Employee Satisfaction and Commitment Chapter 10 Why Should We Care About Employee Attitudes? 1.

Two most common job related attitudes studied by psychologists are job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Theyre highly correlated and result in similar employee behaviours. Meta-analyses indicate that satisfied employees tend to be committed to an org. 2. Relationship between job satisfaction and performance not consistent across people or jobs. For complex jobs, stronger relationship btwn job satisfaction and performance than for jobs of low/medium complexity. Employees with strong, consistent beliefs about level of job satisfaction have stronger relationship btwn job satisfaction and performance than employees with not so developed job satisfaction attitudes. 3. Many other factors affecting work behavior. Often find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviours. What Causes Employees to be Satisfied with and Committed to their Jobs? 1. Important to note that both these work-related attitudes are multifaceted. Employees may be satisfied with one facet of work (pay) but not another (coworkers). Most commonly studied facets of job satisfaction are pay, supervision, coworkers, work, and promotion opportunities. 2. Thought to be three facets to organizational commitment. a. Affective commitment: extent to which employee wants to remain with org, cares about org, and willing to exert effort on its behalf. b. Continuance commitment: extent to which employee believes she must remain with org due to time, expense, and effort shes already put in or the difficulty she would have in finding another job. c. Normative commitment: extent to which employee feels obligated to org, and as a result, must remain with the org. (Employee may feel ethically obligated to remain with org b/c of its extensive investment in her) What Individual Difference Affect Job Satisfaction? 1. One of the factors (called antecedents) that influence levels of job satisfaction and commitment is our person predisposition to be satisfied. Individual difference theory postulates that some variability in job satisfaction is due to an individuals personal tendency across situations to enjoy what she does. Certain people will generally be satisfied/motivated regardless of type of job they hold.

2. For individual difference theory to be true, essential that job satisfaction be consistent across time and situations. 3. Next question concerns types of people that seem to be consistently satisfied with their jobs. Research in this area has focused on genetic predispositions, core self evaluations, and life satisfaction. a. Genetic predispositions: i. Controversial set of studies suggests that job satisfaction not only fairly stable across jobs, but also genetically determined. ii. Avery compared job satisfaction of 34 sets of identical twins separated at early birth. If job satisfaction purely environmental, should be no correlation between levels of job satisfaction for identical twins raised in diff environments/working diff jobs. iii. On basis of 3 studies, Avery found 30% of job satisfaction explainable by genetic factors. Inherited personality traits such as negative affectivity (tendency to have negative emotions like fear, hostility, anger) are related to our tendency to be satisfied with jobs. iv. Implications: May be that some people will not be satisfied with any jobs. Maybe higher only applicants with high levels of overall job and life satisfaction? Controversial! b. Core Self-Evaluations: i. Certain types of personalities are associated with the tendency to be satisfied/dissatisfied with ones job. ii. Four personality variables related to peoples predisposition to be satisfied with life/jobs: emotional stability, self esteem, self-efficacy (perceived ability to master environment), and external locus of control (perceived ability to control their environment). iii. People satisfied with jobs/life in general have high self-esteem, emotionally stable, and believe they have control over their lives c. Culture: i. Workers in different countries have diff levels of job satisfaction. Employees in Denmark (UK) most satisfied, employees in South America and Asia the lowest. d. Intelligence: i. Study by Ganzach suggests that bright people have slightly lower job satisfaction than do less intelligence employees in jobs that are not complex. In complex jobs, relationship btwn intelligence and satisfaction is negligible (unimportant) Are Employees Satisfied with Other Aspects of their Lives?

1. Psychologists have theorized not only that job satisfaction is consistent across time but that the extent to which a person is satisfied with all aspects of life (marriage, friends, job, family, geographic location) is consistent as well. 2. People happy in life tend to be happy in their jobs and vice versa. 3. That life satisfaction can influence job satisfaction in the vast majority of people is an important finding. A mistake weve made for years is to assume that a job must satisfy all of a persons needs. Employees needs can be met in a variety of nonwork activities such as hobbies and volunteer work. 4. Interesting study demonstrates the important of individual differences. People unhappy in life and unhappy on their jobs will not leave their jobs because they are used to being unhappy. But ppl who are normally happy in life, being unhappy at work seen as reason to find another job. Are Employees Job Expectations Being Met? 1. Employees come to job with certain needs, values and expectations. If theres a discrepancy btwn these needs and reality of job, employees becomes dissatisfied and less motivated. Meta-analyses concludes that this results in lower job satisfaction, decreased org commitment, and increased intent to leave org. 2. This supports that importance of ensuring applicants have realistic job expectations. Another study investigates effects of an org not fulfilling its promises and obligations job satisfaction, org commitment, and intent to stay with org goes down. 3. Results of these 2 meta-analyses support importance of ensuring applicants have realistic job expectations and promises made to employees must be kept Is the Employee a Good Fit with the Job and the Org? 1. Consider the extent to which an employees values, interests, personality, lifestyle and skills match those of their vocation, job, organization, coworkers, and supervisor. 2. Needs/supplies fit is also important, it is the extent to which rewards, salary, and benefits received by employees are perceived to be consistent with their efforts and performance 3. Employees who perceive a god fit with their org, job, coworkers, and supervisors tend to be satisfied with their jobs, identify and remain with the org, perform better, ad engage in organizational citizenship behaviours 4. Another fit factor is extent to which employees desire for particular work schedule matches their actual work schedule. The better the fit, greater the job satisfaction, org commitment, etc. Are the Tasks Enjoyable? 1. Research is fairly clear that employees who find their work interesting are more satisfied and motivated than employees who do not enjoy their jobs.

Do Employees Enjoy Working With Supervisors and Coworkers? 1. Research indicates that people who enjoy working with their supervisors and coworkers will be more satisfied with their jobs. 2. A study found that satisfaction with supervisors and coworkers was related to organizational and team commitment, which in turn results in higher productivity, lower intent to leave, and greater willingness to help. Are Coworkers Outwardly Unhappy? 1. Social information processing theory, also called social learning theory, postulates that employees observe the levels of motivation and satisfaction of other employees and then model those levels. If orgs older employees work hard and talk positively about their jobs and employer, new employees will model this behavior and be both productive and satisfied. Reverse is also true. 2. Experiments involving subjects being exposed to both positive and negative comments about their jobs support the social information processing theory. Subjects exposed to positive comments enjoyed the task more than subjects exposed to negative comments. 3. Research on this theory supports the idea that the social environment does have an effect on employees attitudes and behaviours. As with all the theories in this chapter, it plays a role in job satisfaction but does not play the only role. Are Rewards and Resources Given Equitably? 1. One factor related to both job satisfaction and employee motivation is the extent to which employees perceive that they are being treated fairly. Equity theory is based on the premise that our levels of job satisfaction and motivation are related to how fairly we believe we are treated in comparison to others. If we believe we are treated unfairly, we attempt to change our beliefs/behaviours until the situation appears to be fair. 2. Research on equity has recently expanded into what researchers call distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice. a. Distributive justice: perceived fairness of the actual decisions made in an org b. Procedural justice: perceived fairness of the methods used to arrive at the decision c. Interactional justice: perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment employees receive. 3. Meta-analysis indicate that perceived justice is related to several important factors including job satisfaction, organizational commitment, performance, trust, withdrawal (turnover, absenteeism), and negative employee reactions (theft, sabotage). Essential that employers be open about how decisions are made, take time to develop fair procedures, and provide feedback to employees who might not be happy with the decisions made.

