Unit #1

INTRODUCTION

Plant & System Level Control

The function of an electric power system is to convert energy from

one of the naturally available forms to the electric form and to
transmit it to the points of consumption. The advantage of the
electrical form of energy is that it can be transported and controlled
with relative ease and with a high degree of efficiency and
reliability. A properly designed and operated power system should
meet the following requirements: (1) the system must be able to
meet the continually changing load demand for active and reactive
power. Electricity cannot be conveniently stored in sufficient
quantities. Therefore, adequate spinning reserve of active and
reactive power should be maintained and appropriately controlled
at all times. (2) The system should supply energy at minimum cost
and with minimum ecological impact. (3) The quantity of power
supply must meet certain minimum standards with regard to the
following factors: (i) constancy of frequency (ii) constancy of
voltage (iii) level of reliability.
 System generation control, Load
frequency control with economic
allocation
supplementary
control

Generating unit prime mover

controls & control other generating
field current
shaft power units & associated
Excitation controls
System Generator
control

voltage speed

speed/power

electric
power

Transmission controls;
Reactive power & volt control
HVDC transmission &
associated control

frequency, tie flows,

generator power

Fig 1.1 Subsystems of a Power System and its associated Controls

In the overall structure of a power system as shown in Fig.1.1,

there are controllers operating directly on individual system
elements. In a generating unit, these consist of prime mover
controls and excitation controls. The prime mover control consists
of energy supply system variables, such as, boiler pressure,
temperatures and flows. The function of the excitation control is to
regulate generator voltage and reactive power output. The desired
MW outputs of the individual generating units are determined by
the system generator control.

The primary purpose of the system generator control is to balance

the total system generation against the system load and losses so
that the desired frequency and power interchange with
neighbouring systems (tie flows) is maintained.

The transmission controls include power and voltage control

devices, such as, static VAR compensators, synchronous
condensers, switched capacitors and reactors, tap-changing
transformers and HVDC transmission controls.

The controls contribute to the satisfactory operation of the power

system by maintaining system voltages and frequency and other
system variables within their acceptable limits. They also have a
profound effect on the dynamic performance of the power system
and on its ability to cope with disturbances.

The control objectives are dependent on the operating state of the

power system. Under normal conditions, the control objective is to
operate as efficiently as possible with voltages and frequency close
to nominal values. When an abnormal condition develops, new
objectives must be met to restore the system to normal operation.

There is a hierarchical structure (see Fig.1. 2) for system control.

There are controllers operating directly on individual system
elements such as excitation systems, prime movers, boilers,
transformer tap changers, dc converters. There is an overall plant
controller that coordinates the controls of closely linked elements.
The plant controllers are supervised by system controllers at the
operating centres. The system controller actions are coordinated by
pool level master controllers. The overall control system is highly
distributed and relies on many different types of telemetering and
control signals. Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
systems provide information to indicate the system status. The
primary function of the operator is to monitor system performance
and manage resources so as to ensure economic operation while
maintaining the required quality and reliability of power supply.
During system emergencies, the operator plays a key role by
coordinating related information from diverse sources, developing
corrective strategies to restore the system to a more secure state of
operation.

Pool level master

controller

system
controller

plant
controller

controller controller controller

1 2 3

Fig.1.2 Hierarchical plant and system control

Need for Load Frequency Control

Why is constant frequency required?

(1) Most types of ac motors run at speeds that are directly related
to the frequency. (2) The generator turbine, particularly steam
driven ones, are designed to operate at a very precise speed. (3)
The overall operation of a power system can be much better
controlled if the frequency error is kept within strict limits. (4) A
large number of electrically operated clocks driven by synchronous
motors are used. The accuracy of these clocks is a function of not
only frequency error but integral of this error. (5) Constant turbine
speed is an important requirement. The velocity of the expanding
steam is beyond our control and the turbine efficiency requires that
we have perfect speed match. (6) A turbo rotor constitutes a
mechanical system of many natural frequencies. These frequencies
are quite undamped and they are each subject to resonance at
various rotor speeds. It is important under load that the rotor never
drifts into a speed range where dangerous amplitudes buildup
would result. (7) Unusual deviations in frequency indicate an
abnormality or a fault in the system. By reducing normal frequency
fluctuations to a faint ripple, we are able to detect the frequency
disturbances following a fault at an early state ( +/- 0.05 Hz).

