

1.8

0.8 0.8 (b)

1.05

1.3

1.55

1.8

Fig. 20. (a) Damage contour at time step VII with case and (b) damage contour at time step XIII with case.

Step 7 1.8 1.8

Step 13

1.55

1.55

1.3

1.3

1.05

1.05

0.8 0.8 (a)

1.05

1.3

1.55

1.8

0.8 0.8 (b)

1.05

1.3

1.55

1.8

Fig. 21. (a) Damage contour at time step VII without case and (b) damage contour at time step XIII without case.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2092 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

the case fragments absorb the explosive energy as the kinetic energy. Then they release it when they impact the concrete wall. It is worth noting that no interpenetration occurs and the impact/ contact is automatic with no additional computational cost. The interface conditions for uidstructure interaction are satised naturally. Based on the simulation results with and without case, a better understanding of the synergistic effects of blast and fragmentation on the concrete wall in explosion could be obtained through this numerical study. The proposed MPM procedure could be a potential numerical tool to explore the synergistic effects on impact/blastresistant structural design.

6. Conclusion A moving discretization method in a single computational domain, which can accommodate different discontinuities and material failures, has been developed based on the MPM. The modelbased simulation tool proposed for the evaluation of explosive effects could couple CFD and CSD within a single computational domain. A rate-dependent local continuum damage/plasticity model is combined with a rate-dependent decohesion model via the bifurcation analysis so that the governing differential equations remain well posed for given boundary and/or initial data. Since no higher order terms in space are introduced into the stressstrain relations, the proposed procedure is sound in physics and efcient in computation. To demonstrate the potential of the proposed procedure, we have performed a series of 1D and 2D simulations such as a concrete-steel impact problem in solid mechanics, the Riemann problem and the SedovTaylor blast wave problem for gas dynamics, and the piston-container problem and the piston-gas problem for uidstructure interaction. As shown from the preliminary results, the proposed model-based simulation procedure could be used to study the synergistic effects on impact/blast-resistant structural design in a single computational domain. An integrated experimental, analytical and computational effort is required to verify and validate the proposed procedure for general applications.

Acknowledgements This research is partially sponsored by the US-NSF. The authors would like to thank Prof. Sam A. Kiger at the University of Missouri-Columbia for valuable joint discussion on explosive engineering. The authors are also grateful to reviewers for discerning comments on this paper.

Appendix A In order to further clarify the main idea and originality of the proposed procedure, a detailed description of the proposed MPM for the uidstructure interaction is given here at given time, with the left superscript k denoting an object. (I) For each material point, perform the mapping operation from the material point to the nodes of the cell containing the material point.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096 2093

For any object k, the mapping operator for the particle mass is given by
k

mt i

Np X p1

M p N i k xt , p

(A.1)

where k mt is the mass of object k at node i at time t, k M p the particle mass of object k, k xt the i p location of the material point of object k at time t, and k N p the number of the material points of object k. The mapping operator for the particle momentum takes the form of
k

mvt i

Np X p1

Mvt N i k xt , p p

(A.2)

where k mvt denotes the nodal momentum of object k at node i at time t, k Mvt the particle i p momentum of object k at time t. Find the internal force vector at the cell nodes,
k

f t int i

Np X p1

Gi k xt k rt p p

Mp k rt p

(A.3)

in which Gi k xt is the gradient of the shape function associated with node i evaluated at k xt , k rt p p p the particle stress tensor of object k at time t, k rt the particle mass density of object k at time t. p (II) Apply the essential and natural boundary conditions to the cell nodes, and compute the nodal force vector,
k t fi

k f t int k f t ext , i i

(A.4)

represents the external nodal force vector at node i. where (III) Update the momenta at the cell nodes,
k

k f t ext i

mvtDt k mvt k f t Dt. i i i

(A.5)

(IV) For each material point, perform the mapping operation from the nodes of the cell containing the material point to the material point. Map the nodal accelerations back to the material point,
k t ap

Nn X kft i N i k xt p k mt i i1

(A.6)

with N n being the number of mesh nodes. Map the current nodal velocities back to the material point,
k tDt vp

Nn X k mvtDt i1 i k mt i

N i k xt . p

(A.7)

Compute the current particle velocity to evaluate the strain increments,

k tDt vp

k vt k at Dt. p p

(A.8)

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2094 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

Compute the current particle position,

k tDt xp

k xt k vtDt Dt. p p k xtDt k x0 , p p

(A.9)

Eq. (A.9) represents a backward integration. Compute the particle displacement vector,
k tDt up

(A.10)

where k x0 is the initial location of the material point of object k. p (V) Map the updated particle momenta back to the nodes of the cell containing these material points,
k

mvtDt i

Np X p1

MvtDt N i k xt . p p

(A.11)

(VI) Find the updated nodal velocities,

k tDt vi k

mvtDt i . k mt i

(A.12)

(VII) Apply the essential and natural boundary conditions to the nodes of the cells containing the boundary material points. (VIII) Find the current gradient of particle velocity,
k

LtDt p

Np X i1

k tDt v i Gi k x t p

(A.13)

and the particle strain increment,

k

DetDt symk LtDt Dt, p p k DetDt =Dt, p k rt =1 tracek DetDt . p p

(A.14) (A.15) (A.16)

k tDt _ ep k tDt rp

(IX) Update the stress of the material point based on the specic constitutive models relating to the uids and solids. (IX(a)) For the solid material point, obtain the stress increments by
k

DrtDt T : k DetDt , p p k rt k DrtDt . p p

(A.17)

where T is the tangential stiffness tensor, then update the particle stress tensor,
k tDt rp