4. Problem with equity and justice theories: difficult to implement. Based on the theories, best way to keep employees satisfied is to treat them all fairly, entailing us to pay the most to employees who contribute the most. Difficult to implement for several reasons: a. Practicality: org can control variables like salary, hours worked, but cant control other variables like how far employee lives from work or number of friends made on job b. Employees perception of inputs and outputs determines equity, not the actual inputs and outputs. Sometimes peoples perception does not match reality. 5. Important that employees base judgments on factual information. According to surveys, people who understood how their pay was determined were more satisfied with their jobs. To increase perceptions of equity, org need to better explain their compensation systems 6. Another way to increase perceptions of equity is to allow employees access to the salaries of other employees. In the private sector, org keep such info confidential, which encourages ppl to speculate and believe others make more than they do. Probably best interest of org to make salary/performance info available to all employees, with each employees permission. 7. However, employees mat still compare ratios with those of employees from other orgs. Orgs have little/no control over anothers policies. Also, perceptions of wages and benefits at other orgs most likely more distorted than internal perceptions. Maintaining high level of employee satisfaction still difficult! Is there a Chance for Growth and Challenge? 1. For many employees, job satisfaction is affected by opportunities for challenge and growth. Maslow thought that the need for growth and challenge (self-actualization), is important only after low-level needs (safety, social) have been met. 2. To help satisfy employee self-actualization needs, org can do many things. Easiest and most common are job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment. 3. With job rotation and job enlargement, employee learns how to use several diff machines/conduct several diff tasks within org. With rotation, employee given same number of tasks to do at one time, but tasks change from time to time. With enlargement, employee given more tasks to do at one time. 4. Job can be enlarged in 2 ways, knowledge used and tasks performed. Knowledge enlargement: employees allowed to make more complex decisions. Task enlargement: given more tasks of same difficulty level to perform. Satisfaction increases with knowledge enlargement and decreases with task enlargement. 5. Job rotation and enlargement accomplish 2 main objectives. First, they challenge employees by requiring them to learn to operate several diff machines/perform diff tasks. Second, rotation alleviates boredom by allowing employees to change tasks. 6. With job enrichment, employee assumes more responsibility over the tasks. The job characteristics model (chapter 9) theorized that enriched jobs are most satisfying.

Enriched jobs allow variety of skills to be used, allow employees to complete entire task, involve tasks with meaning/importance, allow employees to make decisions, and provide feedback about performance. Hackman developed the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) to measure the extent to which these characteristics are present in a given job. 7. Look at the job of a college professor, job enrichment is clearly inherent because she gets to decide what to research and what to teach which leads to higher job satisfaction. For an assembly line worker however, minimal control over the way job is done. How to enrich typical factory workers job? a. One method: give workers more responsibility over job. At a aluminum production plant, time clocks were removed so workers could assume more responsibility for their performance by keeping track of own hours. Employees can also increase their decision making powers through credit unions (committees and boards) even thought decisions not directly related to the job b. Another method: show employees that their jobs have meaning and that theyre meeting some worthwhile goal through their work. c. Final method: use of self-directed teams or quality circles. With quality circles, employees meet as a group to discuss and make recommendations about work issues (music played in work area, reducing waste, improving production). Metaanalysis indicates that quality circles increase job satisfaction and commitment for employees in private sector but not those in public agencies. Integration of Theories 1. Individual-difference theories say that each of us brings to a job an initial tendency to be satisfied with life and its various aspects such as work. 2. Research indicates that in addition to genetics, traits such a internal locus of control, Type A behavior, patience/tolerance, and social trust are related to our tendency to be satisfied with work. Surrette and Harlow found that ppl will be most satisfied if they have option to choose job from other alternatives rather than the job being their only choice. Once employed though, most satisfied when they dont have other career alternatives. 3. Certain events and conditions can occur over our years at work that add to/decrease our initial level of satisfaction due to personal predispositions. 4. According to discrepancy theories: well remain satisfied with our job if it meets our various needs, wants, expectations, and values. But these things vary across individuals. By being aware of employee needs, we can select employees whose needs are consistent with the requirements and characteristics of the job. 5. According to the intrinsic satisfaction theory and job characteristics theory, well be more satisfied with our jobs if the tasks themselves are enjoyable to perform. But what makes a task enjoyable varies across individuals

6. Overall satisfaction can be affected by our satisfaction with individual facets of the job. An incompetent boss, terrible coworkers, or low pay can lessen overall job satisfaction. According to social learning theory, well be more satisfied if our coworkers are satisfied. 7. And no matter how much we intrinsically like our work, equity and justice theories predict that we will become dissatisfied if rewards, punishments and social interactions are not given equitably. 8. On the basis of job characteristics theory and Maslows level of self-actualization, lack of opportunity for growth, challenge, variety, autonomy, and advancement will decrease satisfaction for many people. 9. Results of these factors are summed to indicate an employees current level of satisfaction. As conditions change, so will the level of satisfaction. Measuring Job Satisfaction and Commitment Generally, job satisfaction is measured in one of two ways: standard job satisfaction inventories or custom-designed satisfaction inventories. Commitment is usually measured through standard commitment inventories. Commonly Used Standard Inventories Measures of Job Satisfaction 1. One of the first methods for measuring job satisfaction developed by Kunin and called the Faces Scale. Easy to use but not longer commonly administered partly because it lacks sufficient detail, construct validity, and employees believe its so simple its demeaning. 2. Most commonly used scale today is the Job Descriptive Index (JDI). Developed by Smith, Kendall, and Hulin and consists of a series of job-related adjectives and statements that are rated by employees. Scales yield scores on 5 dimensions of job satisfaction: supervision, pay promotional opportunities, coworkers, and the work itself. 3. Similar measure of job satisfaction is the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), developed by Weiss, Dawis, England and Lofquist. Contains 100 items that yield scores on 20 scales. 4. Fact that JDI has 5 scales and MSQ 20 underscores the point that job satisfaction is not easy to measure. Especially true since employees responses on the JDI not highly correlated with responses on the MSQ. 5. Because both JDI and MSQ measure specific aspects of job satisfaction, Ironson, Smith and others developed the Job in General (JIG) scale. JIG useful when org wants to measure overall level of job satisfaction rather than specific aspects. 6. Nagy criticized many of the standard measures of job satisfaction because these measures ask only if employees satisfied with particular aspect of their job, not how important this job aspect is to them. However, recall that people differ about what is important to them.

