Three major functions of the nervous system 1.

Sensory Input Sensory receptors gather information about the internal and external environments and convert it to a form which can be used by the animal. This information is then conveyed to integration centers. 2. Integration The input is interpreted and associated with the bodies appropriate response. Integration is carried out in the Central Nervous System (CNS). 3. Motor Conduction of signals from the integration centers (CNS) to effecter cells. CNS and PNS The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord. The main function of the PNS is to connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the limbs and organs. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the bone of spine and skull, or by the bloodbrain barrier, leaving it exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system [2] and the autonomic nervous system; some textbooks also include sensory systems. It is also a part of the nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system that integrates the information that it receives from, and coordinates the activity of, all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animalsthat is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish. It contains the majority of the nervous system and consists of the brain and the spinal cord. Some classifications also include the retina and the cranial nerves in the CNS. Together with the peripheral nervous system, it has a fundamental role in the control of behavior. The CNS is contained within the dorsal cavity, with the brain in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord in the spinal cavity. In vertebrates, the brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae, and both are enclosed in the meninges.[1] The Sensory-Somatic Nervous System The sensory-somatic system consists of
[1]

Input

12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

The Cranial Nerves Nerves I Olfactory II Optic III Oculomotor IV Trochlear V Trigeminal VI Abducens Type Function

sensory olfaction (smell)

sensory

vision (Contain 38% of all the axons connecting to the brain.)

motor*

eyelid and eyeball muscles

motor*

eyeball muscles

mixed

Sensory: facial Motor: chewing

and

mouth

sensation

motor*

eyeball movement

VII Facial

mixed

Sensory: Motor: facial salivary glands

muscles

taste and

VIII Auditory

sensory hearing and balance

IX mixed Glossopharyngeal X Vagus

Sensory: Motor: swallowing main nerve of parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)

taste

mixed

the

XI Accessory XII Hypoglossal

motor

swallowing; moving head and shoulder

motor*

tongue muscles

*Note: These do contain a few sensory neurons that bring back signals from the muscle spindles in the muscles they control. The Spinal Nerves All of the spinal nerves are "mixed"; that is, they contain both sensory and motor neurons [View]. All our conscious awareness of the external environment and all our motor activity to cope with it operate through the sensory-somatic division of the PNS.

Link to a discussion of the mechanism by which the commands of the motor neurons of the sensory-somatic system are executed by skeletal muscles.

The Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic nervous system consists of sensory neurons and motor neurons that run between the central nervous system (especially the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata) and various internal organs such as the:

heart lungs viscera glands (both exocrine and endocrine)

It is responsible for monitoring conditions in the internal environment and bringing about appropriate changes in them. The contraction of both smooth muscle and cardiac muscle is controlled by motor neurons of the autonomic system.

The actions of the autonomic nervous system are largely involuntary (in contrast to those of the sensory-somatic system). It also differs from the sensory-somatic system is using two groups of motor neurons to stimulate the effectors instead of one.

The first, the preganglionic neurons, arise in the CNS and run to a ganglion in the body. Here they synapse with postganglionic neurons, which run to the effector organ (cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, or a gland).

The autonomic nervous system has two subdivisions, the

Four lobes

sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Temporal lobe The frontal lobe is an area in the brain of humans and other mammals, located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere and positioned anterior to (in front of) the parietal lobe and superior and anterior to the temporal lobes. It is separated from the parietal lobe by a space between tissues called the central sulcus, and from the temporal lobe by a deep fold called the lateral (Sylvian) sulcus. The post-central gyrus, forming the posterior border of the frontal lobe, contains the primary motor cortex, which controls voluntary movements of specific body parts.

The parietal lobe is a part of the Brain positioned above (superior to) the occipital lobe and behind (posterior to) the frontal lobe.

The parietal lobe integrates sensory information from different modalities, particularly determining spatial sense and navigation. For example, it comprises somatosensory cortex and the dorsal stream of the visual system. This enables regions of the parietal cortex to map objects perceived visually into body coordinate positions.