(A.18)

(IX(b)). For the uid material point, obtain the initial specic internal energy of the material points by
k tDt ep

_p k et k rt : k etDt =k rtDt Dt p p p

(A.19)

ARTICLE IN PRESS
W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096 2095

and update the pressure of the uid material point through the equation of state as
k

PtDt g 1k rtDt k etDt . p p p _p _p 2mN k etDt lN tracek etDt I k PtDt I. p

k t rp

(A.20)

Next compute the particle stress tensor for the uid material point
k tDt rp

(A.21)

Then update the internal energy by _p (A.22) : k etDt =k rtDt Dt. p 2 Repeat Eqs. (A.20)(A.22) until the specic internal energy solution is converged. (X) Identify which cell each material point belongs to, and update the natural coordinates of the material point. This is the convective phase for the next time increment. The computational cycle is complete for this time increment.
k tDt ep k t ep

k rtDt p

References
[1] Cooper PW. Explosives engineering. New York: VCH Publishers Inc.; 1996. [2] Zukas JA, Walters WK, editors. Explosive effects and applications. New York: Springer; 1998. [3] Baker WE, Cox PA, Westine PS, Kulesz JJ, Strehlow RA. Explosion hazards and evaluation. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientic Publishing Company; 1983. [4] Baum JD. Fluidstructure interaction for structural failure assessment. Proceedings of the eighth annual conference of computational uid dynamics, Montreal, Canada, 2000. [5] Fairlie GE. The numerical simulation of high explosives using AUTODYN-2D & 3D. Proceedings of the Explo 98. Institute of explosives fourth biannual symposium, 1998. [6] Luttwak G, Cowler MS. Advanced Eulerian techniques for the numerical simulation of impact and penetration using AUTODYN-3D. Proceedings of the ninth international symposium on interaction of the effects of munitions with structures, Berlin, Germany, 1999. [7] Brackbill JU, Ruppel HM. FLIP: a method of adaptively zoned, particle-in-cell calculations of uid ows in two dimensions. J Comput Phys 1986;65:31443. [8] Brackbill JU, Ruppel HM. FLIP: a low-dissipation, particle-in-cell method for uid ow. Comput Phys Commun 1988;48:2538. [9] Sulsky D, Chen Z, Schreyer HL. A particle method for history-dependent materials. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 1994;118:17996. [10] Sulsky D, Zhou SJ, Schreyer HL. Application of a particle-in-cell method to solid mechanics. Comput Phys Commun 1995;87(1-2):23652. [11] Sulsky D, Schreyer HL. Axisymmetric form of the material point method with applications to upsetting and Taylor impact problems. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 1996;139(14):40929. [12] Chen Z, Hu W, Shen L, Xin X, Brannon R. An evaluation of the MPM for simulating dynamic failure with damage diffusion. Eng Fract Mech 2002;69:187390. [13] Chen Z, Hu W. On the continuous and discontinuous approaches for simulating localized damage. In: Labuz JF, Drescher A, editors. Proceedings of the international workshop on bifurcations & instabilities in geomechanics, IWBI 2002. Minneapolis, MN, USA: A.A. Balkema Publishers; 2002. [14] Taylor LM, Chen EP, Kuszmaul JS. Microcrack-induced damage accumulation in brittle rock under dynamic loading. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 1986;55:30120. [15] Chen Z, Hu W, Chen EP. Simulation of dynamic failure evolution in brittle solids without using nonlocal terms in the strainstress space. CMES-Comput Model Eng Sci 2000;1(4):5762.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2096 W. Hu, Z. Chen / International Journal of Impact Engineering 32 (2006) 20662096

[16] Chen Z, Deng M, Chen EP. Rate-dependent transition from tensile damage to discrete fracture in dynamic brittle failure. Theor Appl Fract Mech 2001;35(3):22935. [17] Xu XP, Needleman A. Numerical simulations of fast crack growth in brittle solids. J Mech Phys Solids 1994(42):1397434. [18] Schreyer HL, Sulsky DL, Zhou SJ. Modeling delamination as a strong discontinuity with the material point method. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 2002;191(2324):2483507. [19] Dobratz BM, Crawford PC. LLNL explosives handbook: properties of chemical explosives and explosive simulants, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 1985. [20] von Neumann J, Richtmyer RD. A method for the numerical calculation of hydrodynamical shocks. J Appl Phys 1950;21:2327. [21] Wilkins ML. Use of articial viscosity in multidimensional uid dynamic calculations. J Comput Phys 1980;36:281303. [22] Hallquist JO. LS-DYNAtheoretical manual. Livermore, USA: Livermore Software Technology Corporation; 1998. [23] Hu W, Chen Z. A multi-mesh MPM for simulating the meshing process of spur gears. Comput Struct 2003;81:19912002. [24] York AR, Sulsky D, Schreyer HL. Fluidmembrane interaction based on the material point method. Int J Numer Methods Eng 2000;48(6):90124. [25] Richtmyer RD, Morton KW. Difference methods for initial-value problems. New York: Wiley; 1967. [26] Laney CB. Computational gasdynamics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1998. [27] Landau LD, Lifshitz EM. Fluid mechanics. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press; 1987. [28] Sedov LI. Similarity and dimensional methods in mechanics. New York: Academic Press Inc.; 1959. [29] Olson LG, Bathe KJ. A study of displacement-based uid nite elements for calculating frequencies of uid and uidstructure systems. Nucl Eng Des 1983;76:13751.