Load Characteristics

In general, system loads are of different types viz., heating,

lighting, welding, etc. The real and reactive power characteristics
of these loads differ from each other. Under static conditions, it can
be assumed that the real and reactive powers of loads are functions
of voltage only, as the frequency remains constant. For dynamic
conditions, the system load depends not only on the voltage
magnitude and frequency but also their derivatives.

P = P ( f , V ); Q = Q( f , V )
∂P ∂P
∆P = ∆f + ∆V
∂f ∂V
 ∂Q ∂Q
∆Q = ∆f + ∆V
∂f ∂V
The four partial derivatives cannot be determined analytically for a
composite load. They vary widely depending on the physical
character of load. The average load having approximately
induction motor 60%, synchronous motor 20% and other
ingredients 20% will have

∂P ∂Q
≅ 1.0% / pu ; ≅ 1.3% / pu
∂V ∂V

∂P
≅ 1.0% / pu
∂f

The Q-f variation is not important.

A composite load depending on the voltage magnitude and the

degree of variation in real and reactive power consumption varies
with the composition of system load. Hence, it is difficult to
suggest a model for load representation in power system studies.

(1) Constant Power representation:

This is used in load flow studies. Both the specified MW and
MVAR are taken to be constant.
(2) Constant Current representation: Load current is given by

P − jQ
I= ∗
= I ∠δ − θ
V
where

Q
V = V ∠δ ; θ = tan −1  
P
Here, magnitude of current is regarded as constant in the study.
This representation is used for stability studies.

(3) Constant Z representation:

This representation is used in stability studies. The load specified

in MW and MVAR at nominal voltage is used to compute the load
Z.

2
V VV ∗ V 1
Z= = = =
I P − jQ P − jQ Y

which is regarded as a constant throughout the study. Some of the

load characteristics of typical loads are shown in Fig. 1.3.

3 2
Real 1 induction motor
power 2. Resistance oven
P/Pn 3. Rectifier load
1 1
% 2
3

104 112
Voltage %
(a)
2 3 1 Welding load
Reactive 1 2. Transformer load
power
3 Rectifier load
Q/Vn
% 1
3 2

104
Voltage v%
(b)
Fig.1.3 (a) Load Characteristics - Real power
Fig.1.3 (b) Load Characteristics - Reactive power

(4) Under static conditions, exponential relationship appears to be

most suitable for computational purposes. For real power,

a
V 
P =   Pn
 Vn 
And for reactive power,

b
V 
Q =   Qn
 Vn 
where n stands for nominal values. 'a' lies in the range 0.6 to 1.4
and 'b' lies in the range 1.5 to 3.2. For the composite load
representation, the use of values for the exponents a=1 and b=2 is
recommended.

Load Frequency Mechanism

Frequency is closely related to the real power balance in the

overall network. Under normal operating conditions, the system
generators run synchronously and generate together the power that
at each moment is being drawn by all loads plus the real
transmission losses. Energy is transmitted at almost the velocity of
light and it is not being stored somewhere in the system in electric
form. So, electric energy production rate must equal consumption
rate at each moment of time. As the kinetic energy depends on
generator speed, power imbalance will thus translate into speed
(and frequency) deviation.

In the electric system, should we have a momentary surplus of

generator power over load; the total speed (frequency) will
increase. The rate of speed (and frequency) increase would depend
on the amount of surplus power and the total moment of inertia of
the running equipment. All the motors which were being supplied
by the network would speed up and they would all meet higher
load torques, thus requiring the motors to pull more power from
the network. The resulting load increase would soon balance out
the load decrease that started the whole chain of events and the
frequency would level off at a new higher value.