Therefore Nagy created that Nagy Job Satisfaction Scale, which includes 2 questions per facet: one asking how important the facet is to the employee and the other asking how satisfied the employee is with the facet. Measures of Commitment 1. Most measures of organizational commitment are relatively short and tap aspects similar to the 3 types of commitment mentioned previously: affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. Most commonly used measure of org commitment is that developed by Allen and meyer. 2. The Allen and meyer survey has 24 items, 8 each for the 3 factors of affective, continuance, and normative commitment. Examples of questions given in textbook (pg 386). 3. Other measures include: a. Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ): 15 item questionnaire developed by Mowday, Steers, and Porter to measure 3 commitment factors: acceptance of orgs values and goals, willingness to work to help the org, and a desire to remain with the org. Although questions tap 3 factors, most ppl using the scale combine the factors to yield one overall commitment score. b. Organizational Commitment Scale (OCS): 9 item survey developed by Balfour tat measures 3 aspects of commitment: identification, exchange, and affiliation. Custom Designed Inventories 1. Though most research on job satisfaction conducted using one or more of the previously mentioned standard inventories, most orgs tap their employees levels of job satisfaction by using custom-designed inventories. The advantage is that org can ask employee questions specific to the org. Consequences of Dissatisfaction and Other Negative Work Attitudes Absenteeism 1. When employees are dissatisfied/not committed to the org, more likely to miss work and leave their jobs than satisfied/committed employees. 2. Comparing U.S. absenteeism rates with those in other countries difficult b/c many other countries require employers to provide paid days off for absenteeism. Huge international differences in absenteeism. Orgs throughout the world concerned with absenteeism, not only b/c of its high monetary cost, but because absenteeism correlated with turnover and thought to be a warning sign of intended turnover. 3. Because of the high costs of absenteeism and turnover, orgs are expending great effort to reduce the number of unscheduled absences. For these efforts to be effective, important

to understand why employees miss work. Top 3 reasons were attending to personal errands, catching up on sleep, and relaxing. Linking Attendance to Consequences 1. Basis behind rewarding attendance and punishing absenteeism is that employees make a decision each day as to whether they will or will not attend work. Decision process probably includes weighing the consequences of going to work against not going. 2. If employees make conscious decisions about attending work, attendance can be increased in several ways: rewarding attendance, disciplining absenteeism, and keeping accurate attendance records. Rewards for Attending Attendance can be increased through the use of financial incentives, time off, and recognition programs. 1. Financial Incentives a. Financial incentive programs use money to reward employees for achieving certain levels of attendance. One of these programs, well pay, involves paying employees for their unused sick leave (pay employees $100 for each unused absence). Meta-analyses found that well pay programs were the top method for reducing absenteeism. b. Second method provides a financial bonus to employees who attain a certain level of attendance. Employee with perfect attendance over a year might receive $1000 bonus. c. Third financial incentive method is to use games to reward employees who attend work. Meta-analysis by Wagner found that the mean effect size for games was close to 0. 2. Time Off a. Another approach is the paid time off program (PTO) or paid-leave bank (PLB). With this style of program, vacation, personal, holiday, and sick days are combined into one category-paid time off. Traditional system has set number of days for each category, vacation, sick ,etc. With a PTO program, employee who is seldom sick has more days to use for vacation and is protected in case of a longterm illness, and the org saves money by reducing the total number of unscheduled absences. b. Human resources directors rate these programs as the most effective absence control methods. c. In many PTO programs, employee can bank time off to use at a later date! 3. Recognition Programs

a. One other way we can make work attendance more rewarding is through recognition and praise. Formal recognition programs provide employees with perfect attendance certificates, plaques, mugs, watches, etc. HR directions dont perceive these programs to be as effective as many of the other programs. b. Though incentive programs can be effective at increasing attendance, many orgs eliminating perfect-attendance incentives out of concern that such programs might violate the Family Medical Leave Act. Discipline for Not Attending 1. Absenteeism can be reduced by punishing/disciplining employees who miss work. Discipline can range from giving a warning or a less popular work assignment to firing. Works fairly well, especially when combined with some positive reinforcement for attending Clear Policies and Better Record Keeping 1. Another way to increase the negative consequences of missing work is through policy and record keeping. Most orgs measure absenteeism by counting number of days missed, or frequency. Perhaps better method would be to record number of instances of absenteeism rather than the number of days. Instead of giving 12 days of sick leave, employees given 3 or 4 instances (missing 1 or 3 consecutive days each counts as one instance). 2. By decreasing the number of times that person can miss work, odds increase that the employee will use sick leave only for actual illness. Odds can further increase by requiring doctors excuse for missing consecutive days. 3. Absenteeism can be decreased by setting attendance goals and by providing feedback on how well the employees are reaching those goals. Studies reveal that employees think their attendance is above average and estimate absenteeism of their coworkers at level 2 times higher than actual figures. One reason employees miss work is b/c they incorrectly believe their attendance is at a higher level than their coworkers. Providing feedback to employees about their absenteeism levels may be one way to reduce absenteeism. Increasing Attendance by Reducing Employee Stress 1. Absenteeism can be reduced by removing the negative factors employees associate with going to work. One of the most important of these factors is stress, greater the job stress, lower the job satisfaction and commitment, higher the probability that ppl will skip work. 2. Many sources of stress at work: physical danger, boredom, overload, conflict, and bad management practices. These negative factors must be eliminated to increase attendance. 3. First step: become aware of the negative factors that bother employees. Determined by asking supervisors or by distributing employee questionnaires. Once problems known, important that management diligently work to eliminate these.