The occipital lobe is the visual processing center of the mammalian brain containing most of the anatomical region of the visual cortex.[1] The primary visual cortex is Brodmann area 17, commonly called V1 (visual one). Human V1 is located on the medial side of the occipital lobe within the calcarine sulcus; the full extent of V1 often continues onto the posterior pole of the occipital lobe. V1 is often also called striate cortex because it can be identified by a large stripe of myelin, the Stria of Gennari. Visually driven regions outside V1 are called extrastriate cortex. There are many extrastriate regions, and these are specialized for different visual tasks, such as visuospatial processing, color discrimination and motion perception. The name derives from the overlying occipital bone, which is named from the Latin oc- + caput, "back of the head". The temporal lobe is a region of the cerebral cortex that is located beneath the Sylvian fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian [1] brain. The temporal lobe is involved in auditory perception and is home to the primary auditory cortex. It is also important for the processing of semantics in both speech and vision. The temporal lobe contains the hippocampus and plays a key role in the formation of long-term memory. The Cerebrum: The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated with higher brain function such as thought and action. The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections, called "lobes": the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. Here is a visual representation of the cortex: The Cerebellum: The cerebellum, or "little brain", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has two hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is associated with regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance. Limbic System: The limbic system, often referred to as the "emotional brain", is found buried within the cerebrum. Like the cerebellum, evolutionarily the structure is rather old. Brain Stem: Underneath the limbic system is the brain stem. This structure is responsible for basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. Scientists say that this is the "simplest" part of human brains because animals' entire brains, such as reptiles (who appear early on the evolutionary scale) resemble our brain stem. Look at a good example of this here. The Diencephalon

1. 2. 3. 4.

The diencephalon are forebrain structures derived from the embryological diencephalic vesicles. It is surrounded by cerebral cortex.

This is conventionally divided into 4 parts: The epithalamus, which included the pineal gland and nearby structures; The thalamus (G. inner chamber); The subthalamus; The hypothalamus.

Borders of the Diencephalon

Rostral : plane through the optic chiasm and anterior commissure.

Caudal : plane through the posterior commissure and the caudal edge of the mammillary bodies.

The rostral and caudal boundaries are approximate and semiarbitrary. Functionally continuous tissues extend through both boundaries.

Medial

: wall of third ventricle, stria medullaris thalami and massa intermedia.

Lateral : the internal capsule, tail of caudate and stria terminalis.

Dorsal : the fornix and floor of the lateral ventricles.

Because of the cephalic flexure, the axis of the diencephalon is inclined about 100 degrees with respect to the axis of the midbrain. THE CEREBELLUM AS A COMPARATOR The cerebellum appears to function as a comparator, at least with respect to its role in muscle control. A sample of the motor command from the cerebral cortex to the skeletal muscles is relayed to the cerebellar cortex for evaluation (Fig-1). Once the motor act begins, the cerebellar cortex begins to receive input (via spinocerebellar tracts) from the proprioceptors in those muscles, tendons, and joints involved in the movement. In this way the cerebellum is in a position to compare the actual performance of a given movement with the original "intent" of the brain. Of course this comparing only has functional value if the cerebellum is capable of making adjustments when the actual performance doesn't equal the intent. As illustrated in Fig-1, the cerebellar cortex, through the cerebellar and brainstem nuclei, can direct corrective action both at the cortical source through ascending pathways, as well as at the spinal cord level through descending pathways. It is important to recognize that this simplistic mechanism is by no means intended to fully explain the role of the cerebellum in motor control, but is probably a good starting point from which to understand the cerebellar function.

CEREBELLAR INPUT AND OUTPUT Considering the importance of the cerebellum in motor control, it is not surprising to find that there are numerous neural pathways connecting it with the cerebral cortex, brainstem nuclei, spinal cord proprioceptive tracts, and the vestibular system. The information-conducting fibers entering and leaving the cerebellum pass through the superior, middle and inferior cerebellar peduncles. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear, colorless bodily fluid, that occupies the subarachnoid space and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord. In essence, the brain "floats" in it. The CSF occupies the space between the arachnoid mater (the middle layer of the brain cover, meninges), and the pia mater (the layer of the meninges closest to the brain). It constitutes the content of all intra-cerebral (inside the brain, cerebrum) ventricles, cisterns, and sulci (singular sulcus), as well as the central canal of the spinal cord. It acts as a "cushion" or buffer for the cortex, providing a basic mechanical and immunological protection to the brain inside the skull. It is produced in the choroid plexus.