4.3.

1 Define genotype, phenotype, dominant allele, recessive allele, codominant alleles, locus, homozygous, heterozygous, carrier and test cross. Genotype refers to the alleles of an organism.(usually written using upper and lower case letters, e.g. Tt.) Phenotype includes all the characteristics of an organism. This is written as a word, e.g. tall. A dominant allele is one which has the same effect on the phenotype whether it is present in the homozygous or heterozygous state. A recessive allele is one which only has an effect on the phenotype when present in the homozygous state. Codominant alleles are a pair of alleles that both affect the phenotype when present in a heterozygote. A locus is the particular position on homologous chromosomes of a gene. Homozygous means having the two identical alleles of a gene. Heterozygous means having two different alleles of a gene. A carrier is a heterozygous individual that has one copy of a recessive allele that causes a genetic disease in individuals that are homozygous for this allele. A Test cross refers to testing a suspected heterozygote by crossing with a known homozygous recessive.

4.3.2 Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of a monohybrid cross using a Punnett grid. Monohybrid cross ( 1 gene control 1 characteristic) : ( Law of segregation)- Segregation occurs during meiosis. The two alleles of a gene are located on homologous chromosomes which move to opposite poles. - In the initial set of experiments, Mendel concentrated only on the pattern of inheritance of a single pair of contrasting characters. This pattern of inheritance involving only one pair of contrasting characters is known as monohybrid inheritance. - In the first set of experiments, Mendel conducted cross-pollination between a pure breeding tall plant and a pure breeding dwarf plant. He collected the seeds from this cross pollination and allowed them to germinate. All the resulting plants were found to be tall. -Based on these results, Mendel came to the conclusion that in a cross-involving two contrasting characters, only one character expresses itself in the next generation. Mendel called the character, which expressed as dominant character and the character, which failed to express, as recessive character. - He studied the size of pea plants and found that tall is dominant over short. If we start with 2 pure breeding (homozygous) plants of contrasting traits (tall and short), we will obtain an F1 (First filial generation) which has the dominant phenotype (tall) but is heterozygous. When self-fertilising the F1, we will obtain an F2 (Second filial generation) which will appear 3/4 dominant (tall) and 1/4 recessive (short).

10.1.4 State Mendels law of independent assortment. - Mendels law of independent assortment ( 2 gene control 2 type of characteristics) - Mendels law of independent assortment (second law) states that any one of a pair of characteristics may combine with either one of another pair. - The provision with Mendels law of independent assortment is that the two characteristics must be on different chromosomes 10.1.5 Explain the relationship between Mendels law of independent assortment and meiosis. - Mendels second law applies to traits carried on different chromosomes. Since any combination of chromosomes is possible in metaphase I, any one of a pair of characteristics may combine with either one of another pair. This shows that the genes are inherited independently

Random orientation 10.2.1 Calculate and predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of offspring of dihybrid crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes. Dihybrid crosses ( 2 gene control two type of characteristic) ( Law of Independent Assortment) due to the random orientation during metaphase 1 of meiosis - It is a cross involving two pairs of contrasting characters. For this experiments on dihybrid inheritance. Mendel selected the contrasting characters in the seed coat and cotyledons. He conducted a cross pollination between a pure breeding plant with round seed coat and yellow coloured cotyledons and a pure breeding plant with wrinkled seed coat and green coloured cotyledons. In the F1 generation, all the resulting plants had round seed coat and yellow coloured cotyledons. - When he allowed these F1 plants to undergo self pollination, in the F2 generation, four types of plants were obtained with round yellow, round green, wrinkled yellow and wrinkled green seeds in the ratio of 9:3:3:1.