4. To help employees cope with stress and personal problems, 75% of employers offer some form of employee assistance program (EAP). EAPs use professional counselors to deal with employee problems. 5. Little empirical evidence supports the effectiveness of EAPs but orgs use them and are pleased with them. Increasing Attendance by Reducing Illness 1. To reduce absenteeism related to illness, orgs are implementing a variety of wellness programs (listed on pg 392). 2. To reduce both absenteeism and health care costs, many employers are rewarding (reduction in employees health care premium) employees whose body mass index, cholesterol levels, and blood pressure levels are within acceptable ranges. 3. Meta-analysis suggest that worksite fitness programs have a small but significant effect on reducing absenteeism, and that they increase job satisfaction but do not reduce health problems Reducing Absenteeism by Not Hiring Absence-Prone Employees 1. Interesting theory of absenteeism postulates that one reason people miss work is the result of personality traits they possess. Research shows that individuals high in personality trait of conscientiousness and low in extraversion were least likely to miss work. Uncontrollable Absenteeism Caused by Unique Events 1. Many times individual will miss work b/c of events/conditions beyond managements control. For example: bad weather. Many orgs have started in/moved to the so called Sunbelt in last 2 decades. Orgs may also want to offer some type of shuttle service. 2. One study found that job satisfaction best predicted attendance on days with poor weather. In bad weather, only those employees with high job satisfaction attended! Turnover Cost of Turnover 1. Employees with low job satisfaction and low org commitment are more likely to quit their jobs and change careers. Turnover is a problem because the cost of losing an employee is estimated at 1.5 times the employees salary. Visible and hidden costs determine this estimate 2. Visible costs: advertising charges, employment agency fees, referral bonuses, recruiting travel costs, etc. Hidden costs include loss of productivity associated with employee leaving, lower productivity associated with new employee being trained, etc.

3. Four views on the effect of performance on such factors as safety, productivity, and profitability (page 394 top) 4. Though all 4 theories make good sense, research seems to support idea that employee leaving an org will most affect orgs performance when monthly turnover rate for org is low and will have diminishing effect on performance when turnover rate is high. Reducing Turnover 1. Because of the high cost of turnover, as well as its negative effect on organizational performance, orgs make tremendous efforts to reduce number of quality employees that quit their jobs. 2. First step in reducing turnover: find out why employees are leaving. Done by administering attitude surveys to current employees and conducting exit interviews with employees whore leaving. Surveys important b/c there appears to be a disconnect btwn reasons managers think employees leave and actual reasons (managers always think money). 3. Understand that turnover is a process of disengagement from the org that can take days, or months. Employees have been thinking about it for period of time, so better communication btwn employees and management might prevent the ultimate decision to leave. Employees leave for 1 of 5 reasons: a. Unavoidable reasons: reasons such as school starting or ending, job transfer of spouse, employee illness/death, family issues. Really little org can do to prevent this b. Advancement: employees pursue promotions/better pay. Org needs more promotion opportunities, paying more money works only if low compensation/inadequate benefits package is prime reason for employees leaving the org. c. Unmet Needs: Employees whose needs are unmet will become dissatisfied and perhaps leave the org. To reduce turnover caused by this, org must consider the person/organization fit when selecting employees. d. Escape: to escape from people, working conditions, and stress. When conflict btwn an employee and supervisor/coworker/customers become unbearable, employee will leave. Important to effectively deal with conflict. Likewise with working conditions. Providing a mentor to help the employee deal with workplace problems may reduce turnover. e. Unmet Expectations: Employees come to an org with certain expectations about a variety of issues, such as pay, working conditions, opportunity for advancement and org culture. When reality doesnt match expectations, employees less satisfied and more likely to leave org. This can be reduced by providing applicants with realistic job previews. f. To summarize (bottom of page 395)

4. Many times employees remain with org even though characteristics of their jobs suggest they would leave. Lee, Mitchell and others suggest that the extent to which an employee is embedded in the org/community might explain this lack of turnover. Embeddedness described as extent to which employees have links to their jobs and community, importance of these links, and the ease with which these links could be broken and reestablished elsewhere. Thus if employee has many friends at work or in the community, actively involved in community orgs, difficult to leave org if only alternative was to relocate to another community. Counterproductive Behaviours 1. Employees unhappy with their jobs miss work, late to work, and quit their jobs at higher rates than employees who are satisfied/commited. These dissatisfied employees also engage in variety of other counterproductive behaviours in orgs. 2. Two types of counterproductive behaviours: those aimed at individuals and those aimed at the org. 3. Aimed at individuals: gossip, negative politics, harassment, bullying, etc. Aimed at org: theft and sabotage. Such behaviours provide ways for employees to get back at the org/coworkers they believe responsible for lack of happiness. Lack of Organizational Citizenship Behaviours 1. Employees who engage in organizational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) are motivated to help the org and their coworkers by doing the little things theyre not required to do. 2. Examples include staying late to get project done, helping coworker, mentoring new employee, etc. 3. Meta-analysis demonstrated that job satisfaction is related to OCBs. Employees who are satisfied with their jobs and committed to the org more likely to go the extra mile. Also, meta-analysis shoes negative correlation btwn OCBs and employee counterproductive behavior. CHAPTER 13 BIATCHHHHHHHHHHHH Group Dynamics Definition of a Group 1. No agreed-upon definition of a group. Some experts use general definition that basically defines a group as 2 or more people who perceive themselves as a group and interact in some way. Others defs require that a group must involve some degree of structure and permanency. 2. We prefer the definition used by Gordon (2001), who believes that for a collection of ppl to be called a group, following 4 criteria must be met: a) members must see themselves as

a unit, b) group must provide rewards to its members, c) anything that happens to one member of the group affects every other member; and d) members of the group must share a common goal. Multiple Members who Perceive themselves as a Unit 1. First criterion: Group must have multiple members. At least 2 people necessary, and they must see themselves as a unit. Group Rewards 1. Second criterion: membership must be rewarding for each individual in group, then only will people join or form a group. 2. Four students studying: if none of the four would have otherwise studied independently, then the four students would be considered a group b/c being together was rewarding. Even if they didnt talk, the fact that they were together provided the structure for them to study. Corresponding Effects 1. Third group criterion: event that affects one group member should affect all group members. This requirement is called corresponding effects. If the activities of the other four bank tellers change as a result of one teller leaving, the five might be considered a group. Common Goals 1. Final criterion: all members must have a common goal. 2. We will learn many factors affecting group performance in this chapter, and if we apply what we learn, will be effective in changing performance only if collection of individuals is actually a group. Reasons for Joining Groups Assignment 1. Most common reason for joining groups is that employees are assigned to them. Physical Proximity 1. Strong reason that person might join particular group (especially if group is informal), is physical proximity. People tend to form groups with ppl who either live or work nearby. Affiliation