Load Frequency Control

It is necessary to adjust the generation so that the power imbalance

is continually zeroed. Controlling the power generation is a load
tracking problem. Frequency is a sensitive indicator of the energy
imbalance in the system. It should be used as a sensor portion of
the control system, the job of which is to provide such a balance
automatically.

The automatic load-frequency control (ALFC) loop (see Fig. 1.4)

regulates the megawatt output and frequency (speed) of the
generator. A relatively fast primary loop responds to a frequency
signal, which is an indirect measure of MW imbalance. Through
the speed governor and the control valves, the steam (or hydro)
flow is regulated with the intent of matching the megawatt output
to relatively fast load fluctuations. The changes take place in one
of several seconds. By tending to maintain a megawatt balance, the
primary loop performs indirectly a coarse speed or frequency
control. The control will be taken up in more detail later.
 Primary loop

cont-
roller
∑
Ref ∆f

Secondary loop
Fig. 1.4 Load Frequency Control

A slower secondary loop maintains the fine adjustment of the

frequency and also by 'reset' action maintains the proper megawatt
interchange with other pool members. This loop is insensitive to
rapid load and frequency changes but focuses on drift like changes
which take place over periods of minutes.

Megavar - Voltage (Q- lVl ) Interaction

Practically all equipment used in or operating off a power system is

designed for a certain voltage level, the rated or nameplate voltage.
If the system voltage should deviate from that value, the
performance of the device suffers, and its life expectancy drops.
E.g, The torque of an induction motor is proportional to the square
of the terminal voltage, the light flux from a lamp varies strongly
with the voltage etc. The control of voltage level on a power
system is necessary, but not within the same narrow margins as
with system frequency.

Real time losses depend as much upon reactive as upon real line
power flow. So, to minimize the real line loss, we can select an
optimum power flow, in terms of real and reactive power. Reactive
line flow depends on line end voltage which thus becomes a means
of controlling the real losses. Certain key buses are designated in
the system where voltage levels are maintained at specified values.
These will change as the load shifts.

Methods of Voltage Control

(1) Excitation Control of generators: Foremost means of control

and its focuses on maintaining good voltage control at the
generator buses. (2) Switched shunt capacitors and/ or reactors:
These provide capability of controlled reactive power injection
into, or drain from, a bus. (3) Synchronous capacitors which permit
both continuous and sign sensitive control of reactive power. (4)
Tap changing transformers.

The common feature of the above is that voltage level of a bus is

strongly related to the reactive power injection at the bus. Added
reactive power translates into a rise of voltage.

Cross-coupling between P-f & Q-lVl control changes:

As power increases, frequency increases. Since frequency is a

system wide variable, change is felt uniformly throughout the
system. As Q increases, voltage magnitude increases, but this
change is not uniform throughout the system but will be greatest at
the buses where Q surplus is the greatest. This is one distinction
between P-f & Q-voltage control. As control is done in P-f control,
no measurable change occurs in the voltage magnitude. But as we
change Q input at a certain bus thereby affecting its voltage level,
we immediately also change the real load of the bus in question.
This MW change will have an immediate effect on the LFC.
So, there is no discernible coupling from P-f channel to Q- voltage
channel but there is considerable coupling in the opposite
direction, i.e., from Q- voltage channel to P-f channel.
AVR

The exciter is the main component in the automatic voltage

regulator (AVR) loop. It delivers the dc power to the generator
field. It must have adequate power capacity and sufficient speed of
response. The basic role of AVR is to provide constancy of
generator terminal voltage during normal and slow changes in the
load. However, it is common practice to design the exciter with
enough margins to give powerful excitation level during
emergency situations.

ALFC

Automatic load frequency control (ALFC) is to maintain desired

MW output of a generator unit and assist in controlling the
frequency of the larger interconnection. Also, it helps to keep the
net interchange power between pool members at predetermined
values. ALFC loop will maintain control only during normal (small
& slow) changes in load and frequency.