1. Affiliation involves our need to be with other people. One reason ppl join groups is to be near and talk to others. Research shows our need for affiliation is very strong. Being with others increases job satisfaction and decreases turnover according to researchers 2. WAR example in textbook, prisoners who were kept in groups and remained together for longer periods of time made more escape attempts, suffered fewer deaths and provided information less frequently to the enemy than their isolated counterparts in Korea and Vietnam 3. If ppl not allowed the opportunity for affiliation, they make attempts to secure at least minimal contact. If minimal not possible, morale and even will to live lessened. Prisoners rights advocates are concerned about the long-term effects of isolation. 4. Of course, people not equal in their desire/need to affiliate with others. Computer programmers have lower desires to affiliate, and yet it is common to place programmers in groups to debug programs and solve problems. Putting such strong individualists into groups not promising idea. 5. However, ppl with high need for affiliation perform better in groups than alone. Especially important to consider the need for affiliation and the negative consequences of isolation given such trends as having employees work from home and sending employees to work in different countries. Identification 1. Another reason we join groups is our desire for identification with some group or cause 2. For each generation, the purpose of the odd self expression (tattoos and piercings now) may have been to separate oneself from previous generation and identifying with new, better generation. 3. Clothing also used as means of identification, refer to school related clothing football story and manufacturing union negotiations story in text. Emotional Support 1. We also join groups to obtain emotional support. Alcoholics Anonymous, Weight Watchers are good examples of groups that provide emotional support for their members. If you browse the internet you will notice the importance of this need, as there are hundreds of diff types of support groups. Assistance or Help 1. People join groups to obtain assistance or help. Students with problems in algebra will form study group. Common Interests

1. Join groups because they share common interest. Student in geology club hare interest in geology, etc. 2. Interesting note: campus clubs based on common academic interests smaller and less active than other campus groups. College students have many needs, common academic interests not as strong as social needs satisfied by Greek orgs. 3. Genecor, biotech firm, understands importance of common employee interests. Sponsors wide variety of employee clubs (yoga, cooking, skiing), every employee belongs to at least one! Common Goals 1. People who join political parties exemplify being in pursuit of a common goal. May share interests, primary purpose is to get particular person/members of particular party elected to office. Factors Affecting Group Performance Group Cohesiveness 1. Group cohesiveness is the extent to which group members like and trust one another, are committed to accomplishing a team goal, and share a feeling of group pride. The more cohesive the group, greater the productivity/efficiency, decision quality, member satisfaction, member interaction, employee courtesy. 2. Union strikers wore similar uniforms to develop a sense of unity and cohesiveness that helped them last through a lengthy strike. 3. However, cohesiveness can also lower group performance, especially in work setting. When workers become too cohesive, lose sight of org goals. Police too cohesive- makes community relations difficult. 4. Majority of research supports that cohesiveness results in better group performance, but it is not always necessary for ultimate group success (sports teams won championships despite conflict among players) 5. Research also demonstrates that employees in cohesive work groups will conform to a norm of lower production even though theyre capable of higher performance (Officers and detectives putting loyalty to fellow officers above loyalty to the city/police department) Group Homogenity 1. Homogenity of a group is extent to which its members are similar. A homogeneous group contains members who are similar in some/most ways, whereas heterogeneous group contains members who are more difference than alike.

2. Difficulty in determining homogeneity of group comes from many ways in which ppl difference; members might be demographically similar (age, gender, race), but very different in personality, attitudes, values, and competencies. 3. Which composition- homogeneous or heterogeneous- will lead to the best group performance? Mixed results from research studies. 4. Aamodt and others hypothesized that compositions of the best-performing groups were actually somewhere between completely homogeneous and completely heterogeneous. Labelled as slightly heterogenous groups. (5 person group, 4 men, 1 woman) Metaanalysis showed that slightly heterogeneous groups performed somewhat better than did homogeneous and heterogeneous groups. 5. It appears that best working groups consist primarily of similar ppl but have a dissimilar person adding tension and a different vantage point. Not clear which variable most important in terms of determining group composition. Meta-analysis indicate that homogeneous groups result in higher member satisfaction, higher levels of communication and interaction and lower turnover. 6. Although group performance is best in slightly heterogeneous groups, group member who is difference may not have same level of satisfaction as the rest of the group members. This employee, the statistical minority in terms of race, sex or age, more likely to leave the org. Stability of Membership 1. Greater the stability of the group, greater the cohesiveness. Better stability= groups in which members remain for long periods of time and groups whose members have previously worked together. 2. In colleges, fraternities and sororities usually most active orgs and have high levels of performance, they have more stable memberships than other orgs. Isolation 1. Physical isolation is another variable that increases groups cohesiveness. Groups isolated/located away from other groups tend to be highly cohesive. Outside Pressure 1. Groups that are pressured by outside forces also tend to become highly cohesive. This response to outside pressure explained by phenomenon of psychological reactance. When we believe that someone is trying to intentionally influence us to take some particular action, we often react by doing the opposite. 2. Interesting study where when someone honks at you to leave your parking space, you take longer to leave versus when there is no driver waiting for the spot. 3. Such psychological reactance seen in labour negotiations. Criticizing a group may backfire because attacking another group may serve to strengthen that group.

Company/group that wants to increase cohesiveness of membership can artificially create pressure and attribute it to another group. This tactic involves building straw manopponent who doesnt actually exist. Group Size 1. Groups most cohesive and perform best when group size is small. Studies show large groups have lower productivity, less coordination, lower morale, less active and cohesive, and more critical than smaller groups. 2. Research suggests groups perform best and have greatest member satisfaction when consist of about five members. 3. Although small groups usually increase cohesiveness, high performance only seen with certain types of tasks: a. Additive tasks: those for which groups performance equal to the sum of the performances by each group member. Examples of groups performing additive tasks include bowling teams. Each members contribution important, larger groups probably better than smaller. b. Conjunctive tasks: those for which groups performance depends on the least effective group member. Include assembly line and friends going hiking. Because success limited by least effective member, smaller groups best c. Disjunctive tasks: those for which groups performance based on most talented group member. Examples: problem solving, etc. Larger groups better. d. The addition of more members has its greatesteffect when the group is small. Latane investigated this when formulating social impact theory. Adding fifth person to a stable four person group may be disruptive. But in factory of 3000 workers, hiring one new employee wont change complexion of company. Sports experts have observed that single great player can turn around poor basketball team. 4. Research indicates that groups working through computers behave differently from groups working face to face. When computers used, large groups appear to perform best and have most satisfied members. 5. Interestingly, when groups work via computer, members whose opinions in the minority more likely to express opinions than when meeting face to face, however theyre more persuasive when face to face! Group Status 1. The higher the groups status, greater the cohesiveness. Important point: group can be made more cohesive by increasing group status. Important that members believe they have high status. 2. Effective leaders of frats try to increase cohesiveness of group members by claiming high status, and apparently it works. Leaders can increase groups status by increasing

perception that group is difficult to join but once in, members will find that the groups activities are special. Football coaches have hell weeks of 2 a day practices to build the status of the group members who survive the week. 3. Not likely to quit a group they have worked so hard to join Group Ability and Confidence 1. Groups consisting of high-ability members outperform those with low-ability members. And groups whose members believe that their team can be successful both at a specific task and at tasks in general perform better than groups whose members arent as confident about their probability for success. Personality of the Group Members 1. Important factor affecting group performance is the personality of the group members. Meta-analysis indicates that groups whose members have task-related experience and score high in the personality dimensions of openness to experience and emotional stability will perform better. Also, groups working on intellectual tasks will do better if group members bright, and etc. 2. Chicken study shows that there seems to be a genetic predisposition for being an effective group member. Communication Structure 1. Another variable that can affect groups performance is its communication structure, or network. For a group to perform successfully, good communication among members is essential. Variety of communication networks can be used by small groups, even more complex networks possible with larger groups. 2. Best network depend on the situation and goals of their groups. Good leader carefully chooses the communication network that best facilitates the goals of his group. If goals of fraternity are to encourage members to get to know eachother, completely open structure better than centralized. Group Roles 1. Factor affecting performance of group is extent to which its members assume diff roles. For group to be successful, its members roles must fall into one of 2 categories: task oriented and social oriented. Task oriented roles involve behaviours such as offering new ideas, coordinating activities and social oriented involves encouraging cohesiveness and participation. 2. Third category: individual role- includes blocking group activities, calling attention to oneself, avoiding group interaction. Individual roles seldom result in higher group productivity.

3. Group members often naturally assume these roles on bases of their personalities/experiences. People high in conscientiousness tend to fill task oriented roles. Presence of Others: Social Facilitation and Inhibition 1. Researcher Norman Triplett noticed that cyclists rode faster when competing against other cyclists than when competing against a clock 2. Psychologists have studied what we now call social facilitation and social inhibition. Social facilitation involves the positive effects of the presence of others on an individuals behavior, inhibition involves the negative effects of others presence. They can be further delineated by audience effects and coactions. a. Audience Effects: phenomenon of audience effects takes place when group of ppl passively watch an individual. Strength of the effect of having audience present function of at least 3 factors: audiences size, physical proximity to person/group, and its status. Groups most likely affected by large audiences of experts whore physically close to them. Presence of audience increases performance in extraverts but not introverts. b. Coaction: the effect on behavior when 2 or more people are performing the same task in the presence of one another is called coactions. Examples: two runners competing against each other without crowd present. Coaction decreases creativity and productivity. Interesting studies found that ppl purchased more good and spent more time in stores when in groups. Explaining Social Facilitation Effects 1. Many studies of social facilitation indicate that performance doesnt always increase in the presence of others. Performance increases only when task being performed is easy/well learned; decreases when task is difficult/not well learned. Social facilitation and coaction occur not only with humans but also with animals! 2. There are four explanations: a. First explanation holds that the mere presence of others naturally produces arousal, increase in energy, which helps individual perform well-learned tasks but hinders him in performing poorly learned/unpracticed tasks. b. Second explanation states that coacting audience provides a means for comparison. Person can directly compare his performance with the other persons. In some jobs, this comparison effect may increase competition and production quantity, and vice versa in other jobs. c. Third explanation: evaluation apprehension- hypothesizes that judgment by others causes the differential effects of social facilitation. Individuals are aware that the presence of others can be rewarding (crowd cheering) or punishing (crowd boos). On well learned tasks, individuals knows that he normally performs well and thus expects a rewarding experience when in the presence of others. When task not

well learned, individual may believe she will not perform well and will be embarrassed, thus performing worse than if she were alone. Evaluationapprehension explanation has special applications to industry and training settings. A waiter should practice carrying several plates before restaurant opens, evaluation apprehension also occurs when performance is being monitored electronically rather than in person. Supervisors who remotely monirot employee performance over a computer must be aware of the potential effects on performance. d. Fourth explanation proposes that the presence of others is distracting to the individual who is trying to perform a task. On well learned tasks this is not a problem, on a complicated task however, distraction keeps the individual from concentrating and learning the task. Drivers with passengers less likely to signal! 3. An example that demonstrates the effects emphasized by both the evaluation apprehension and distraction theories is that of coaching children in sports. For coach to be successful, must teach child alone and away from other children. Effects of social facilitation also have been examined in sports, generally having a home crowd behind a team/individual athlete increases the probability of winning. Social Loafing 1. Whereas the social facilitation versus social inhibition theory explains increases and decreases in performance when others are present and either watching individual/working with her, social loafing theory considers the effect on individual performance when ppl work together on a task. 2. Social loafing first investigated by Ringleman, force exerted by two subjects on rope less than when they pulled the role alone. Research has found that social loafing occurs with many tasks, people tip more when they dine alone. 3. Theories: a. One theory is that b/c group members realize their individual efforts wont be noticed, little chance of individual reward. b. Second theory called free-rider theory postulates when things going well, group member realizes his effort not necessary and does not work as hard as if he were alone (group projects). c. Third theory called the sucker effort hypothesizes that social loafing occurs when a group member notices that other group members arent working hard and thus are playing him for a sucker. Individual then lowers his work performance to match those of other members. Does not explain loafing of other members though 4. Social loafing important variable to keep in mind, having employees work together may not be as productive as having them work individually. Can be reduced by evaluating employees on their individual contributions to the group, explaining link btwn individual

effort and group performance, and rewarding those who achieve. Punishing has unpredictable effects. Individual Dominance 1. Another variable affecting group performance is individual dominance by leader or single group member. If leader has accurate solution to problem, group performs at high level, but if inaccurate, group performs poorly. Groupthink 1. Groupthink coined by Janis to explain how some of the nations brightest men could hatch such an ill conceived plan (Cuban exiles example). With groupthink, members become so cohesive and like-minded that they make poor decisions despite contrary info that might reasonably lead to other options. Most often occurs b/c of reasons on pg 488. 2. Can be reduced in several ways: a. Group leader should not state his own position/beliefs until late in decisionmaking process b. Leader should promote open discussion and encourage members to speak c. Group/committee can be separated into subgroups to increase chance of disagreement d. One group member assigned to be devils advocate- one who questions and disagrees Individual Versus Group Performance 1. When several ppl individually work on a problem but dont interact, theyre called a nominal group. When several ppl interact to solve problem, called interacting group. Important decision leader must make is when to assign tasks to individuals, nominal groups, or interacting groups. 2. Research indicates interacting groups will usually outperform one individual, but not nominal groups. 3. Study showed that interacting groups of employees and managers decided on more severe levels of discipline (for poorly performing member) than did the nominal groups. If task involves creating ideas, individuals should independently create them and then meet as group. 4. With brainstorming, interacting brainstorming group is more creative than single individual, but ideas less creative and lower quality than ideas of nominal group. Interacting groups set lower goals than individuals. 5. Increasingly common for groups to meet electronically rather than face to face. Metaanalysis finds that this results in more effective performance. Electronic brainstorming groups outperform face-to-face interacting groups. Overall, electronic brainstorming

groups and nominal groups appear to perform at equal levels when the groups are small, but electronic groups are superior when group is large. 6. Nominal groups most effective with single brainstorming problem and interacting groups most effective with complex difficult problems and tasks(feedback and learning) 7. Interacting groups tend to take more extreme positions than the positions of individual members (group polarization: members shift beliefs to more extreme version of what they already believe individually) Ex: burglars commit more crimes when working in group Teams 1. Employee work teams has greatly increased, but as with any type of org intervention, teams can improve performance in some, but not all, situations. 2. Teams work best in situations in which a) job requires high levels of employee interaction, b) team approach will simplify the job, c) team can do something an individual cannot, d) there is time to create and properly train team members What is a Work Team? 1. Work team is a collection of 3 or more individuals who interact intensively to provide an organizational product, plan, decision or service. Sometimes teams fail b/c they really are a group or a committee rather than team. Several factors must be considered before calling group of individuals a team: a. Identification: extent to which group members identify with the team rather than with other groups. b. Interdependence: in a team, members need and desire the assistance, expertise, and opinions of other members. If member can perform without assistance, not a team. Some teams have very high task interdependence in that what one member does greatly influences what another member does, but not all (each part important in completing final product, but completion of each part not dependent on another). Empowerment increases performance of teams with high task interdependence but decrease teams of low task inter. c. Power Differentiation: In a team, members try to decrease power differentiation by treating others as equals and taking steps to ensure equality. d. Social Distance: In a team, members try to decrease social distance by being casual, using nicknames and expressing liking, empathy and common views. e. Conflict management tactics: members respond to conflict by collaborating, understanding the others views, make attempts to compromise, use nonthreatening tones f. Negotiation Process: i. Members negotiate in a win-win style in which the goal is for every person to come out ahead. In nonteams, members negotiate so they win and others lose

ii. 5 categories for teams: Collaborative and emergent teams are true teams (pg 492). Teams differ in two other ways. Teams differ as to their permanency: some teams designed to work together permanently, others form to solve problem and then expected to dissolve. iii. Teams can also differ in proximity of their members: Some teams are task interdependent and work physically close to one another, other teams located across countries. Many companies use virtual teams where members carry out team functions through email, teleconferencing. Tend to struggle with building trust, creating synergy, etc. Types of Teams 1. Teams come in many shapes and sizes based on the factors discussed earlier in the chapter. Teams differ on two major characteristics: temporal duration (and hoc versus ongoing) and product type (project versus production). Teams will be classified into four categories determined by Cohen and Bailey: work teams, parallel teams, project teams, and management teams. Work Teams 1. Work teams consist of groups of employees who manage themselves, assign jobs, plan and schedule work, make work-related decisions, and solve work-related problems. Typically formed to produce goods, provide service, or increase the quality and costeffectiveness of a product/system. 2. Traditional method of manufacturing a product is to have employees specialize in performing one particular task. In a team approach, no supervisor. Each worker would be called a team member and cross trained to perform all the tasks. Team responsible for checking own quality, and have one team leader (customer service at restaurant example) 3. Use of production teams saves money by removing management layers and making team responsible for its own production. 4. Webber and Kliomoski believe not all work teams alike and an important type of work team is the crew. Crews are groups of expert specialists whove specific role positions, perform brief events that are closely synchronized with each other, and repeat these events across different environmental conditions. Examples: group of firefighters, flight crew, etc Parallel Teams 1. Parallel teams, also called cross-functional teams, consist of representatives from various departments (functions) within an org. Ex: team formed to reduce time to ship product might include ppl from sales, shipping, production, etc. Important to have clear purpose, receive support from each function, and have trust btwn members.

Project Teams 1. Project teams formed to product one-time outputs such as creating new product, installing new software system, or hiring new employee. One goal accomplished, team dismantles. Temporary nature distinguishes project from parallel and work teams. Management Teams 1. Management teams coordinate, manage, advice, and direct employees and teams. Work, parallel, and project teams responsible for directly accomplishing particular goal, management teams responsible for providing general direction and assistance to those teams. How Teams Develop 1. In an influential theory of team development, Tuckman proposed that teams typically go through 4 developmental phases: forming, storming, norming and performing: a. In the forming stage: team members get to know each other and decide what roles each member will play. In early stage members are excited and anxious about working with others, later stages team concentrates on clarifying mission, determining goals, etc. b. Storming stage: good behavior disappears. On individual level, members become frustrated with their roles, show stress, and question their ability to accomplish goals. Interpersonally, members begin to disagree and challenge each others ideas. From this tension and conflict comes the energy that will help the team perform better later. c. Norming stage: team works toward easing the tension from storming stage. Members acknowledge reality of team, accepting leader and working with each other to solve difficulties. Members have accepted initial roles or made adjustments to be better suit. d. Performing stage: team begins to accomplish goals. Members make innovative suggestions, challenge each other without defensive responses, and participate at high levels. Continually monitors progress toward goals, determines additional resources that might be needed, provides assistance and feedback to members, and makes necessary strategic adjustments. 2. This theory of team development commonly used, but there is great variation in how team will develop. Alternate theory called punctuated equilibrium suggests that rather than forming in stages, teams develop direction and strategy in the first meeting, follow this direction for a period of time, and then drastically revise their strategy about half way through the life of the team. Why Teams Dont Always Work

Moran and others identified 12 common problems encountered by teams. The following are six important ones. The Team is Not a Team 1. Teams often arent successful because they are teams in name only. Excessive Meeting Requirements 1. Common problem with teams is they either meet too infrequently or meet so often that they waste time when they do meet. Key to successful team meetings is to limit the topics to be discussed and to meet only when the entire team is needed to contribute. 2. Also, teams often feel need to meet for entire time for which a meeting is schedules, even though necessary business can be conducted in much less time. Stretching of a meeting can reduce motivation and enthusiasm of a team. Lack of Empowerment 1. Many teams are formed to solve problems but are not given sufficient authority to conduct their business. According to Morgan, teams arent empowered b/c managers worry job wont be done correctly, teams moving too fast, teams will overstep boundaries such that other parts of org will be affected. 2. Last managerial concern is important b/c as teams work to solve problems, their solutions often involve many different departments. If not properly empowered, will lack authority to overcome political resistance of each affected department. 3. Though empowerment essential for success of most teams, not uncommon for members to reject their empowered status. With the advantages of empowerment come the risks of making mistakes and getting others angry. Lack of Skill 1. Assumed that members assigned to a team have the skills necessary to effectively carry out their assignment. But this is not always the case. What is most common is for members to lack either the skills needed to work in a team or the expertise to solve the problem itself. Distrust of the Team Process 1. Many teams dont succeed because management doesnt trust the concept of teams. A study found that in orgs with unenthusiastic top management, only 49% of teams made satisfactory progress. In teams with supportive management, 84% made satisfactory progress. Some of this distrust comes from managers being unwilling to give up authority. Managers need to be trained in the team process if team concept going to survive.

2. Team members must be receptive to team processes. If not receptive, job satisfaction and organizational commitment reduced. 3. Another source of team distrust is that not all work is appropriate for teams (some tasks better done individually) Unclear Objectives 1. Teams work best when they know why they were formed, what they are expected to accomplish, and when they are supposed to be finished. Group Conflict 1. When people work in groups/teams, always potential for conflict. Conflict is the psychological and behavioural reaction to a perception that another person is either keeping you from reaching a goal, taking away your right to behave in a particular way, or violating the expectancies of a relationship. 2. One of the key component to conflict is perception. Conflict is often result of one persons misperception of anothers goals, intentions or behavior. Resolution: each party discuss his/her perceptions of a situation 3. Level of conflict that occurs is function of importance of the goal, behavior, or relationship. 4. Dysfunctional conflict keeps ppl from working together, lessens productivity, spreads to other areas, and increases turnover. Occurs when one/both parties feel a loss of control due to actions of other party. Greatest effect on team performance when task is complex. 5. Functional conflict is moderate degree of conflict that stimulates new ideas, increases friendly competition, and increases team effectiveness. Reduces risk of much larger conflicts. Types of Conflict Interpersonal Conflict 1. Occurs btwn 2 individuals (2 coworkers, supervisor and subordinate, employee and customer, etc) Individual-Group Conflict 1. Occurs when individuals needs are different from groups needs, goals, or norms. Group-Group conflict 1. Occurs between two or more groups. In acadamia, such group-group conflict occurs annually as departments fight for budget allocations and space Causes of Conflict

Competition for Resources 1. In groups, when demand for resource exceeds its supply, conflict occurs. Often true in orgs, when theres not enough money, space, personnel, or equipment to satisfy the needs of every person/group Task Interdependence 1. Another cause of conflict, task interdependence, comes hen the performance of some group members depends on the performance of other group members (person assigned to type report cannot do so until others have written their parts) 2. Conflict caused by task interdependence especially likely when two groups who rely on each other have conflicting goals. Jurisdictional Ambiguity 1. Third cause is found when geographical boundaries or lines of authority are unclear (2 employees arguing over whose job it is to get mail). 2. When lines of authority arent clear, conflict most likely to result when new situations and relationships develop. Can be avoided through use of thorough job descriptions and up-to-date organizational charts. Communication Barriers 1. Barrier to interpersonal communication can be physical (separate locations), cultural (diff languages), or psychological (different personalities/styles) Beliefs 1. Fifth cause is belief systems of individuals/groups. Conflict most likely to occur when individuals/groups believe that theyre superior to others, have been mistreated, are vulnerable, cannot trust others, are helpless/powerless Personality 1. Sixth cause of conflict can be found in the personalities of people involved. Conflict result of ppl with incompatible personalities who must work together. Also true that certain ppl are generally more difficult to work with than others. Suggested that people who are dogmatic/authoritarian and have low self-esteem involved in conflict more than open-minded ppl who feel good about themselves. 2. Most commonly referred to classification of difficult people developed by Bramson. Postulates that abnormally high needs for control, perfection, approval, or attention form the basis for the difficult personality. READ MORE ON page 501-502 Conflict Styles

Generally believed that most ppl have particular style they use when faced with conflict. Five most common: avoiding, accommodating, forcing, collaborating, and compromising Avoiding Style 1. Employees using avoiding style choose to ignore conflict and hope it will resolve itself. When conflicts are minor/infrequent, this style may be fine, but obviously not best way to handle every type of conflict. 2. Withdrawal from situation one of easiest ways to handle it. Withdrawal behaviours include avoiding source of conflict, quitting, talking behind other persons back, forming alliances with others. Only postponed conflict rather than preventing it 3. Triangling occurs when employee discusses conflict with third party (friend/supervisor) hoping third party will talk to second party and that conflict will be resolved without need for 2 parties to meet. However, supervisors should still have the 2 parties meet to resolve issue or use mediation. Accommodating Style 1. Adopting accommodating style when person is so intent on settling conflict that he gives in and risks hurting himself. Viewed as cooperative but weak. Forcing Style 1. Person with forcing style handles conflict in a win-lose fashion and does what it takes to win, with little regard for other person. Appropriate in emergencies or when there is potential for violation on policy, ethical, or legal grounds if the other party does not agree to your proposal. 2. Though effective in winning, can damage relations so badly that other conflicts will result. 3. This strategy of winning at all costs occurs especially when person regards his side as correct and other person is regarded as enemy whose side is incorrect. This reaction occurs when each side needs a victory to gain/retain status. 4. Problem with putting status on line is that it makes backing down to resolve a conflict very difficult. Unless one side has resources to clearly win, win-at-all-costs reaction likely to prolong conflict. This strategy only appropriate if position holder is actually correct and if winning conflict far more important than probably damage to future relationships. Collaborating Style 1. Individual with collaborating style wants to win but also wants to see other person win. Seek solutions in which both sides get what they want. Can be time-consuming and not appropriate in emergencies

Compromising Style 1. Compromising style adopts give-and-take tactics that enable each side to get some of what it wants but not everything it wants. Compromising usually involved negotiation and bargaining. Negotiation process begins with sides asking for much more than it really wants, continues until acceptable compromise has been reached, one that falls within settlement range for both sides. 2. Settlement range is between the least acceptable result LAR (lowest settlement person willing to accept; must be realistic and satisfy actual needs) and maximum supportable position MSP (best possible settlement and still reasonably support with facts and logic). Read page 506-507 Determining Conflict Styles 1. Persons method of dealing with conflict at work can be measured by the Rahim Organizational Conflict Inventory II or the Cohen Conflict Response Inventory. Resolving Conflict Prior to Conflict Occuring 1. Org should have formal policy on how conflict is to be handled. Such policy will state that employees should first try to resolve their own conflicts, and if not successful, utilize third-party intervention. 2. Employees should receive training on causes of conflict, ways to prevent conflict, and strategies for resolving conflict. When Conflict Occurs 1. Two parties should be encouraged to use conflict resolution skills learned in training to resolve conflict on their own. Skills include expressing desire for cooperation, offering compliments, avoiding negative interaction, emphasizing mutual similarities, and pointing out common goals. 2. Key to resolving conflict is reduce tension and increase trust btwn 2 parties. 3. READ PAGES 508-509!!!!!!!! CHAPTER 9 BIATCHESSSSSSSSSS Employee Motivation Industrial psychologists generally define work motivation as the internal force that drives a worker to action as well as the external factors that encourage that action. Ability and skill determine whether a worker can do the job, but motivation determines whether the worker will do it properly. Increased motivation generally results in increased job performance.

Is an Employee Predisposed to being motivated? Psychologists have postulated some employees more predisposed to being motivated than are others. Researchers have found 3 individual difference traits that are most related to work motivation: self-esteem, an intrinsic motivation tendency, and need for achievement. Self-Esteem